Specifying Calibration Standards

and Kits for Keysight Vector

Network Analyzers

This application note provides guidance in creating calibration kits for use with Keysight
Vector Network Analyzers. It includes detailed information including insight into the
derivation for each type of calibration standard model to enable users to define their
own calibration standards with confidence. It also shows how to define the interaction
between calibration standards and the various calibration algorithms included in
Keysight Vector Network Analyzers.

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Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Measurement errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Measurement calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Calibration Kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Connector definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Calibration standards definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Transmission line model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Terminated transmission line model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Offset delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Offset loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Offset Z0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Transmission line alternate parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Standard types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Thru standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Data-based standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Isolation standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Calibrations and class assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

SOLT class assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
TRL class assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Multiline TRL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Multiline TRL Kit Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Considerations when creating and using calibration kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Calibration kit editing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Launch the Cal Kit Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Edit cal kit name and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Add Connector definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Add Standard definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Edit calibration kit classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Save calibration kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Procedure to define a calibration kit for Multiline TRL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2
Appendix A Dimensional Considerations in Coaxial Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7-mm coaxial connector interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5-mm, 2.4-mm, 1.85-mm, 1.0-mm coaxial connector interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Type-N coaxial connector interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Gap effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Appendix B Derivation of Coaxial Calibration Coefficient Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Propagation constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Offset impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Offset definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Derivation of a transmission model to represent a lumped reactance model . . . . . . 64

Appendix C Derivation of Waveguide Calibration Coefficient Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Offset definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Appendix D Derivation of Circular Waveguide Calibration Coefficient Model . . . . . . . . 68

Offset definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Appendix E Data-based Calibration Standard Definition File Format . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Appendix F 8510 Calibration kit modification/entry procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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Introduction

Measurement errors in network analysis can be separated into two categories: random
and systematic errors. Both random and systematic errors are vector quantities.
Random errors are non-repeatable measurement variations and are usually
unpredictable. Systematic errors are repeatable measurement variations in the test
setup.

Measurement errors

Systematic errors include impedance mismatch, system frequency response and

leakage signals in the test setup. In most microwave measurements, systematic errors
are the most significant source of measurement uncertainty. The source of these
errors can be attributed to the signal separation scheme used. Vector error correction
is the process of mathematically compensating for the systematic errors. There are two
parts of vector error correction, characterization of the errors through measurement
calibration and subsequent measurement correction using the characterization of the
systematic errors. This application note focuses on the measurement calibration
portion of vector error correction.

Numerous publications are available on vector network analyzer (VNA) calibration

techniques. References [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], and [7] are just some of the published
work. Keysight Technologies, Inc. application notes also provide insights on VNAs and
VNA error correction see [8], [9], and [10]. It is recommended that a user be familiar
with these calibration techniques and terminologies to get the maximum understanding
from this application note.

Measurement calibration

A measurement calibration is a process which mathematically derives the systematic

error model for the VNA. This error model is an array of vector error coefficients used
to establish a fixed reference plane of zero phase shift, zero reflection magnitude,
lossless transmission magnitude and known impedance. The array of coefficients is
computed by measuring a set of “known” devices or calibration standards connected at
a fixed measurement plane.

Different calibration techniques can be used to solve for the VNA error models. The
VNA error models include but are not limited to one-port correction and multiport
correction. The definition of calibration standards and types are set up differently for
the applicable calibration techniques. Solving the full 2-port twelve term error model
using the short/open/ load/ thru (SOLT) calibration method is an example of only one of
the many measurement calibration methods available.

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The type of measurement calibration selected by the user depends on the device to be
measured (i.e., 1-port, 2-port, or multiport device), the calibration standards available
and the extent of accuracy enhancement desired. The accuracy of subsequent device
measurements depends on the accuracy and stability of the test equipment, the
accuracy of the calibration standard model, and the calibration method used in
conjunction with the error correction model.

This application note covers calibration standard definitions, calibration kit content and
its structure requirements for Keysight’s vector network analyzers. It also provides
some examples of how to set up a new calibration kit and how to modify an existing
calibration kit definition file.

Calibration Kits

A mechanical calibration kit consists of a set of physical devices called standards.

Each standard has a precisely known magnitude and phase response as a function of
frequency. The calibration standards are organized into calibration kit classes which
are a group of standards identified for specific uses by the calibration methods.
Calibration methods access the various types of calibration standards required for the
calibration algorithm via one or more calibration kit classes. Keysight currently supplies
mechanical calibration kits with 1 mm, 1.85 mm, 2.4 mm, 3.5 mm, 7 mm, Type-N 50 Ω,
Type-N 75 Ω, Type-F 75 Ω, and 7-16 coaxial connectors. Rectangular waveguide
calibration kits include WR-90 (X band), WR-62 (P band), WR-42 (K band), WR-28 (R
band), WR-22 (Q band), WR-19 (U band), WR-15 (V band), and WR-10 (W band).
Calibration for microstrip and other non-coaxial media is described in references [11],
[12], and [13]. A calibration kit may support multiple calibration methods.

Connector definitions
In addition to calibration standard definitions and calibration kit class assignments,
calibration kits also provide definitions of connectors. Keysight’s vector network
analyzer (VNA) products use the connector definition to define the following connector
properties (Figure 1):

• Frequency Range

• Gender (male, female, no gender)

• Impedance (Note: Connector Z0 is the reference impedance Zref )

• Media (coax, waveguide, etc)

• Cutoff Frequency (waveguide)

• Height/Width Ratio (waveguide)

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A calibration kit may be defined with multiple connectors. Each 1-port calibration
standard must be associated with a single connector. Two port standards, such as
thrus and adapters, are associated with two connectors.

Figure 1. VNA connector entry screen

Calibration standards definition

The S-parameters of VNA calibration standards must be defined sufficiently and

accurately to satisfy the requirements of the calibration methods for which they will be
used. Calibration standards may be defined in various ways. Keysight’s VNAs support
two types of calibration standard definitions: calibration coefficient model and
data-based model.

Transmission line model

Most VNAs support calibration standards defined using a parameterized transmission
line model for 2-port standards. (See Figure 2.)

• Zc is the characteristic impedance of the line

• Zin is the input impedance

• Zout is the output impedance

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 Transmission line

Z in Z c , delay, loss Z out

Figure 2. Transmission line model

The transmission line model shown in Figure 2 can be represented by signal flowgraph
sections representing the input impedance discontinuity, the delay and the output
impedance discontinuity as shown in figure 3 (see reference [14]). The difference in the

1+ 1 e − l 1+  2
a1 b2

1 −1 2 − 2

b1 a2
1− 1 e − l 1−  2
Figure 3. Flowgraph representation of the transmission line model

offset characteristic impedance Zc , the input impedance Zin , and the output
impedance Zout leads to complex reflection coefficients Γ1 and Γ2 at the input and
output of the offset delay section.

Zc − Zin Zout − Zc
Γ1 = ; Γ2 = (1)
Zc + Zin Zout + Zc

The cascade parameter representation of the transmission line model can be

represented by cascaded sections representing the input impedance discontinuity
(TXI ), the offset delay (TL ), and the output impedance discontinuity (TXO ) as shown in
Figure 4.

a1 b2
TXI TL TXO
b1 a2
Figure 4. Cascade parameter representation of the transmission line model

The cascade parameters for the input impedance discontinuity is given as:
 
 1 Γ1 
!  
1
TXI = 
  (2)
1 − Γ1 
 
Γ1 1 


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The cascade parameters for the offset delay is given as:
 
 −γl
 e 0 

TL =  
 (3)
0 eγl 
 

The cascade parameters for the output impedance discontinuity is given as:
 
 1 Γ2 
!  
1
TXO = 
  (4)
1 − Γ2 

Γ2 1 


where:

• γ = α + jβ is the propagation constant of the line

• l is the length of the line

• α is the propagation loss constant of the line

• β is the propagation phase constant of the line

The S-parameters of the non terminated offset are computed from the cascaded
parameters TTOT where:
TTOT = TXI · TL · TXO (5)

For the standards that use the transmission line model Connector Z0 defines a
common reference impedance (Zref ) with Zin = Zout = Zref . In this case Γ2 = −Γ1
resulting in:  
Γ1 e−2γl − 1
S11 = S22 = (6)
Γ12 e−2γl − 1
 
Γ12 − 1 e−γl
S21 = S12 = (7)
Γ12 e−2γl − 1

Transmission line characteristic impedance and propagation constants can be derived

from the line’s physical properties [15], [16].

Terminated transmission line model

A variety of one port calibration standards are defined as a terminated transmission

line model. The termination impedance ZT defines the standard type. The signal flow
graph representation of the terminated transmission line is shown in Figure 5.

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 S21

i S11 S22 T

S12
Figure 5. Signal flow graph of terminated transmission line model

It can be used to compute the response of the one-port standard (Γi ).

S21 S12 ΓT
Γi = S11 + (8)
1 − S22 ΓT

where
ZT − Zref
ΓT = (9)
ZT + Zref
Substituting equations 6 and 7 into equation 8 yields:
 
Γ1 1 − e−2γl − Γ1 ΓT + ΓT e−2γl
Γi =    (10)
1 − Γ1 Γ1 e−2γl + ΓT 1 − e−2γl

Keysight VNAs use Offset delay, Offset loss and Offset Z0 instead of Zc , and γl to
model the transmission line. With these “offset” definitions, the VNA can compute the
transmission line’s characteristic impedance as well as propagation phase and loss
constants of the calibration standard without defining the dielectric constant of the
calibration standard’s transmission medium which may be different from that of the
device under test. This assumes that the offset loss and offset delay values were
derived using the same dielectric constant.

Offset delay

Offset delay is the dispersion free, TEM mode, electrical delay in seconds defined by: The effective relative permittiv-
ity (εe ) provides a single value
l to represent the interaction of
Offset delay = (11)
ν the electric field with multiple
regions of differing relative per-
where
mittivity values. An example

• l = physical offset length from reference plane in cm would be a microstrip structure

where the electric field is in
• ν= √c is speed of light in transmission medium both the substrate and air. In
εr
those cases εe is used in place
• εr = relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of transmission medium = 1.000 649 of εr .
in air @ sea level and 50 % humidity.

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 • For many transmission line configurations εr = εe

• εe = effective relative permittivity

• c = speed of light in vacuum = 2.997 924 58 × 1010 cm/s

Note that the reference plane of coaxial connectors is defined as the mating plane of
the outer conductors. Appendix A on page 58 illustrates the physical offset length
definition of certain coaxial connector types.

Offset loss

Offset loss is in GΩ/s. It is the propagation loss per unit length of the transmission line
at a normalization frequency of 1 GHz multiplied by the speed of light in the
transmission medium. For most coaxial devices, it can be estimated from the loss
magnitude data at 1 GHz.

Using S21 linear magnitude data at 1 GHz:

Offset Z0
 
Offset loss = −2 ln (|S21lin |) (12)
Offset delay

Using S21 log magnitude data at 1 GHz:

ln (10) S21dB Offset Z0

 
Offset loss = − (13)
10 Offset delay

Using S11 linear magnitude data at 1 GHz:

Offset Z0
 
Offset loss = − ln (|S11lin |) (14)
Offset delay

Using S11 log magnitude data at 1 GHz:

ln (10) S11dB Offset Z0

 
Offset loss = − (15)
20 Offset delay

√
For best results, curve fit the measured data to the f /1 GHz function. A TRL calibration is a good
choice if a calibration is part
See Appendix B on page 60 for details of the coaxial loss model. of the characterization process
because it avoids dependen-
Keysight’s vector network analyzers include a waveguide loss model. See Appendices
cies on loss values defined for
C and D starting on page 66.
the calibration standards.

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 √
Figure 6. Fitting measured S21 magnitude to f /1 GHz

r 
 2 
 1 − fc 

r !s
ln (|S21lin |@f ) µr fc  f 
Offset loss = − 
2
 (16)
Offset delay εr f 

f
 
 1 + 2h c 
w f 

Offset Z0

Offset Z0 is the lossless characteristic impedance of the transmission line. For coaxial
transmission lines, the lossless characteristic impedance is
r r
1 µ0 µr D µ0 c µr D
   
Z0 = ln = ln (17)
2π ε0 εr d 2π εr d

where

• µr = relative permeability constant of the transmission medium

• D = outer conductor inner diameter

• d = center conductor outer diameter

The transmission line characteristic impedance Zc including skin loss effects is derived
from the Offset Z0 and Offset loss terms.

Waveguide impedance varies as a function of frequency. In such cases, normalized

impedance measurements are typically made. When calibrating in waveguide, the
impedance of a “matched” load is used as the impedance reference. The impedance of
this load is matched to that of the waveguide characteristic impedance across the
guide’s frequency bandwidth. Normalized impedance is achieved by setting Offset Z0
to 1 Ω for each standard and setting the Connector Z0 to 1 Ω.

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Transmission line alternate parameters

Alternate parameters facilitate creating Keysight calibration kit definitions using

parameters specified by other vendors. In all cases, the fundamental representation in
the calibration *. xkt file will remain unchanged. The CalKit editor is modified to permit
representation in multiple forms. This has the benefit that the standalone version of the
CalKit editor can be used to create calibration kit files that are compatible with older
versions of firmware.

All of the differences are simply a scale factor with the exception of the offset loss term
used in the alternate parameters. The Keysight parameters are orthogonal which
permits a single loss term to be computed and used for multiple lengths of line. The
alternate offset characteristics are not orthogonal as the alternate loss term (LdB GHz−1 )
is impacted by both offset length and offset Z0 . Conversion from the Keysight offset
loss term (LGΩ s−1 ) to the alternate loss term for one-port standards is given as:

20log10 (e) dps LGΩ s−1 dps LGΩ s−1

LdB GHz−1 = ' 0.00868589 (18)
Z0 × 103 Z0

where e ' 2.718 281 828 459 is the base of the natural logarithm and dps is the offset
delay in ps. Conversion in the opposite direction for one-port standards yields:

LdB GHz−1 Z0 × 103 L −1 Z0

LGΩ s−1 = ' 115.12925465 dB GHz (19)
20log10 (e) dps dps

Conversion from the Keysight offset loss term (LGΩ s−1 ) to the alternate loss term for
two-port standards is given as:

10log10 (e) dps LGΩ s−1 dps LGΩ s−1

LdB GHz−1 = ' 0.004342945 (20)
Z0 × 103 Z0

Conversion in the opposite direction for two-port standards yields:

LdB GHz−1 Z0 × 103 L −1 Z0

LGΩ s−1 = ' 230.2585093 dB GHz (21)
10log10 (e) dps dps

The alternate offset term (LdB GHz−1 ) accounts for the loss along the forward and the
reverse path for one-port standards while the Keysight offset loss term (LGΩ s−1 )
represents the one-way loss for both one-port and two-port standards.

The conversion between the Keysight offset delay term and the alternate offset length
term is defined by
Offset Length
Offset Delay = (22)
c
This implies the alternate Offset Length is an electrical length related to the physical

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length l by
p 0
Offset length = l εr (23)

Standard types

Calibration standards are assigned to the following standard types (Figure 7): OPEN,
SHORT, LOAD, THRU (ADAPTER), DATA-BASED, and ISOLATION.

Figure 7. Calibration standard selections

Maximum/minimum frequency

The maximum and minimum frequency entries apply to all of the standard types. They
define the applicable frequency range of the calibration standard which helps
determine which standard is used for each frequency during the calibration. The
applicable range may be limited by the model data, accuracy of the model or the
physical dimensions of the calibration standard. A fixed load, for example, may be used
at low frequencies while a sliding load may be used at high frequencies.

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Open

An OPEN calibration standard is based on the terminated transmission line model

where the termination impedance ZT is defined by polynomial coefficients that
represent a capacitance model. The reflection coefficient values are computed using
equations 9 through 10.

Figure 8. Open entry screen

Open circuits radiate at high frequencies. This effectively increases the electrical
length of the device and can be modeled as a frequency dependent capacitor, Copen ,
(also known as fringing capacitance). At low frequencies, a fixed capacitance value
may be sufficient; this would use only the C0 term. Most network analyzers use a third
order polynomial capacitance model. Radiation loss is assumed to be insignificant.

Copen = (C0) + (C1) f + (C2) f 2 + (C3) f 3

1 (24)
ZT =
j2πf Copen

Keysight parameters Alternate parameters

• C0 is in units of 10−15 F • C0 is in units of fF
• C1 is in units of 10−27 F/Hz • C1 is in units of fF/GHz
2
• C2 is in units of 10−36 F/Hz • C2 is in units of fF/GHz2
• C3 is in units of 10−45 F/Hz3 • C3 is in units of fF/GHz3

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Short

A SHORT calibration standard is based on the terminated transmission line model

where the termination impedance ZT is defined by polynomial coefficients that
represent an inductance model.The reflection coefficient values are computed using
equations 9 through 10.

Figure 9. Short entry screen

Many vector network analyzers assume that the short is an ideal short and has a
reflection coefficient of –1. This may be adequate at low frequencies and for large
connector sizes, such as 7 mm and larger. However, at higher frequencies and for
smaller connectors, 3.5 mm and smaller, at least a third order polynomial inductance
model, Lshort , is required. Loss of the short circuit is assumed to be insignificant.

Lshort = (L0) + (L1) f + (L2) f 2 + (L3) f 3

(25)
ZT =j2πf Lshort

Keysight parameters Alternate parameters

• L0 is in units of 10−12 H • L0 is in units of pH
• L1 is in units of 10−24 H/Hz • L1 is in units of pH/GHz
• L2 is in units of 10−33 H/Hz2 • L2 is in units of pH/GHz2
• L3 is in units of 10−42 H/Hz3 • L3 is in units of pH/GHz3

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Load

Four types of LOAD standards are available: a fixed load, sliding load, arbitrary
impedance and offset load. The fixed load and arbitrary impedance load are based on
the terminated transmission line model.

Fixed load

The default setting for fixed load is Offset delay= 0, Offset loss= 0, and Offset
Z0 = Zref ; i.e. a perfect termination, ΓT = 0. However, if an offset transmission line
with a finite delay and loss is specified, and an Offset Z0 is not equal to the reference
impedance (Zref ), the total reflection is NOT zero. This is as defined in equation 10.

Figure 10. Fixed load entry screen

Sliding load

A sliding load is defined by making multiple measurements of the device with the
sliding load element positioned at various marked positions of a long transmission line.
The transmission line is assumed to have zero reflections and the load element has a
finite reflection that can be mathematically removed, using a least-squares-circle-fitting
method. For best results, move the load element in the same direction. Also, slide in
non-uniform increments. A sliding load triggers prompts for multiple slide positioning
and measurements. A minimum of 6 slide positions is recommended.

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 Figure 11. Sliding load entry screen Figure 12. Offset load entry screen

Offset load

An offset load can be considered a compound standard consisting of 2 known offsets

(transmission lines) of different lengths and a load element (Figure 12). The definition
of the offsets is the same as all offset transmission lines. The shorter of the two offsets
can be a zero length offset. The load element is defined as a one-port reflection
standard. An offset load standard is used when the response of the offset standards
are known more precisely than the response of the load element.
Measurement of an offset load standard consists of two measurements, one with each
offset terminated by the load element. The frequency range of the offset load standard
should be set so that there will be at least a 20◦ separation between the expected
response of each measurement. In cases where more than two offsets are used the
frequency range may be extended as the internal algorithm at each frequency will
search through all of the possible combinations of offsets to find the pair with the widest
expected separation (to use in determining the actual response of the load element.)

When specifying more than two offsets, the user should define multiple offset load
standards. When assigning multiple offset load standards to SOLT classes for the
VNA. it is usually beneficial to specify “use expanded math when possible”. See the
Expanded calibration subsection on page 26.

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Arbitrary impedance

An arbitrary impedance device is similar to a fixed load except that the load impedance
is NOT perfect. It is possible to combine the
arbitrary impedance with off-
set parameters to simulate an
inductance in series with the
arbitrary impedance. See the
derivation of a transmission
model to represent a lumped
reactance model on page 64
for details. Alternatively a
Data-based standard can be
used.

Figure 13. Arbitrary impedance load entry screen

ZT =R + jI
Z − Zr (26)
ΓT = T
ZT + Zr

Thru standard

The thru standard is based on the transmission line model

Figure 14 shows the parameters associated with the thru standard. The Virtual
Device checkbox is set to indicate that the standard being modeled doesn’t include a
physical device. An example of a virtual device is the flush thru standard where the
VNA testports are directly connected to each other. This signals the calibration
software to create the appropriate descriptions of the calibration topology. For the flush
thru standard checking Virtual Device causes the prompt to be PORT 1 | PORT 2
rather than PORT 1 | THRU | PORT 2.

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Figure 14. Thru entry screen

Data-based standard

The data-based standard model allows a calibration standard to be defined by a data

file that contains frequency data, S-parameter data and confidence factor data. The
confidence factor helps prioritize standards used during Expanded calibration and is
usually related to the standard model uncertainty. See the Expanded calibration
subsection on page 26. The data file may be created using actual measured data from
a reference metrology laboratory, modeled data from device modeling software or
combinations of both.

Figure 15. Data-based vs. polynomial model

Figure 15 shows how the data-based standard bypasses the fitting process and
eliminates any errors that may have been associated with the fitting. Fitting errors are
usually negligible for frequencies below 30 GHz. However, at higher frequencies
multiple frequency banded models for the same standard have been used to avoid
errors due to fitting. The data-based standard avoids this problem altogether by

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interpolating on the data directly.

The data-based calibration standard also eliminates shortcomings of fitting non-coaxial

or waveguide standards to the models based on a coaxial or waveguide structure. This
increased flexibility also enables the user to more easily define custom calibration
standards that do not accurately fit existing calibration coefficient models. This can be
especially useful for dispersive transmission line structures. The data may be obtained
by device modeling based on physical dimensions or from accurate measurements.

The factory data-based models are similar to polynomial models in that they are a
generic nominal model for a particular part number. Thus, a replacement calibration
standard can be ordered for a calibration kit and used without having to modify the
data-based model.

Data-based standards also open the opportunity of enhancing the accuracy of a

particular calibration kit. For example, calibration with a broadband load calibration kit
is usually less accurate than calibration with either a TRL calibration kit or sliding load
calibration kit.

Figure 16. Nominal vs. customized data-based model

Figure 16 shows how data-based standards can be used to represent the response of
all standards for a particular model number or it can be used to represent the response
unique to a particular standard. Customized data-based models are useful when
creating calibration kit with characterized devices; this can lead to a more accurate
calibration as the actual response of the standard is used. Using a customized
data-based model for a fixed load can significantly enhance the calibration rather than
using a model that assumes the load is ideal. When replacing a calibration standard
defined as a customized data-based model, it is important to remember to update the
definition for the standard in the associated calibration kit file. Figure 17 shows the data
entry screen for data-based standards. Calibrations using the fixed load and its
associated data-based model will have an accuracy approaching the accuracy of the

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system that characterized the fixed load. The residual directivity error now depends on
the uncertainty of the characterization rather than the specification of the load.

Figure 17. Data-based standard setup screen

Data-based standard supported file types:

• Data-Based Cal Standard (*.dat) where a single file specifies both the
s-parameter data and the confidence factors to define data-based model

• Citifile (*.cti, *.cit, *.citi) separate files are used to specify the s-parameter data
and the confidence factors to define data-based model

• Snp file (*.s1p, *.s2p) separate files are used to specify the s-parameter data and
the confidence factors to define data-based model

See Appendix E for details on the data-based cal standard (*.dat) file format.

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Isolation standard

The isolation standard is a two port standard that is made of two one port standards.
Figure 18 shows the use of two loads to specify the isolation standard.

Figure 18. Isolation standard setup screen

Calibrations and class assignments

Calibration kits can be created to support the SOLT family of calibrations, the TRL The SOLT family includes,
family of calibrations, or both. Class assignments are a way for the calibration kit file to SOLT, SOLR, QSOLT and
Oneport calibrations.
guide the selection of standards during the calibration process.

When assigning standards to a class the order in which the standards appear indicates
the default preference for the calibration kit. As the internal VNA firmware searches for
the appropriate calibration standard to use at a given frequency it starts at the top of
the list and searches until it finds a standard that can be used at that frequency. For
this reason it is important to list the preferred standards first. For example, a The TRL family includes, TRL,
calibration kit that includes a sliding load usually also includes a broadband load—if the LRL, TRM, LRM, TRA, LRA,
TSD, and LSD calibrations. It
broadband load is listed before the sliding load, the sliding load will not come up as a
also includes multiline TRL.
default selection.

Multiport calibrations use a series of one-port and two-port calibration standards and
are comprised of a series of one-port and two port calibration methods.

Calibration kit class assignments organize calibration standards into a format which is
compatible with the error models used in measurement calibration. Some standards
may have multiple different standard definitions. This was done to optimize the
accuracy of the standard model for a given frequency band and/or calibration
requirement when using polynomial models to fit the standard response. This is not
necessary when using data-based standards to model the response.

There is no limit on the number of standards that can be defined in a calibration kit.
The required number of standards will depend on frequency coverage and calibration
methods supported.

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A single standard class is a standard or group of standards that comprise a single
calibration step. It is important to note that each and every class must be defined over
the entire frequency range for which the calibration is made, even though several
separate standards may be required to cover the full measurement frequency range.

Not all VNAs support the same set of calibration methods and calibration kits. Check
the instrument’s documentation for its capabilities. The following sections provide
detailed descriptions of the various VNA class assignment structures.

SOLT class assignment

In the simplest case, an SOLT calibration consists of two one-port calibrations followed
by forward and reverse transmission and reflection measurements on a thru standard.
The thru standard can be a defined thru or an “unknown thru”. The simplest thru
standard is a zero-length thru which is simply the connection of port i to port j.
Selecting the radio button corresponding to a particular class enables modification of
both the standards included in the class, and a user-defined label associated with the
class. The user-defined class label is visible during calibration on the VNA when there
is the possibility of selecting multiple standards for the class.

Each one-port calibration requires reflection measurements on at least three known

and distinct standards. SA, SB, and SC represent the three reflection standard
classes. The standards assigned to each class may have different connector
definitions, different frequency coverage, and different standard types. Some
calibration kits, such as the Keysight 85058B 1.85 mm precision calibration kit, use a
combination of open, short, load, and offset short standards to calibrate over a very
wide frequency range. Both shorts and opens are assigned to the SA class as
illustrated by Figure 19. Label is just a name assigned to that class. This label is used
for on-screen prompts or soft-key labels during the calibration measurement process.

Four calibration classes are associated with the thru standard measurements, namely:
FWD TRANS, FWD MATCH, REV TRANS, and REV MATCH. Except for rare
occasions, these classes will all contain the same standards; the LINK FWD TRANS,
FWD MATCH, REV TRANS, and REV MATCH checkbox facilitates the common
manipulation for these classes.

Unchecking the “Link” option provides the ability to define different standards for each
of these classes. This option would be used in the rare case where an external testset
may require manipulation between the various measurements of the thru standard. In
this case assigning different standards for each class will result in a separate prompt

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Figure 19. Calibration Kit Class edit screen showing opens and shorts in same class

during calibration. For example, one thru standard would be assigned to the FWD
TRANS and FWD MATCH classes and a different thru standard, with an identical
model, would be assigned to the REV TRANS and REV MATCH classes. This would
result in two separate prompts during the calibration sequence.

The unknown thru calibration is one of the thru calibration methods of the VNA. It does
not require a thru standard definition. Any two port passive reciprocal device can be
used as the “unknown thru” device. A low-loss device, less than -20 dB loss, is
recommended. Unknown thru and adapter removal calibrations require an approximate
estimate for the transmission phase response of the unknown thru adapter in order to
select the correct root during the computation of the calibration error coefficients.
Adding adapters to the unknown thru calibration kit class allows the VNA firmware an
ability to search through the list and find one that appears to match the measurement
of the “unknown thru” device.

A class assignment table is a useful tool to help organize calibration standard

assignments for data entry. All calibration kit operating and service manuals provide
examples and blank forms of assignment tables. Compare the SOLT class assignment
table (Table 1) with the VNA’s cal kit editor SOLT class assignment edit screen (Figure
20) to see the mapping relationships.

Traditionally, reflection calibrations have been computed using the measured response
of three calibration standards at each frequency. For each port, three standards are

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Table 1. SOLT class assignment table for the 85052D kit

Standard class Standard numbers Class label

SA 2, 15 Open

SB 1, 7 Short

SC 3, 14 Load

FWD TRANS 4 Thru

FWD MATCH 4 Thru

REV TRANS 4 Thru

REV MATCH 4 Thru

selected, one each from SA, SB, and SC calibration kit classes and used to compute
the systematic error terms associated with the port. Each class may include more than
one standard, the specified minimum and maximum frequency of each standard in the
class is used to determine which standard to use for a particular frequency. Usually,

Figure 20. VNA’s cal kit editor modify SOLT class screen for 85052D kit

when multiple standards are listed in a class their frequency ranges have a finite
overlap. For the 8510 and unguided calibration on older Keysight VNAs, the last
standard measured is used in the overlap region. Usually the load classes for a sliding
load kit are defined with three load standards–a low band load, a sliding load and a
broadband load. Often the low band load and the broadband load are the same
physical device. The low band load has a reduced frequency range and is intended to
be paired with the sliding load to cover the full frequency range of the kit. For users

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who desire a quicker, less accurate calibration, the broadband load is defined to cover
the full frequency range. In the 8510, if a user measured a sliding load then measured
a broadband load, the calibration would be computed using only the broadband load
ignoring the sliding load altogether. SmartCal (guided cal) avoids this problem by
selecting the standards based on the order they are listed in the class, thus a sliding
load will always have priority over a broadband load when it is listed before the
broadband load. The current version of the Keysight VNA firmware uses the order of
the standards in the calibration kit classes when resolving frequency overlaps.

Expanded calibration

Expanded calibration uses a weighted least squares solution for one-port calibrations
that use the measurement of more than three standards[17]. The least squares
solution works well when all observations are trusted to the same degree. That is to
say the actual response of each standard is known with the same confidence so the
weighting factors will be equal. This is a reasonable assumption for ECal, but may not
be valid when a least squares approach is applied to calibrations using other
calibration kits due to the differences in the confidence in the models for the standards.

Expanded math is a weighted least squares solution to handle the case where the
observations are not all trusted to the same degree[18]. If the observations are all
independent but not equally trusted, an optimal solution is best obtained by multiplying
each equation by a combined factor that includes both the confidence factor of the
standard and the proximity of the standard’s response to the response of the other
measured calibration standards. The confidence factor of the standard model is
explicitly defined for data-based standards, for the other standards a nominal
confidence factor is assigned to provide a relative weighting for the weighted least
squares solution see Table 2. The measurement of a standard is included in the
weighted least squares solution over the frequency range where the confidence factor
of the standard is defined; this frequency range is greater than or equal to the
frequency range where the standard is selected specified by the min/max frequencies.
To avoid confusion in the following table, Fmin corresponds to the minimum frequency
specified for the standard. Umin and Umax correspond to the minimum and maximum
frequency where confidence is specified. Fconnmin and Fconnmax correspond to the
minimum and maximum frequency range of the connector. Also in the following table,
endpoints are given; a nominal confidence factor at a given frequency is computed as
a linear interpolation between the appropriate endpoints. For the Open, Short, and
Fixed Load standards the confidence factor at Umax is limited to be greater than or

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equal to the confidence factor at Umin and less than or equal to 1.

Table 2. Default relative confidence factor of cal standards types

Nominal confidence factor Frequency range

Standard type Umin Fmin Umax Umin Umax
Umax
Open 0.01 Fconnmin Fconnmax
1012
Umax
Short 0.005 Fconnmin Fconnmax
1013
3Umax
Fixed Load 0.003 Fconnmin Fconnmax
1012
Fmin
Sliding Load 0.01 0.003 0.003 2 Fconnmax

When Use expanded math when possible is checked, the solution (on a frequency
by frequency basis) includes all of the one-port standards that fall between their Umin
and Umax values. For example, consider a sliding load calibration that includes
frequencies in both the low band load and sliding load frequency ranges. The open,
short, low band load and sliding load will be measured. The sliding load will be
included when the frequency falls between Umin and Umax associated with the sliding
load. Using expanded math in this case will blend the transition between the low band
load frequency range and the sliding load frequency range. As another example, the
85058B 1.85 mm calibration kit has a low-band load, an open and a series of short
standards with varying offsets. There is a minimal set of standards defined that would
insure calibration with three standards is possible at each frequency. The minimum and
maximum frequency ranges for each standard combined with the class assignments
will determine a set of three standards for each frequency resulting in a series of
frequency ranges where only three standards would be required. If the VNA spans
more that one of these frequency ranges there will be more than three reflection
standards connected. In the case of the 85058B, in addition to blending the transitions
between the frequency ranges, the overall accuracy of the calibration improves when
using expanded math. Measure all mateable standards in class can be checked
which adds all of the mateable standards in the SA, SB and SC calibration kit classes
without considering the specified frequency range for the standards. Measuring all of
the standards results in the best accuracy for kits like the 85058B and the 85059B.

It is advantageous to measure all of the standards for some calibration kits, but not for
others. For example, in the case of the sliding load kit discussed earlier, selecting
measure all standards in class would result in measuring the low-band load, the sliding
load and the broadband load. There is no advantage to measuring two fixed loads
when doing a sliding load calibration.

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TRL class assignment

The TRL/TRM family of calibration is defined by the TRL THRU, REFLECT and LINE
classes plus TRL options. Table 3 shows the TRL portion of a typical VNA class
assignment table. Current Keysight VNAs include the Multiline TRL algorithm which is
based on the NIST Multiline TRL calibration algorithm called MultiCal[19][20]. It
provides an over-determined solution when multiple line standards are used. TRL does not support the use
of data-based standards for
Table 3. TRL class assignment table
thru or line standards. Data-
Standard class Standard numbers Class label based standards can be used

TRL THRU 15 Thru for match or reflect standards.

TRL REFLECT 7, 14 Shorts

TRL LINE/MATCH 16, 17, 2, 9 Lines

ISOLATION Isolation

Figure 21. TRL class edit screen for 85052C kit

TRL is a generic name that represents a class of calibrations that allow partially known
calibration standards to be used. In general, the thru standard is assumed to be fully
known with perfect match; the reflect standard is assumed to have a high reflection
with unknown amplitude and partially known phase. The line standard is assumed to
have the same propagation characteristics as the thru standard with partially known
phase. Table 4 provides a mapping of specific calibration types to the TRL class.

The Calibration Reference Z0 option allows for adjustments to the calibration to

account for small perturbations between Connector Z0 and the line characteristic

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Table 4. Mapping TRL standards to TRL class

Thru class Reflect class Line class

Line with
Unknown equal reflect
Zero length thru with S11 = S22 = 0 phase
TRL on port i and port j .
S11 = S22 = 0, approximately known.
(thru/reflect/line) Phase approximately
S21 = S12 = 1 Bandwidth limited to
known.
avoid phase of ± 20◦ .

Line 1 with Line 2 with

S11 = S22 = 0, S11 = S22 = 0 phase
Unknown equal reflect
S21 and S12 both approximately known.
LRL on port i and port j .
known with same Bandwidth limited so
(line/reflect/line) Phase approximately
propagation phase is at least ± 20◦
known.
characteristics as Line different from phase of
2. Line 1.

Can be defined as fixed

Zero length thru with Unknown equal reflect
loads on ports i and j
TRM on port i and port j .
S11 = S22 = 0, ΓLi = ΓLj and known.
(thru/reflect/match) Phase approximately
S21 = S12 = 1 Can also be defined as
known.
very long lossy line.

Can be defined as fixed

Line with Unknown equal reflect loads on ports i and j
LRM S11 = S22 = 0, on port i and port j .
(line/reflect/match) Phase approximately ΓLi = ΓLj and known.
S21 and S12 both
known. Can also be defined as
known.
very long lossy line.

Unknown equal reflect Attenuator between

Zero length thru with
TRA on port i and port j . ports i and j
S11 = S22 = 0, Phase approximately
(line/reflect/attenuator) S11 = S22 = 0. Defined
S21 = S12 = 1 known. as lossy line.

Line with Unknown equal reflect Attenuator between

LRA S11 = S22 = 0, on port i and port j . ports i and j
(line/reflect/attenuator) S21 and S12 both Phase approximately S11 = S22 = 0. Defined
known. known. as lossy line.

Delay (line) standards

Zero length thru with with S11 = S22 = 0
TSD Single known reflect on
S11 = S22 = 0, phase approximately
(thru/short/delay) port i or port j .
S21 = S12 = 1 known. Only available
with Multiline TRL.

Line with Delay (line) standards

S11 = S22 = 0, with S11 = S22 = 0
LSD Single known reflect on
phase approximately
(line/short/delay) S21 and S12 both port i or port j .
known. Only available
known. with Multiline TRL.

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impedance Zc which is derived from the defined Offset delay, Offset loss and Offset
Z0 terms. See equation 43 in Appendix B on page 60. If Line Z0 is selected, no
adjustments are made.

Caution: Do not select Connector Z0 if Offset Z0 of the line or match standard is very
different from Connector Z0 . Connector Z0 is the Impedance associated with the
testport connector. See the connector definitions section on page 5.

TRL calibration is computed initially at a reference plane that corresponds to the middle
of the thru. In this case, the line standard can be assumed to be the portion of the line
standard left over after subtracting a length equal to the length of the thru standard.
After the error coefficients are computed, they are adjusted to establish the Testport
Reference Plane based on either the model of the thru standard or the model of the
reflect standard. When selecting the Reflect Standard to set the Testport Reference
Plane, the assumption is that the reflect standard is precisely known as both
magnitude and phase of the reflect standard will be used to compute the error term
adjustments. Selecting the Thru Standard to set the reference plane obviously works
for a zero length thru. In the case when the thru standard is a line with non-zero length,
the model of the thru standard is used to compute the error term adjustments.

The generalized TRL algorithm assumes the characteristic impedance of the thru and
line standards are equal. In the case of coax or waveguide, using the model of the thru
standard will provide excellent results. In the case of other dispersive media such as
microstrip, the thru standard may not model the dispersion with sufficient accuracy and
therefore could yield sub-optimal results. One option would be to design the test fixture
and calibration standards so that the testport would be located in the middle of the
thru. Another alternative would be to select LRL line auto characterization. One of
the by-products of the TRL algorithm is a computed value for the line standard
propagation constant. This would include any dispersive effects of the transmission
medium. When LRL line auto characterization is set the propagation characteristics
of the thru standard are computed from the computed propagation characteristics of
the line standard and the defined delays for both the thru and line standards. Note,
LRL line auto characterization will only be used at frequencies where both the thru
and line standards are delay lines and where the offset impedance of the thru and line
standards are equal.

Multiline TRL

The TRL algorithm (Legacy TRL) that existed prior to Multiline TRL being added is still
available for use. If the Multiline TRL check box is selected, then the Multiline TRL
algorithm will be used when the defined calibration kit is used for TRL calibration. The

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Legacy TRL algorithm allowed multiple line standards to be used, but for any given
frequency only one line standard is used with the thru and reflect standards. Figure 22
is the TRL tab that comes up when editing the class definitions of the calibration kit. It’s
purpose is to define which standards are to be used for during the TRL calibration.

Both Legacy TRL or Multiline TRL automatically use a Thru Reflect Match (TRM)
calibration when the frequency is below the lowest start frequency of the line standards
defined in the calibration kit if there are match standards defined.

In addition to Multiline TRL there is also an option to select Multiline TSD see Figure
23. The Multiline TSD algorithm differs from the Multiline TRL in how the algorithm
uses the short/reflect standard. For Multiline TSD the short standard is assumed to be
fully known and only connected to one port. For Multiline TRL the reflect only needs to
be partially known but has to be connected to both ports. For both Multiline TSD and
Multiline TRL the line and delay standards are equivalent.

Figure 22. TRL tab in cal kit editor. Figure 23. Multiline TRL setup dialog.

Multiline TRL Kit Classes

For TRL there are four categories of standards called Calibration Kit Classes. They are
TRL THRU, TRL LINE/MATCH, TRL REFLECT and ISOLATION. The ISOLATION
class is optional.

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TRL THRU class when Multiline TRL is selected

The TRL THRU class should be setup so that only a single standard is defined for a
given pair of port connectors. Generally this means that for Multiline TRL calibrations
there will only be one standard defined in the TRL THRU class that is intended to be
used over the entire frequency range. It should be noted that the legacy TRL algorithm
still may benefit from using multiple thru standards in order to provide the best phase
margin over different frequency ranges.

TRL LINE/MATCH class when Multiline TRL is selected

This actually represents two classes that share a similar purpose during calibration. A
line standard needs to have a distinct response from the thru standard. Typically the
line standard is chosen such that the phase of S21line is different from the phase
response of S21thru by at least 20◦ . This becomes prohibitive at low frequencies so
match standards are used with a TRM calibration at frequencies where it is impractical
to create line standards. Both the Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL calibrations use
match standards and TRM calibration to cover the low frequency portion as needed. In
those cases, the calibration is actually a mix of TRM and TRL.

The TRM portion of the calibration is not over-determined when Multiline TRL is
selected. A fundamental assumption of the TRL algorithm is that the characteristic
impedance of the thru standard is the same as the characteristic impedance of each of
the line standards. The match standard is often defined as an idealized fixed load
standard with reflection coefficient = 0, but it can be defined as a non-ideal standard;
for example, by using a data-based standard which can be used to adjust for the actual
reflection coefficient of the standard. Both Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL assume the
data-based standards have the same reflection coefficient applied to both ports.

TRL REFLECT

When doing a TRL calibration there is a fundamental assumption that the reflect
standard is the same on both ports. It doesn’t have to be fully known, but should be
approximately known to permit the correct root selection during the calibration process.
For gendered connectors, multiple reflect standards need to be created, one for each
connector gender, each standard should have the same model.

The Multiline TRL algorithm has the option to do a TSD calibration instead of TRL
calibration. In that case, only one reflect standard is used; but it has to be fully known.
When doing a TSD calibration, one has the option of deciding which reflect standard to
be used. In general, the order of the calibration standards in a Calibration Kit Class is
important as the calibration algorithms step through the standards from top to bottom

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selecting standards until it accumulates enough standards to satisfy all of the
frequency requirements for each port. In the case of TSD, the order of the reflect
standards is significant because as the TSD portion of the algorithm steps through the
standards listed in the TRL REFLECT class it will use the first reflect standard it finds
that will mate with either of the testports. The user specifies which algorithm to use
Multiline TRL or Multiline TSD on a kit by kit basis by making the desired selection in
the Multiline TRL Setup dialog (see Figure 23).

A data-based standard can be used for the reflect standard. In general there is no
advantage to using a data-based standard for Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL
calibrations since only an approximate value for the reflect is required. There are a
couple of instances where using a data-based standard might provide benefit. In the
Legacy TRL when the Reflect Standard is used to define the Testport Reference
Plane, the actual value of the reflect standard obtained from the standard model is
used to set the reference planes. In the Multiline TSD calibration, the actual value of
the standard model is also used to compute the error terms.

Relationship between delay and physical length with Multiline TRL selected

The NIST MultiCal software defines the calibration standards using physical lengths
and relative permittivity. The Keysight implementation also defines the same standards
but uses an offset delay term to be consistent with existing calibration standard
definitions. Traditionally, the offset delay model used by both thru and line standards
has the offset defined by a delay parameter. The delay specified for the standard offset
is assumed to be equivalent to the delay a TEM mode would face for a given physical
length. The Keysight Multiline TRL algorithm assumes the physical length is constant
and computes that value from the offset delay parameter defined in the standard’s
model. The physical length is obtained using the real part of the relative permittivity
estimate (see Figure 23) and then held constant even while the Multiline TRL algorithm
adjusts the relative permittivity during subsequent computations.

Calibration Reference Z0

Both Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL algorithms assume the characteristic impedance
for the thru and line standards are the same. The computations optimize the error
terms for the characteristic impedance of the standards. There are multiple impedance
terms that are used by both the Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL algorithms. There is an
additional impedance term Zline that is not defined in the calibration kit but is computed
by the TRL algorithms. It is inherently subject to the assumptions that all of the thru
and line standards have the same characteristic impedance. When Line Z0 is selected
as the Calibration Reference Z0 setting, the characteristic impedance of the

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measurement system after calibration is simply Zline .

For Legacy TRL, when Connector Z0 is selected an impedance transformation is

applied which assumes that characteristic impedance of the line standard is equal to
Zc as computed using equation 43 and the math to transform from Zc of the line
standard to Connector Z0 is applied (see Figure 24).

Calibration Connector Z0
Reference Z0

Zc = function of
Line Z0 line standard Offset
Z0 and Offset Loss

No impedance Zref = Connector Z0

transformation Transform from Zc to Zref

Figure 24. Calibration kit settings for Legacy TRL impedance transformations.

The impedance transform process for Multiline TRL has differences in how Zc is
computed as shown in Figure 25.

Line Z0

If the user selects Line Z0 in the Calibration Reference Z0 section (see Figure 22)
the computed error terms are used without any additional impedance transform.
Additionally, when the user selects Line Z0 , the Define Zc section in the Multiline TRL
setup dialog is disabled (see Figure 23).

Connector Z0

There is a slight difference in behavior between Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL due to
the additional Define Zc section in the Multiline TRL setup dialog (see Figure 23).

Legacy TRL uses the definition of Offset Z0 and Offset Loss specified in the line
standard model. If this is not equal to the Connector Z0 specified on the Connectors
tab (see Figure 26) an impedance transform is applied to the error terms.

Multiline TRL uses the definition of Offset Z0 specified in the thru standard model. If
Enable Zc computation from C is checked in the Multiline TRL setup dialog an
additional impedance transform is done to account for the low frequency dispersion

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 Calibration Connector Z0
Reference Z0

Line Z0 Enable Zc yes

Computation
From C

no

Zc = function of Zc is a function
thru standard Offset of C0 and
Z0 and Offset Loss computed εr

No impedance Zref = Connector Z0

transformation Transform from Zc to Zref

Figure 25. Calibration kit settings for Multiline TRL impedance transformations.

specified by C0 . This additional impedance transform uses the complex relative

permittivity of the line (r ) that is characterized during the calibration process. There
are papers published to explain details for determining the low frequency dispersion
from the characterization of the propagation constant and an estimate of
C0 [21][22][23]. This also uses the characterization of the relative permittivity which
covers the full frequency range of the Multiline TRL algorithm. The transmission line
capacitance can also be characterized by additional measurements[24]. If the Offset
Z0 specified in the thru standard model is different from the Connector Z0 specified
on the Connectors tab the error terms are modified by an impedance transform. A
default value for C0 is computed using characteristic impedance specified by Offset Z0
for the thru standard model. Inputting a negative value for C0 will cause the default
value to be reinserted. There is also an interaction between the real part of the line’s
relative permittivity (ε0 r ) and C0 . If C0 is equal to the default value changes to ε0 r will
update C0 . If a user has specified a different value for C0 no change to C0 will be
made when changes to ε0 r are made. The default value for C0 is computed as
√
ε0 r
C0 = (27)
(Connector Z0 ) c

where c is the free space speed of light.

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 Figure 26. Connectors tab in cal kit editor.

Testport Reference Plane

The Testport Reference Plane options differ between the Legacy TRL and Multiline
TRL options. The initial calibrations for both Legacy TRL and Multiline TRL both
assume the reference plane is in the middle of the thru standard. This becomes
significant for the LRL case where the delay of the thru standard is greater than zero.

Testport Reference Plane for legacy TRL

Legacy TRL has the option to use either Thru Standard or Reflect Standard to set
the reference plane after calibration. If the thru standard is selected the reference
plane for each testport will be rotated towards the VNA testport by half the delay of the
thru standard. If LRL line auto characterization is checked, the propagation constant
computed during the TRL calibration will be used to estimate the rotation based on the
delays specified by the thru and line standards; otherwise, the modeled behavior of the
thru standard will be used.

Testport Reference Plane for Multiline TRL

When Multiline TRL is selected the ability to select LRL line auto characterization is
disabled because Multiline TRL always uses LRL line auto characterization. The ability
to select Reflect Standard to define the testport is not an option with Multiline TRL but

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Multiline TSD uses the Reflect Standard on one of the ports to set the reference plane
for both ports. There is an additional option of defining an arbitrary reference plane. A
negative number input for the reference plane shifts the testport towards the VNA
testports.

The default behavior is to shift the Testport Reference Plane to the edge of the thru
standard with behavior similar to the Legacy TRL behavior having the Testport
Reference Plane set by the thru standard and having LRL line auto characterization
active.

Considerations when creating and using calibration kits

It is important to remember the fundamental assumptions for VNA calibration when

creating and evaluating any user defined calibration kit.

• Vector error correction inherently assumes that there is a single propagating

mode at the calibration and measurement reference planes. This can lead to
challenges particularly for PC board and on-wafer calibrations at higher
frequencies. Careful design of calibration standards can minimize the impact of
this.

• It is assumed that the systematic errors that are characterized are constant
during the calibration and measurement processes. Selecting high quality cables
and minimizing cable movement during calibration and measurement can help
avoid changes to the systematic errors that will degrade the vector error
correction process.

• Test fixtures that add significant loss make the measurement system more
sensitive to instrument drift. It is always important to evaluate the performance
over time in order to estimate the quality of the measurements.

• It is important to understand the assumptions of the calibration method being

used. It is important to know which standards are fully defined; if you remeasure
a fully defined calibration standard after the calibration process it will match it’s
definition. Many people make the mistake of assuming that it is possible to gain
insight into the quality of the calibration by remeasuring one or more of the
calibration standards after calibration. If the standard is a fully defined standard it
can give insight into the connector repeatability and drift of the system since
calibration but it provides no indication in the overall quality of the calibration.

– TRL family calibrations: Table 4 lists the assumptions for TRL standards. In
general, the Thru class standard is a known standard it is fully defined with
perfect match. The Reflect class standards is partially known but equal on

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 both ports; the reflect standard shifts to be fully defined if the reflect
standard is used to define the Testport Reference Plane. The Line class
standard is partially known; it is assumed to have perfect match with the
same propagation characteristics as the Thru standard. Deviations from
the assumptions will lead to errors in the characterization of systematic
error terms. For example, when different physical standards are used as
Reflect standards, the characterization of systematic error terms will
degrade proportionally to the difference between them. Also, for on-wafer
or PC board calibration kits using a meander line, the Line standard will
degrade the calibration as the bends in the line will change both the return
loss and propagation characteristics of the line.

– SOLT family calibrations (excluding SOLR): All of the standards are SOLR and Unknown Thru are
assumed to be fully known. often used interchangeably.

– Unknown Thru calibration: The unknown thru standard is the least

constrained standard. The only assumption about the unknown thru
standard is that it is reciprocal. This makes it a very useful calibration as
the unknown thru adapter can have non-ideal match. It is often useful to
have the same testport topology as the devices to be measured after the
calibration in order to help minimize cable movement. If the devices to be
measured are reciprocal, they can often be used as the unknown thru
device. In theory the unknown thru device can be lossy; however, it is good
practice to minimize the loss particularly if the device is going to be
characterized and used as a known device in another portion of the
calibration. Measurement of the unknown thru device can provide more
insight into the overall quality of the calibration since the only assumption is
that it is reciprocal.

• Connector repeatability is the term that represents the variation in the standard
response due to the connection process. It provides a random deviation to
measurements both of the calibration standards and the DUTs resulting in
measurement degradation. There are things that can be done to minimize the
impact of connector repeatability.

– Use high quality connectors and cables.

– PC board calibration kits often define the calibration interface somewhere

on the PC board. Even in these cases, the connection to the VNA is usually
through a coaxial connector. An inherent assumption is that the coaxial
connection is similar for each of the standards. The deviation between
connectors is a form of connector repeatability. Better quality connectors

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 will have better consistency; in general, end launches are better than right
angle launches. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is a useful tool to help
evaluate the consistency of PC board connectors. Some precision cases
have actually used the same physical coaxial connector and moved it from
standard to standard in an effort to minimize the variation introduced when
using the coaxial connector launches.

– Use proper connector inspection, cleaning methods and torque.

– For waveguide connectors use the precision alignment pins.

• PC boards are not always homogeneous. Keep thru and lines in the same
orientation with respect to the grain of the PC board.

• PC board and on-wafer calibration kits often have a fixed topology for the
standards on the calibration card. When creating a calibration kit it may be useful
to assign separate connector families to each position such as Probe1, Probe2,
etc. When doing so, it is possible to only assign straight lines to defined
standards. Bent lines are often useful as unknown thru adapters.

Calibration kit editing procedure

Calibration kit modification provides the capability to adjust the calibration standards
selected and how they are used for various calibration types. Editing the calibration
standards affects the models of the standards. Adding the calibration standards to
various calibration kit classes determines how they will be used during calibration and
the ordering of the calibration standards in calibration kit classes determines their
prioritization. The process to edit or create a cal kit consists of the following steps:

1. Launch the Cal Kit Editor

2. Select the calibration kit to edit or create a new kit

3. Edit Cal Kit Name, Description and optionally Version

4. Define the Connectors (COAX or WAVEGUIDE)

5. Select Standards

6. Add or edit the Standard definitions

7. Assign Standards to calibration kit classes (SOLT and/or TRL)

8. Save the edited calibration kit

The steps for creating a new calibration kit for the X11644A calibration kit are shown
below.

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Launch the Cal Kit Editor

The Cal Kit Editor is available in the VNA or a standalone version is available online at
https://www.keysight.com/us/en/lib/software-detail/
computer-software/pna-service-applications.html. The Cal Kit
Editor in the VNA deals with multiple calibration kits while the standalone version deals
with a single calibration kit at a time.

Launch from VNA

Select Response → Cal → Cal Sets & Cal Kits → Cal Kit... The Manage Cal Kits
dialog shows a list of calibration kits installed in the VNA. There are several options for
editing or creating a calibration kit.

• To edit an installed calibration kit, highlight the desired kit then press Edit...

• To load an existing calibration kit file select Import...

• To create an new calibration kit select Insert...

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Launch standalone version

The standalone editor deals with cal kit files.

• To load an existing calibration kit file select Edit Kit...

• To create an new calibration kit select New Kit...

Edit cal kit name and description

For this step and subsequent steps the calibration kit editor launched from the VNA
and the standalone calibration kit editor behave the same. The X11644A calibration kit
contains standards with WR-90 rectangular waveguide connectors.

1. Enter X11644A in the Cal Kit Name field

2. Enter WR-90 SOLT/TRL calibration kit in the Cal Kit Description field

Add Connector definition

The WR-90 connector has the following properties:

• Frequency range 8.2 GHz to 12.4 GHz

• Cutoff frequency 6.557 GHz

• Height 1.016 cm

• Width 2.286 cm

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 1. Make sure the Connectors tab is selected

2. Press Add... to create a new connector

3. Input WR-90 in the Connector family field

4. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz

5. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz

6. Select Genderless

7. Set Z0 to 1

8. Use the Media drop down box to select WAVEGUIDE

9. Set the Cutoff frequency to 6557 MHz

10. Set the Height/Width Ratio to 0.444

Add Standard definitions

We will be adding six standards to the calibration kit. A fixed load, a short, an offset
short, a thru, a quarter wavelength line, and an offset load.

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For each of the standards to be added do the following:

1. Make sure the Standards tab is selected

2. Press Add... to bring up the Add Standard dialog

3. Select the desired standard type then press OK

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Fixed load

1. Select Fixed Load for Load Type

2. Input Fixed Load in the Label field

3. Input WR-90 fixed load in the Description field

4. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz

5. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz

6. Set Delay to 0 ps

7. Set Z0 to 1 Ω

8. Set Loss to 0.798 GΩ/s

9. Press OK

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Short

1. Input Short in the Label field

2. Input WR-90 short in the Description field

3. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz

4. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz

5. Set Delay to 0 ps

6. Set Z0 to 1 Ω

7. Set Loss to 0.798 GΩ/s

8. Set L0 to 0

9. Set L1 to 0

10. Set L2 to 0

11. Set L3 to 0

12. Press OK

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Offset short

The offset short is a fully de-

fined standard where both the
The offset short standard is specified using the Short type of standard. terminating impedance (short)
and the delay are fully known.
1. Input Offset Short in the Label field

2. Input WR-90 1/4 offset short in the Description field

3. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz

4. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz

5. Set Delay to 32.463 32 ps

6. Set Z0 to 1 Ω

7. Set Loss to 0.798 GΩ/s

8. Set L0 to 0

9. Set L1 to 0

10. Set L2 to 0

11. Set L3 to 0

12. Press OK

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Thru

1. Input Thru in the Label field

2. Input WR-90 thru in the Description field

3. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz

4. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz

5. Set Delay to 0 ps

6. Set Z0 to 1 Ω

7. Set Loss to 0.798 GΩ/s

8. Make sure Virtual Device is checked

9. Press OK

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1/4 Line

1. Input 1/4 Line in the Label field

2. Input WR-90 1/4 wavelength line in the Description field

3. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz

4. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz

5. Set Delay to 32.463 32 ps

6. Set Z0 to 1 Ω

7. Set Loss to 0.798 GΩ/s

8. Make sure Virtual Device is unchecked

9. Press OK

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Offset load

The offset load is a combina-

tion of multiple calibration stan-
1. Select Offset Load for Load Type dards. The Load doesn’t need
to be fully known. It creates
2. Input Offset Load in the Label field
two calibration standard con-
3. Input WR-90 offset load in the Description field nections to be measured,
Fixed Load and
4. Set Frequency Range Min to 8200 MHz 1/4 Line | Fixed Load.
Note, the Thru doesn’t appear
5. Set Frequency Range Max to 12 400 MHz
in the connection prompt be-
cause it is specified as virtual.
6. Select Thru from the drop down menu for the First Offset

7. Select 1/4 line from the drop down menu for the Second Offset

8. Select Fixed Load from the drop down menu for the Load

9. Press OK

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Edit calibration kit classes

The X11644A calibration kit supports both SOLT and TRL calibrations.

Edit SOLT kit classes

1. Make sure the SOLT tab is selected

2. Add standard to SA Calibration Kit Class

(a) Select SA radio button

(b) Input Short in the SA Label field

(c) Select Short from SA Available Standards

(d) Move Short to SA Selected Standards using >>

3. Add standard to SB Calibration Kit Class

(a) Select SB radio button

(b) Input Offset Short in the SB Label field

(c) Select Offset Short from SB Available Standards

(d) Move Offset Short to SB Selected Standards using >>

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 There are two standards se-
lected for the SC calibration
4. Add standards to SC Calibration Kit Class kit class. They both cover the
same frequency range. The
(a) Select SC radio button
Offset Load standard has pri-
(b) Input Loads in the Sc Label field ority over the Fixed Load so it
will be chosen by SmartCal. If
(c) Select Offset Load from Sc Available Standards the Fixed Load standard were
moved to the top position it
(d) Move Offset Load to Sc Selected Standards using >> would be the default choice.

(e) Select Fixed Load from Sc Available Standards

(f) Move Fixed Load to Sc Selected Standards using >>

5. Add standard to FWD TRANS, FWD MATCH, REV TRANS and REV MATCH
Calibration Kit Classes

(a) Make sure Link FWD TRANS, FWD MATCH, REV TRANS, and REV
MATCH is checked

(b) Select FWD TRANS radio button

(c) Input Thru in the FWD TRANS Label field

(d) Select Thru from FWD TRANS Available Standards

(e) Move Thru to FWD TRANS Selected Standards using >>

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Edit TRL kit classes

1. Make sure the TRL tab is selected

2. Add standard to TRL THRU Calibration Kit Class

(a) Select TRL THRU radio button

(b) Input THRU in the TRL THRU Label field

(c) Select Thru from TRL THRU Available Standards

(d) Move Thru to TRL THRU Selected Standards using >>

3. Add standard to TRL LINE/MATCH Calibration Kit Class

(a) Select TRL LINE/MATCH radio button

(b) Input LINE in the TRL LINE/MATCH Label field

(c) Select 1/4 Line from TRL LINE/MATCH Available Standards

(d) Move 1/4 Line to TRL LINE/MATCH Selected Standards using >>
4. Add standards to TRL REFLECT Calibration Kit Class

(a) Select TRL REFLECT radio button

(b) Input SHORT in the TRL REFLECT Label field

(c) Select 1/4 Line from TRL REFLECT Available Standards

(d) Move 1/4 Line to TRL REFLECT Selected Standards using >>

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Save calibration kit

Save using VNA calibration kit editor

1. Select OK from the Edit Kit dialog

2. Select OK from the Manage Cal Kits dialog

Save using standalone calibration kit editor

1. Select Save... from the Edit Kit dialog

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Procedure to define a calibration kit for Multiline TRL

The following steps are recommended when creating a new calibration kit to be used
with Multiport TRL calibrations.

1. Determine the relative permittivity. If using a substrate or PC board, this should

account for both the effect of the substrate relative permittivity and air. Keysight’s Advanced Design
System (ADS) includes an
This is the number that should be electromagnetic field simulator
input for the Effective Relative that can determine the effec-
Permittivity Estimate shown in tive relative permittivity asso-
ciated with a transmission line
Figure 23.
on a substrate or PC board.
It will be used when estimating the Offset Delay of the calibration standards. All
devices in the calibration kit are assumed to use the same relative permittivity
estimate.

2. Define the connectors. It can be beneficial to define multiple connectors when

the topology of the calibration kit is intended to have a particular standard be
used only with a probe in a fixed location. In that case it could be beneficial to
provide unique connector names to be associated with that probe. For example,
you might end up with Probe A, Probe B, Probe C, etc.

3. Define the characteristic impedance of the connectors. This is the final system
impedance desired after calibration. Generally, all of the connectors in the
calibration kit would have the same characteristic impedance.

4. Avoid using meander lines or bent lines for standards intended to be used as
either the thru standard or a line standard. It is possible to include bent lines
needed during a multiport calibration but the bent lines would be included in the
UNKNOWN THRU kit class under the SOLT tab in the Edit kit dialog.

The SOLT tab is next to the

TRL tab shown in Figure 22.

5. Measure the physical lengths of the standards in cm. This would include the
standard to be used as a thru. All of the thru and line standards should be
defined using the thru standard model. Specify the parameters for each
standard:

• Specify the Label and Description.

• Select the connectors.

• Specify the frequency range. The thru standard should be specified over

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 the full frequency range of the calibration. The line standards should have a
minimum frequency selected to ensure a minimum phase difference from
the thru standard of approximately 20◦ .

• The offset delay should be

computed using the real part of
the relative permittivity estimate
(ε0 r ) defined on the Multiline TRL
setup (see Figure 23).
The delay in picoseconds
√
(ps) for the i th standard with length Li in cm is
Li ε0 r
computed as Di = c where c = 2.997 924 58 × 10−2 cm/ps.

• Offset Z0 should be the nominal characteristic impedance of the thru and

line standards. They should all be set to the same value. In many cases, it
will be the same value as the characteristic impedance defined for the
connectors.

• Offset loss can be specified. It is not critical to specify this accurately

since the Multiline TRL calibration will estimate the loss of the propagation
independent of this estimate.

• If Offset delay is specified as 0 ps it makes sense to check the Virtual

Device box. This causes the calibration prompts to indicate connecting the
testports directly to each other rather than including the device label and
description.

6. Assign calibration kit class definitions by selecting the TRL tab (see Figure 22)

• A single thru standard should

be selected for a given pair of
ports involved in the TRL
calibration. If it is a multiport
calibration additional thru
standards can be added
provided there is only a single
thru standard selected for
each port pair.

• Multiple line standards can be selected.

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 • If the frequency range of
usage is lower than the lowest
frequency for the line
standards add match
standards. There should be a
single match standard for
each port connector. The
model for each match
standard should be the same.

• Add the reflect standards.

There should be a reflect
standard for each port
connector. If the calibration kit
is intended for Multiline TRL
calibrations the reflect
standards should all match
the same model. If the
calibration kit is intended for
Multiline TSD the reflect
standards do not have to
match the same model.
For Multiline TSD calibrations only the first standard listed that matches the
connectors required during the calibration will be used.

7. Check the Multiline TRL checkbox.

8. Specify Calibration Reference Z0 Usually Connector Z0 is selected which

includes the impedance transform between the Offset Z0 defined and the
Connector Z0 . It also includes the transform for Zc defined in the Multiline TRL
setup dialog box.

9. Press MLTRL Setup... to open the Multiline TRL setup dialog box (Figure 23)

• Define Zc . Check the Enable Zc

Computation from C checkbox
to account for low frequency
dispersion.
When setting up a calibration kit for waveguide, uncheck the Enable Zc
Computation from C checkbox as the cutoff frequency is used instead.

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 • Specify C0 . If defining a coaxial calibration kit, the default value is usually
adequate. If the value has been modified, the default value can be
automatically re-entered by inputting a negative number in the C0 field. For
other transmission media (exclusive of waveguide) the value for C0 needs
to be determined, often by an iterative process. There are papers published
that explain details for determining the low frequency dispersion from the
characterization of the propagation constant and an estimate of
C0 [21][22][23].

• Make sure the values input for the

relative permittivity estimate
match the value used to estimate
the offset delay for the thru and
line standards.
• Specify either TRL or TSD.

• Specify the Testport Reference

Plane as desired.

10. If doing a multiport calibration, add additional thru standards with offset delays
specified. These standards are usually loop-back thru standards or bent in order
to connect ports that are not directly opposing each other. Add these standards
to the UNKNOWN THRU class.

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Appendix A Dimensional Considerations in Coaxial Connectors

This appendix describes dimensional considerations and required conventions used to

determine the physical offset length of calibration standards in gendered coaxial
connector families.

Precise measurement of the physical offset length is required to determine the Offset
delay of a given calibration standard. The physical offset length of one and two-port
standards is as follows.

1. One-port standard – Distance between “calibration plane” and terminating

impedance.

2. Two- port standard – Distance between the Port 1 and Port 2 “calibration planes.”

The definition (location) of the “calibration plane” in a calibration standard is dependent

on the geometry and gender of the connector type. The “calibration plane” is defined
as a plane which is perpendicular to the axis of the conductor coincident with the outer
conductor mating surface. This mating surface is located at the contact points of the
outer conductors of the test port and the calibration standard. To illustrate this,
consider the following connector type interfaces:

7-mm coaxial connector interface

The “calibration plane” is located coincident to the outer conductor mating surface as
shown in Figure 27. Unique to this connector type is the fact that the inner and outer
conductor mating surfaces are nominally coincident as well as having hermaphroditic
(genderless) connectors. In most other coaxial connector families this is not the case.

3.5-mm, 2.4-mm, 1.85-mm, 1.0-mm coaxial connector interfaces

The location of the “calibration plane” in these connector standards, both genders, is at
the outer conductor mating surface as shown in Figure 27.

Type-N coaxial connector interface

The location of the “calibration plane” in Type-N standards is the outer conductor
mating surfaces as shown in Figure 28.

For current Keysight VNAs, the device label uses –M– or –F– to indicate the gender of
the calibration standard instead of the test port.

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Gap effects

It was originally thought that minimizing the pin depth gap was important for the best
measurements when using coaxial connectors. Studies have shown that better
measurements are made when there is an intentional gap introduced. The gap
minimizes repeatability due to variations in coupling and higher order modes that can
degrade measurement results. Coaxial calibration standards and testport adapters are
now designed with an intentional gap to provide more repeatable and accurate
measurements (see reference [25]).

Figure 27. Location of coaxial connector calibration plane

Figure 28. Type-N connector calibration plane

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Appendix B Derivation of Coaxial Calibration Coefficient Model

Figure 29. Coaxial transmission line characteristics

All transmission lines may be defined by their characteristic impedance (Zc ),

propagation loss constant (α), propagation phase constant (β), and length (l ). They
are related to the calibration coefficients Offset delay, Offset loss and Offset Z0 as
follows:

Recall that:

Transmission loss and phase =e−γl

p (28)
γ =α + jβ = (R + jωL) (G + jωC)
s
R + jωL
Zc = (29)
G + jωC

where:

• R is the distributed resistance of the offset line

• L is the distributed inductance of the offset line

• G is the distributed conductance of the offset line G = 0 for air dielectric

• C is the distributed capacitance of the offset line

• f is the frequency in Hz

• ω = 2πf is the radian frequency

• l is the length of the physical length of the offset

For coaxial transmission lines with finite conductivity. the distributed inductance L
includes a distributed self inductance term Li . The overall distributed inductance can
be represented as:
R
L = Lo + Li = Lo + (30)
ω

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The propagation constant γ and characteristic impedance Zc are impacted by the self
inductance refereed to as the skin effect.

Propagation constant

For G = 0 and small R the propagation constant can be computed as:

p
γ= (R + jωL) jωC (31)

substitute 30 into 31
p
γ= (R + jωLo + jR) jωC (32)

Apply a few manipulations to 32

s !
R + jR
γ = jωLo 1 + jωC
jωLo
s (33)
!
p (1 + j) R
γ = jω Lo C 1+
j ωLo
s !
p R
γ = jω Lo C 1 + (1 − j) (34)
ωLo

Equation 34 can be rewritten using a series expansion.

 !2 
p  R j R 
γ = jω Lo C 1 + (1 − j) + + · · · (35)
2ωLo 4 ωLo

When R  ωLo we get:

!
p R
γ ≈ jω Lo C 1 + (1 − j) (36)
2ωLo

Offset impedance

The offset impedance Zc when G = 0 is given as:

s
R + jωL
Zc = (37)
jωC

Substitute equation 30 into 37

s  
R
R + jω Lo + ω
Zc = (38)
jωC

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 r s !
Lo R
Zc = 1 + (1 − j) (39)
C ωLo

When R  ωLo we end up with:

r !
Lo R
Zc ≈ 1 + (1 − j) (40)
C 2ωLo

Offset definitions

For coaxial transmission lines, let:

Rν
Offset Loss = q
f
109
l p
(41)
Offset Delay = = Lo C
νr
Lo µ0 ν D
 
Offset Z0 = = ln
C 2π d

• ν is the speed of light in the media between the inner and outer conductors
computed as ν = √cε
r

• the media between the inner and outer conductors is assumed to be

non-magnetic with µ = µ0 and ε = εr ε0 .
q
πf µ0
 
1 1
• R= σc πd + πD
1
• ν 2 = εµ
µ   
• Lo = 2π0 ln D
d

• C = 2πε
D
ln( d )

Substituting the offset definitions (equations 41 ) back to the transmission line

equations (34 and 38):
r
R (Offset loss) f
=
ωLo 2πf (Offset Z0 ) 109
s
(Offset loss)
γl = j2πf (Offset delay) 1 + (1 − j) p √ 9 (42)
2π f 10 (Offset Z0 )
s
(Offset loss)
Zc = (Offset Z0 ) 1 + (1 − j) p √ 9
2π f 10 (Offset Z0 )

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The traditional computations are obtained by substituting the offset definitions
(equations 41 ) back to the transmission line equations (36 and 40):
r
R (Offset loss) f
=
2ωLo 4πf (Offset Z0 ) 109
!r
(Offset loss) (Offset delay) f
αl =
2 (Offset Z0 ) 109 (43)
βl = 2πf (Offset delay) + αl
!r
Offset loss f
Zc = (Offset Z0 ) + (1 − j)
4πf 109

The short’s inductance may be determined from physical properties of the shorting
plane, as presented in reference [16]. The computed results are then curve fitted to a
third order polynomial function.

ZT =jωLT
LT =L0 + L1 f + L2 f 2 + L3 f 3 (44)
 
ωLT
−2j arctan Zref
ΓT ≈ (−1) e

At low frequencies where the inductance is reasonably linear, it may be modeled as an

extra delay term. !
2πf LT
∆ϕ = 2 arctan = 2πf (∆delay) (45)
Zref

The open’s fringing capacitance may be determined using three dimensional

microwave structure simulators. However, the mechanical structure of the open
assembly can be quite complex and can cause simulation problems. It may be more
realistic to measure the open’s response using TRL or offset short calibration
techniques where opens are not employed as calibration standards. The measured
results are then curve fitted to a third order polynomial capacitance model.

1
ZT =
jωCT
CT =C0 + C1 f + C2 f 2 + C3 f 3 (46)

ΓT ≈ (1) e−2j arctan(ωCT Zref )

At low frequencies where the capacitance is reasonably linear, it may be modeled as

an extra delay term.
 
∆ϕ = 2 arctan 2πf CT Zref = 2πf (∆delay) (47)

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Derivation of a transmission model to represent a lumped reactance model

For a lossless transmission line equation 39 becomes

r
L0
Zc = (48)
C

and equation 34 becomes

p
γ = jβ = jω Lo C (49)

The input impedance of a transmission line of length l with characteristic impedance

Zc terminated by ZL is given as

1 + ΓL e−2jβl
!
Zin = Zc (50)
1 − ΓL e−2jβl

where
ZL − Zc
ΓL = (51)
ZL + Zc
Euler’s formula will allow the real and imaginary portions of Zin to be separated.

e−2jβl = cos (−2βl) + j sin (−2βl) (52)

Substituting equations 51 and 52 into equation 50 and simplifying yields:

Zc (ZL cos (βl) + jZc sin (βl))

Zin = (53)
Zc cos (βl) + jZL sin (βl)

Zc (ZL cos (βl) + jZc sin (βl)) (Zc cos (βl) − jZL sin (βl))
Zin =
Zc cos (βl) + jZL sin (βl) (Zc cos (βl) − jZL sin (βl))
  (54)
Zc2 ZL + j sin (βl) cos (βl) Zc Zc2 − ZL2
=
Zc2 cos2 (βl) + ZL2 sin2 (βl)
When Zc  ZL equation 54 becomes

ZL + j sin (βl) cos (βl) Zc

Zin ≈ (55)
cos2 (βl)

When βl  1 equation 55 becomes

Zin ≈ ZL + jβlZc = ZL + jω (Offset delay) (Offset Z0 ) (56)

An inductive load ZL + jωL can be modeled with the arbitrary impedance and
appropriate choices of the offset parameters.

• (Offset loss) = 0

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 • (Offset Z0 )  ZL Choose (Offset Z0 ) to be at least an order of magnitude
greater than ZL . Older network analyzers sometimes had an upper limit on
(Offset Z0 ) such as 500 Ω; in those cases use the upper limit.
L
• (Offset delay) = (Offset Z0 )

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Appendix C Derivation of Waveguide Calibration Coefficient
Model

Figure 30. Rectangular waveguide dimensions and properties.

The physical properties of a rectangular waveguide are illustrated in Figure 30.

s
!2
2πf λ
β= 1− (57)
ν λc

where:

• the guide medium is assumed to be non-magnetic with µr = 1

• ν is the speed of light in the medium computed as ν = √cε

r

• εr = relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of transmission medium = 1.000 649

in air @ sea level and 50 % humidity

• λ is the TEM wavelength in the guide medium computed as λ = fν

(4−π)r 2
• we is the effective guide width computed as we = w − h (see reference [26])

• λc is the guide cutoff wavelength with λc = 2we

• Note, the cutoff frequency (fc ) is computed as fc = λν

c

Assuming the guide medium is low loss permits the attenuation coefficient to be
defined by the conductive losses give as:

2h λ 2
  
p
πf µ0 ρ
r 1+ w
ε0 εr e λc
α≈ q   (58)
h µ0 2
1 − λλ
c

where:

• ε0 is the free space permittivity = 8.854 187 812 8 × 10−12 F/m

• µ0 is the free space permeability = 1.256 637 062 12 × 10−6 N/A2

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 • ρ is the resistivity of the conductor computed as the inverse of the conductivity
1
ρ= σ

• l = physical offset length from reference plane in meters

To structure the waveguide loss equation in calibration coefficient format for the
VNA,offset loss must be in GΩ/s. The equation may be reformulated as follows:

2h fc 2
   
s
p
πfc µ0 ρ
r 1+
f ε0 εr we f
αl ≈ l r (59)
h fc µ0  f 2
1 − fc

Offset definitions

For waveguide transmission lines it is assumed that Offset Z0 = Connector Z0 , let the
other offset parameters be defined as: At frequencies below 50 GHz,
p offset loss is primarily a func-
πfc µ0 ρ tion of the metal wall conduc-
Offset Loss = ν
h (60) tivity. Above 50 GHz, surface
l roughness starts to have a sig-
Offset Delay =
ν nificant impact related to the
wavelength and skin depth.
Substituting 60 into 59 yields: The offset loss constant should
  f 2  be determined from transmis-
s 2h c
r 1+ sion measurements which in-
f ε0 εr we f
αl ≈ (Offset Loss) (Offset Delay) r (61) cludes all of the effects.
fc µ0  f 2
1 − fc

The combined propagation constant is given as:

γl = (α + jβ) l
 
  f 2 
2h
 s c
s 
 r 1+ w f !2 
(62)
f ε0 εr e f 
+ j2πf 1 − c  (Offset Delay)

γl ≈ (Offset Loss) r
 fc µ0  f 2 f 
 1 − fc 

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Appendix D Derivation of Circular Waveguide Calibration
Coefficient Model

Figure 31. Circular waveguide dimensions and properties.

The physical properties of a circular waveguide are illustrated in Figure 31. The
propagation properties are described by Marcuvitz[27].

s
!2
2πf λ
βmn = 1− (63)
ν λc,mn
where:

• the guide medium is assumed to be non-magnetic with µr = 1

• ν is the speed of light in the medium computed as ν = √cε

r

• λ is the TEM wavelength in the guide medium computed as λ = fν

2πr √
• λc,mn is the circular guide cutoff wavelength computed as λc,mn = χ εr
mn

• for the H11 mode χ11 = 1.841

Assuming the guide medium is low loss permits the attenuation coefficient to be
defined by the conductive losses give as:
  2 
p
πf µ0 ρ
r 1 + κ1 λ λ
ε0 εr c,mn
α≈ κ r (64)
r µ0  2
1 − λλ
c,mn

where:

• ρ is the resistivity of the conductor computed as the inverse of the conductivity

1
ρ= σ
m2
• κ= 2
χmn −m2

• For H11 mode κ = 0.4185

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 λ f
• The relationship between frequency and wavelength leads to c,mn
f = λc,mn

To structure the waveguide loss equation in calibration coefficient format for the
VNA,offset loss must be in GΩ/s. The equation may be reformulated as follows:
  f 2 
1 c,mn
1+2
p s
πfc,mn µ0 ρ
r
f ε0 εr 2κ f
αl ≈ κ r (65)
r fc,mn µ0 f 2
c,mn
1− f

Offset definitions

For waveguide transmission lines it is assumed that Offset Z0 = Connector Z0 , let the
other offset parameters be defined as:
p
πfc,mn µ0 ρ
Offset Loss = ν κ
r (66)
l
Offset Delay =
ν

Substituting 66 into 65 yields:

  f 2 
1 c,mn
1+2
s r
f ε0 εr 2κ f
αl ≈ (Offset Loss) (Offset Delay) r (67)
fc,mn µ0 f 2
c,mn
1− f

The combined propagation constant is given as:

γl = (α + jβ) l
 
    f 2 
1
 c,mn
s 
1 + 2 2κ
s
 r ! 2 (68)
 f ε 0 εr f f c,mn

γl ≈ (Offset Loss) + j2πf 1 −  (Offset Delay)

r
 fc,mn µ0  f 2 f 
1 − c,mn
 

f

   
1
Note that the 2κ term in equation 68 is equivalent to the height/width ratio wh for
e
rectangular waveguides in equation 62.

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Appendix E Data-based Calibration Standard Definition File
Format

A standalone version of the calibration kit editor is available online at

https://www.keysight.com/us/en/lib/software-detail/
computer-software/pna-service-applications.html. This editor can
create kits that include data-based standards. Data-based standards are described by
a data list. A data-based standard should include a list of frequencies, the actual
response for each s-parameter at each frequency and an estimate of the confidence
factor for the actual response; this is part of what is used to determine the weighting
factor when the standard is used during an weighted least squares over-determined
solution.

Example file:

CITIFILE A.01.01
COMMENT Rev A.01.00
COMMENT STDTYPE DATABASED
COMMENT MODEL: 85058-60101
COMMENT SERIAL NUMBER: NOMINAL
NAME DATA
COMMENT This section describes the s parameter data and confidence
COMMENT factor for the calibration standard
COMMENT S[i,j] is sij for the standard. Supported formats: RI
COMMENT U[i,j] is the confidence factor for sij.
COMMENT Supported U[i,j] formats: RI, MAG
COMMENT note number of points is 509 below
VAR Freq MAG 509
DATA S[1,1] RI
DATA U[1,1] MAG
VAR_LIST_BEGIN
0
10000000
15000000
...
70000000000
VAR_LIST_END
BEGIN
-1,0
-0.99976354927,0.00249289367
-0.99970950119,0.00367766097
...
0.9772034982,-0.14575300423
END
BEGIN
0.00028
0.00028
0.00028
...
0.005
END

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Appendix F 8510 Calibration kit modification/entry procedure

Calibration kit specifications can be entered into the Keysight 8510 vector network
analyzer using the disk drive, a disk drive connected to the system bus, by front panel
entry, or through program control by an external controller. Table 5 provides the
standard definitions and Table 6 provides the calibration class assignments.

Table 5. 8510 standard definitions table

STANDARD Fixed or Offset Frequency GHz Coax or Standard

Num Type Sliding Delay ps Z0 Ω Loss GΩ s−1 Min Max Waveguide Label

1 SHORT 10.8309 1 0 9.487 18.974 W/G PSHORT 1

2 SHORT 32.4925 1 0 9.487 18.974 W/G PSHORT 2

3 LOAD FIXED 0 1 0 9.487 18.974 W/G PLOAD

4 THRU 0 1 0 9.487 18.974 W/G PTHRU

Table 6. 8510 class assignment table

Standard class Standard numbers Class label

S11A 1 PSHORT 1
S11B 2 PSHORT 2
S11C 3 PLOAD
S22A 1 PSHORT 1
S22B 2 PSHORT 2
S22C 3 PLOAD
FWD TRANS 4 THRU
FWD MATCH 4 THRU
REV TRANS 4 THRU
REV MATCH 4 THRU
RESPONSE 1,2,4 RESPONSE

Disk procedure

This is an important feature since the 8510 can only store two calibration kits internally
at one time, while multiple calibration kits can be stored on a single disk.

Below is the generic procedure to load or store calibration kits from and to the disk
drive or disk interface.

To load calibration kits from disk into the Keysight 8510

1. Insert the calibration data disk into the network analyzer (or connect compatible
disk drive to the system bus).

2. Press the DISC key; select STORAGE IS: INTERNAL or EXTERNAL; then press
the following display soft keys: LOAD CAL KIT 1-2 CAL KIT 1 or CAL KIT 2 (This

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 selection determines which of the non-volatile registers that the calibration kit will
be loaded into.) FILE # or FILE NAME (Select the calibration kit data to load.)
LOAD FILE.

3. To verify that the correct calibration kit was loaded into the instrument, press the
CAL key. If properly loaded, the calibration kit label will be shown under “CAL 1”
or “CAL 2” on the CRT display.

To store calibration kits from the Keysight 8510 onto a disk

1. Insert an initialized calibration data disk into the network analyzer or connect
compatible disk drive to the system bus.

2. Press the DISC key; select STORAGE IS: INTERNAL or EXTERNAL; then press
the following CRT displayed soft keys: STORE CAL KIT 1-2 CAL KIT 1 or CAL
KIT 2 (This selection determines which of the non-volatile calibration kit registers
is to be stored.) FILE # or FILE NAME (Enter the calibration kit data file name.)
STORE FILE.

3. Examine directory to verify that file has been stored. This completes the
sequence to store a calibration kit onto a disk.

To generate a new cal kit or modify an existing one, either front panel or program
controlled entry can be used.

In this guide, procedures have been given to define standards and assign classes. This
section will list the steps required for front panel entry of the standards and appropriate
labels.

Front panel procedure: (P-band waveguide example)

1. Prior to modifying or generating a cal kit, store one or both of the cal kits in the ’s
non-volatile memory to a disk

2. Select CAL menu >MORE

3. Prepare to modify cal kit 2: press MODIFY 2

4. To define a standard: press DEFINE STANDARD

5. Enable standard no. 1 to be modified: press 1, x1

6. Select standard type: SHORT

7. Specify an offset: SPECIFY OFFSETS

8. Enter the delay from Table 1: OFFSET DELAY, 0.010 830 9 G

⁄n

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 9. Enter the loss from Table 1: OFFSET LOSS, 0, x1

10. Enter the Z0 from Table 1: OFFSET Z0, 1, x1

11. Enter the lower cutoff frequency: MINIMUM FREQUENCY, 9.487 ⁄n

G

12. Enter the upper frequency: MAXIMUM FREQUENCY, 18.97 G

⁄n

13. Select WAVEGUIDE

14. Prepare to label the new standard: press PRIOR MENU >LABEL STANDARD
>ERASE TITLE

15. Enter PSHORT 1 by using the knob, SELECT >LETTER soft key and SPACE
soft key

16. Complete the title entry by pressing TITLE DONE

17. Complete the standard modification by pressing STANDARD DONE (DEFINED)

Standard #1 has now been defined for a 1/8 λ P-band waveguide offset short. To
define the remaining standards, refer to Table 5 and repeat steps 4-17. To define
standard #3, a matched load, specify “fixed.”

The front panel procedure to implement the class assignments of Table 2 for the
P-band waveguide cal kit are as follows:

1. Prepare to specify a class: SPECIFY CLASS

2. Select standard class S11A

3. Direct the network analyzer to use standard no. 1 for the S11A class of
calibration: 1, x1 , CLASS DONE (SPECIFIED)

Change the class label for S11A:

1. LABEL CLASS, S11A, ERASE TITLE

2. Enter the label of PSHORT 1 by using the knob, the SELECT soft key and the
SPACE soft key

3. Complete the label entry procedure: TITLE DONE >LABEL DONE

Follow a similar procedure to enter the remaining standard classes and labels as
shown in Table 6.

Finally, change the cal kit label as follows:

1. Press LABEL KIT >ERASE TITLE

2. Enter the title “P BAND’’

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 3. Press TITLE DONE >KIT DONE (MODIFIED). The message “CAL KIT
SAVED” should appear

This completes the entire cal kit modification for front panel entry. An example of
programmed modification over the GPIB bus through an external controller is shown in
the “Introduction To Programming” section of the 8510 Network Analyzer Operating
and Service Manual (section III).

References

[1] D. K. Rytting, An Analysis of Vector Measurement Accuracy Enhancement

Techniques, Mar. 1982.

[2] ——, Appendix to An Analysis of Vector Measurement Accuracy Enhancement

Techniques, Mar. 1982.

[3] G. F. Engen and C. A. Hoer, “Thru-Reflect-Line: An Improved Technique for

Calibrating the Dual Six-Port Automatic Network Analyzer”, IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. 987–993, 1979.

[4] R. A. Speciale, “A Generalization of the TSD Network-Analyzer Calibration

Procedure, Covering n-Port Scattering-Parameter Measurements, Affected by
Leakage Errors”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 1100–1115, 1977.

[5] H. J. Eul and B. Schiek, “A generalized theory and new calibration procedures
for network analyzer self-calibration”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory
and Techniques, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 724–731, Apr. 1991.

[6] R. B. Marks, “Formulations of the Basic Vector Network Analyzer Error Model
including Switch-Terms”, in 50th ARFTG Conference Digest, vol. 32, Dec. 1997,
pp. 115–126.

[7] D. Blackham and K. H. Wong, “Latest advances in VNA accuracy

enhancements”, English, Microwave Journal, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 78+, Jul. 2005,
Section: 78.

[8] Keysight Technologies, Application Note 5965-7707E Understanding the

Fundamental Principles of Vector Network Analyzers, Jul. 2020.

[9] ——, Application Note 5965-7708E Exploring the Architectures of Network

Analyzers, Oct. 2019.

[10] ——, Application Note 5965-7709E Applying Error Correction to Vector Network
Analyzer Measurements, Feb. 2018.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 74

[11] ——, Technical Overview 5091-2645E Network Analysis Applying the 8510 TRL
Calibration for Non-Coaxial Measurements, Nov. 2019.

[12] ——, Application Note 5968-5329E In-Fixture Measurements Using Vector

Network Analyzers, Dec. 2017.

[13] Agilent Technologies, White Paper 5989-3245EN Agilent Calibrating Standards

for In-Fixture Device Characterization, Jun. 2005.

[14] Robert E. Collin, “Circuit Theory for Waveguiding Systems: Scattering Matrix for
a Two-Port Junction”, in Foundations for Microwave Engineering, IEEE, 2001,
pp. 254–257.

[15] K. H. Wong, “Using Precision Coaxial Air Dielectric Transmission Line as

Calibration and Verification Standards”, Microwave Journal, pp. 88–92, Dec.
1988.

[16] ——, “Characterization of Calibration Standards by Physical Measurements”, in

39th ARFTG Conference Digest, vol. 21, Jun. 1992, pp. 53–62.

[17] D. Blackham, “Application of weighted least squares to OSL vector error

correction”, in 61st ARFTG Conference Digest, Spring 2003., Jun. 2003,
pp. 11–21.

[18] G. Strang, Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 2nd. Academic Press, Jan. 1980.

[19] R. B. Marks, “A multiline method of network analyzer calibration”, IEEE

Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 39, no. 7,
pp. 1205–1215, 1991.

[20] D. C. DeGroot, J. A. Jargon, and R. B. Marks, “Multiline TRL revealed”, in 60th

ARFTG Conference Digest, Fall 2002., pp. 131–155.

[21] D. F. Williams, U. Arz, and H. Grabinski, “Characteristic-impedance

measurement error on lossy substrates”, IEEE Microwave and Wireless
Components Letters, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 299–301, 2001.

[22] R. B. Marks and D. F. Williams, “Characteristic impedance determination using

propagation constant measurement”, IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters,
vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 141–143, 1991.

[23] D. F. Williams and R. B. Marks, “On-wafer impedance measurement on lossy

substrates”, IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, vol. 4, no. 6,
pp. 175–176, 1994.

[24] ——, “Transmission line capacitance measurement”, IEEE Microwave and

Guided Wave Letters, vol. 1, no. 9, pp. 243–245, 1991.

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[25] K. Wong and J. Hoffmann, “Improving VNA measurement accuracy by including
connector effects in the models of calibration standards”, in 82nd ARFTG
Microwave Measurement Conference, Journal Abbreviation: 82nd ARFTG
Microwave Measurement Conference, Nov. 2013, pp. 1–7.

[26] M. M. Brady, “Cutoff wavelengths and frequencies of standard rectangular

waveguides”, Electronics Letters, vol. 5, no. 17, pp. 410–412, 1969, ISBN:
0013-5194 Publisher: IET.

[27] N. Marcuvitz, “Section 2.3 Circular Waveguides”, en, in Waveguide Handbook,

McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., 1951, pp. 66–72.

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For more information on Keysight Technologies’ products, applications or services,
please contact your local Keysight office. The complete list is available at:
www.keysight.com/find/contactus.

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This information is subject to change without notice. © Keysight Technologies, 2001 - 2023, Published in USA, March 7, 2023, 5989-4840EN