INTRODUCTION TO BEAMS

TYPES OF BEAMS
• Beams are usually said to be members that support transverse loads. Among the many
types of beams are joists , lintels, spandrels, stringers , floor beams , and girders.

SECTIONS USED AS BEAMS

• Channels are sometimes used for beams subjected to light loads, such as purlins, and in
places where clearances available require narrow flanges. They have very little
resistance to lateral forces and need to be braced.

• The I-shaped cross sections have more steel concentrated in their flanges and thus have
larger moments of inertia and resisting moments for the same weights. They are
relatively wide and have appreciable lateral stiffness.

• Another common type of beam section is the open-web

steel joist , or bar joist. This type of section, which is
commonly used to support floor and roof slabs, is actually
a light shop-fabricated parallel chord truss. It is
particularly economical for long spans and light loads. Open-web steel joist
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BENDING STRESSES
• For an introduction to bending stresses, the rectangular beam and stress diagrams of Figure-1 are
considered. (For this initial discussion, the beam’s compression flange is assumed to be fully braced
against lateral buckling.) If the beam is subjected to some bending moment, the stress at any point may
be computed with the usual flexure formula fb = M.c/I . This expression is applicable only when the
maximum computed stress in the beam is below the elastic limit.

Figure-1: Variations in bending stresses due to increasing moment about x axis.

• The formula is based on the usual elastic assumptions: Stress is proportional to strain, a plane section
before bending remains a plane section after bending, etc. The value of I/c is a constant for a particular
section and is known as the section modulus (S).The flexure formula may then be written as follows:

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 Figure-1: Variations in bending stresses due to increasing moment about x axis.
• Initially, when the moment is applied to the beam, the stress will vary linearly from the neutral axis to the extreme fibers
(Fig-7.1b)
• If the moment is increased, there will continue to be a linear variation of stress until the yield stress is reached in the
outermost fibers (Fig-7.1c). The yield moment of a cross section is defined as the moment that will just produce the yield
stress in the outermost fiber of the section.
• If the moment in a ductile steel beam is increased beyond the yield moment, the outermost fibers that had previously been
stressed to their yield stress will continue to have the same stress, but will yield, and the duty of providing the necessary
additional resisting moment will fall on the fibers nearer to the neutral axis. This process will continue, with more and
more parts of the beam cross section stressed to the yield stress (as shown by the stress diagrams of parts (d) and (e) of the
figure), until finally a full plastic distribution is approached, as shown in part (f).
• The variation of strain from the neutral axis to the outer fibers remains linear for all of these cases.
• When the stress distribution has reached this stage, a plastic hinge is said to have formed, because no additional moment
can be resisted at the section. Any additional moment applied at the section will cause the beam to rotate, with little
increase in stress. 3
• The plastic moment is the moment that will produce full plasticity in a member cross section and create a plastic hinge. The
ratio of the plastic moment Mp to the yield moment My is called the shape factor (Mp/My) .The shape factor equals 1,50 for
rectangular sections and varies from about 1,10 to 1,20 for standard rolled-beam sections.
PLASTIC HINGES

• The load shown in Figure-2 is applied to the beam and increased in magnitude until the yield moment is reached and the
outermost fiber is stressed to the yield stress. The magnitude of the load is further increased, with the result that the
outer fibers begin to yield.
• The yielding spreads out to the other fibers, away from the section of maximum moment, as indicated in the figure.
The distance in which this yielding occurs away from the section in question is dependent on the loading conditions
and the member cross section.
• For a concentrated load applied at the center line of a simple beam with a rectangular cross section, yielding in the
extreme fibers at the time the plastic hinge is formed will extend for one-third of the span. For a I-shape sectioned beam in
similar circumstances, yielding will extend for approximately one-eighth of the span.
• During this same period, the interior fibers at the section of maximum moment yield gradually, until nearly all of them
have yielded and a plastic hinge is formed, as shown in Figure-2.

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Figure-2: A plastic Hinge
• Although the effect of a plastic hinge may extend for some distance along the beam, for analysis
purposes it is assumed to be concentrated at one section. For the calculation of deflections and
for the design of bracing, the length over which yielding extends is quite important.

• For plastic hinges to form, the sections must be compact. There compact sections were defined
as being those which have sufficiently stocky profiles such that they are capable of developing
fully plastic stress distributions before they buckle locally.

• For plastic hinges to develop the members must not only be compact but also must be braced in
such a fashion that lateral buckling is prevented.

• Finally the effects of shear, torsion, and axial loads must be considered. They may be
sufficiently large as to cause the members to fail before plastic hinges can form. In the study of
plastic behavior, strain hardening is not considered.

• When steel frames are loaded to failure, the points where rotation is concentrated (plastic
hinges) become quite visible to the observer before collapse occurs.

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ELASTIC DESIGN

• Until recent years, almost all steel beams were designed on the basis of the elastic theory. The maximum
load that a structure could support was assumed to equal the load that first caused a stress somewhere in the
structure to equal the yield stress of the material. The members were designed so that computed bending
stresses for service loads did not exceed the yield stress divided by a safety factor (e.g., 1.5 to 2.0).

• Engineering structures have been designed for many decades by this method, with satisfactory results. The
design profession, however, has long been aware that ductile members do not fail until a great deal of
yielding occurs after the yield stress is first reached. This means that such members have greater margins of
safety against collapse than the elastic theory would seem to indicate.

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THE PLASTIC MODULUS
• The yield moment My equals the yield stress times the
elastic section modulus. The elastic section modulus
equals I/c . For a rectangular cross section shown in
Figure-3, the resisting moment equals T or C times the
lever arm between them, as follows:

Figure-3
• The resisting moment at full plasticity can be determined in
a similar manner. The result is the so-called plastic
moment, Mp. It is also the nominal moment of the section,
Mn. This plastic, or nominal, moment equals T or C times
the lever arm between them. For the rectangular beam of
Figure-4, we have

Figure-4
• The shape factor, which equals Mp/My = FyZ/ FyS or Z/S, is
(bd2/4)/(bd2/6)=1.5 for a rectangular section.
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 • The plastic moment is said to equal the yield stress times the plastic section modulus. From the foregoing
expression for a rectangular section, the plastic section modulus Z can be seen to equal bd2/4. A study of
the plastic section modulus determined here shows that it equals to the sum of the statical moment of the
tension and compression areas about the plastic neutral axis.
• Unless the section is symmetrical, the neutral axis for the plastic condition will not be in the same location
as for the elastic condition. The total internal compression must equal the total internal tension. As all
fibers are considered to have the same stress (Fy) in the plastic condition, the areas above and below the
plastic neutral axis must be equal. This situation does not hold for unsymmetrical sections in the elastic
condition.
Example 1:

Determine 𝑀𝑦 , 𝑀𝑛 and Z for the steel tee

beam shown in figure. Also, calculate the
shape factor and the nominal load 𝑤𝑛 that
can be placed on the beam for a 3500 mm
simple span. 𝐹𝑦 = 450 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

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 THEORY OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS

• Plasticity can be said to serve the purpose of equalizing stresses in cases of overload. As early as 1914,
Dr. Gabor Kazinczy, a Hungarian, recognized that the ductility of steel permitted a redistribution of
stresses in an overloaded, statically indeterminate structure. In the United States, Prof. J.A.Van den
Broek introduced his plastic theory, which he called “limit design”. This theory was published in a
paper entitled “Theory of Limit Design” in February 1939, in the Proceedings of the ASCE.
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• For this discussion, the stress–strain diagram is assumed to have the idealized shape shown in
Figure-5. The yield stress and the proportional limit are assumed to occur at the same point for this
steel, and the stress–strain diagram is assumed to be a perfectly straight line in the plastic range.

• Beyond the plastic range there is a range of strain hardening. This latter range could theoretically
permit steel members to withstand additional stress, but from a practical standpoint the strains which
arise are so large that they cannot be considered. Furthermore, inelastic buckling will limit the ability
of a section to develop a moment greater than Mp , even if strain hardening is significant.

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Figure-5
THE COLLAPSE MECHANISM

• A statically determinate beam will fail if one plastic hinge develops. In Figure-6, should the load be
increased until a plastic hinge is developed at the point of maximum moment (underneath the load in this
case), an unstable structure will have been created, as shown in part (b) of the figure. Any further
increase in load will cause collapse. Pn represents the nominal, or theoretical, maximum load that the
beam can support.

Figure-6

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• For a statically indeterminate structure to fail, it is necessary for more than one plastic hinge to form. The
number of plastic hinges required for failure of statically indeterminate structures will be shown to vary
from structure to structure, but may never be less than two. The fixed-end beam of Figure-7, part (a),
cannot fail unless the three plastic hinges shown in part (b) of the figure are developed.

Figure-7

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• Although a plastic hinge may have formed in a statically indeterminate structure, the load can still be increased without
causing failure if the geometry of the structure permits. The plastic hinge will act like a real hinge insofar as increased
loading is concerned. As the load is increased, there is a redistribution of moment, because the plastic hinge can resist no
more moment. As more plastic hinges are formed in the structure, there will eventually be a sufficient number of them to
cause collapse. Actually, some additional load can be carried after this time, before collapse occurs, as the stresses go into
the strain hardening range, but the deflections that would occur are too large to be permissible.

• The propped beam of Figure-8, part (a), is an example of a structure that will fail after two plastic hinges develop. Three
hinges are required for collapse, but there is a real hinge on the right end. In this beam, the largest elastic moment
caused by the design concentrated load is at the fixed end. As the magnitude of the load is increased, a plastic hinge will
form at that point.

• The load may be further increased until the moment

at some other point (here it will be at the
concentrated load) reaches the plastic moment.
Additional load will cause the beam to collapse. The
arrangement of plastic hinges and perhaps real
hinges that permit collapse in a structure is called the
mechanism. Parts (b) of Figs.-6, 7, and 8 show
mechanisms for various beams.

Figure-8 13
DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR MOMENTS

• If gravity loads are applied to a fairly long, simply supported beam, the beam will bend downward, and its upper
part will be placed in compression and will act as a compression member. The cross section of this “column” will
consist of the portion of the beam cross section above the neutral axis.

• For the usual beam, the “column” will have a much smaller moment of inertia about its y or vertical axis than
about its x axis. If nothing is done to brace it perpendicular to the y axis, it will buckle laterally at a much smaller
load than would otherwise have been required to produce a vertical failure.

• Lateral buckling will not occur if the compression flange of a member is braced laterally or if twisting of the
beam is prevented at frequent intervals.

In this chapter, we will look at beams as follows:

1. First, the beams will be assumed to have continuous lateral bracing for their compression flanges.
2. Next, the beams will be assumed to be braced laterally at short intervals.
3. Finally, the beams will be assumed to be braced laterally at larger and larger intervals.

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 Figure-9: Nominal (plastic) moment as function of unbraced length of compression flange.

• An examination of Figure-9 will show that beams have three distinct ranges, or zones, of behavior, depending on
their lateral bracing situation:
̶ If we have continuous or closely spaced lateral bracing, the beams will experience yielding of the entire
cross section and fall into what is classified as Zone 1.
̶ As the distance between lateral bracing is increased further, the beams will begin to fail
inelastically at smaller moments and fall into Zone 2.
̶ Finally, with even larger unbraced lengths, the beams will fail elastically and fall into Zone 3. 15
Plastic Behavior (Zone 1)
• If we were to take a compact beam whose compression flange is continuously braced laterally, we would
find that we could load it until its full plastic moment Mp is reached at some point or points; further loading
then produces a redistribution of moments, as was described previously.
• If we now take one of these compact beams and provide closely spaced intermittent lateral bracing for its
compression flanges, we will find that we can still load it until the plastic moment plus moment
redistribution is achieved if the spacing between the bracing does not exceed a certain value, called Lp
herein. (The value of Lp is dependent on the dimensions of the beam cross section and on its yield stress.)
Most beams fall in Zone 1.
Inelastic Buckling (Zone 2)
• If we now further increase the spacing between points of lateral or torsional bracing, the section may be
loaded until some, but not all, of the compression fibers are stressed to Fy . The section will have
insufficient rotation capacity to permit full moment redistribution and thus will not permit plastic analysis.
This is referred to as inelastic buckling.
• As we increase the unbraced length, we will find that the moment the section resists will decrease, until
finally it will buckle before the yield stress is reached anywhere in the cross section. The maximum
unbraced length at which we can still reach Fy at one point is the end of the inelastic range. It’s shown as Lr
in Figure-9; its value is dependent upon the properties of the beam cross section, as well as on the yield and
residual stresses of the beam. 16
Elastic Buckling (Zone 3)
• If the unbraced length is greater than Lr , the section will buckle elastically before the yield stress is reached
anywhere. As the unbraced length is further increased, the buckling moment becomes smaller and smaller.
• As the moment is increased in such a beam, the beam will deflect more and more transversely until a critical
moment value Mcr is reached. At this time, the beam cross section will twist and the compression flange will
move laterally. The moment Mcr is provided by the torsional resistance and the warping resistance of the beam.

YIELDING BEHAVIOR—FULL PLASTIC MOMENT, ZONE 1

• If the unbraced length Lb of the compression flange of a compact I- or C-shaped section, including
hybrid members, does not exceed Lp , then the member’s bending strength about its major axis may be
determined as follows:

(Section-9.1, ÇYHY)

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 DESIGN OF BEAMS, ZONE 1

• Included in the items that need to be considered in beam design are moments, shears, deflections,
lateral bracing for the compression flanges, fatigue, and others. Beams will probably be selected that
provide sufficient design moment capacities (bMn )and then checked to see if any of the other items
are critical. The factored moment will be computed, and a section having that much design moment
capacity will be initially selected from the steel section tables.

Example 2:

Is the compact and laterally braced section

shown in figure sufficiently strong to support
the given loads if 𝐹𝑦 = 450 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Check the
beam with both the LRFD and ASD methods.

Solution:

Example will be solved in class!! 18

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HOLES IN BEAMS
• It is often necessary to have holes in steel beams. They are obviously required for the installation of bolts and
sometimes for pipes, conduits, ducts, etc. If at all possible, these latter types of holes should be completely
avoided.
• When absolutely necessary, holes should be placed through the web if the shear is small and through the flange
if the moment is small. Cutting a hole through the web of a beam does not reduce its section modulus greatly
or its resisting moment; but a large hole in the web tremendously reduces the shearing strength of a steel
section. When large holes are put in beam webs, extra plates are sometimes connected to the webs around the
holes to serve as reinforcing against possible web buckling.
• When large holes are placed in beam webs, the strength limit states of the beams—such as local buckling of
the compression flange, the web, or the tee-shaped compression zone above or below the opening—or the
moment–shear interaction or serviceability limit states may control the size of the member.

• Tests seem to show that flange holes for bolts do not appreciably change the location of the neutral axis. It is
logical to assume that the location of the neutral axis will not follow the exact theoretical variation with its
abrupt changes in position at bolt holes, as shown in part (b) of Figure-10. A more reasonable change in neutral
axis location is shown in part (c) of this figure, where it is assumed to have a more gradual variation in
position.
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• It is interesting to note that flexure tests of steel beams seem to
show that their failure is based on the strength of the
compression flange, even though there may be bolt holes in the
tension flange. The presence of these holes does not seem to be
as serious as might be thought, particularly when compared with
holes in a pure tension member. These tests show little
difference in the strengths of beams with no holes and in beams
with an appreciable number of bolt holes in either flange.
• Bolt holes in the webs of beams are generally considered to be
insignificant, as they have almost no effect on Z calculations.
Figure-10
• Some specifications, notably the bridge ones, and some
designers have not adopted the idea of ignoring the presence of
all or part of the holes in tension flanges. As a result, they follow
the more conservative practice of deducting 100 percent of all
holes. For such a case, the reduction in will equal the statical
moment of the holes (in both flanges) taken about the neutral
axis. If we have bolt holes in the compression flanges only and
they are filled with bolts, we forget the whole thing. This is
because it is felt that the fasteners can adequately transfer
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compression through the holes by means of the bolts.
• The flexural strengths of beams with holes in their tension flanges are predicted by comparing the value
FyAfg with FuAfn . In these expressions Afg , is the gross area of the tension flange while Afn is the net tension
flange area after the holes are subtracted. In the expressions given herein for computing Mn there is a term
Yt , which is called the hole reduction coefficient. Its value is taken as 1,0 if Fy/Fu  0,8 . For cases when the
ratio of Fy/Fu is > 0,8 , Yt is taken as 1,1.

a) If FuAfn  Yt FyAfg the limit state of tensile rupture does not apply and there is no reduction in Mn
because of the holes.
b) If FuAfn  Yt FyAfg the nominal flexural strength of the member at the holes is to be determined by
the following expression, in which Sx is the section modulus of the member:

(Eq.-9.81, ÇYHY)

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LATERAL SUPPORT OF BEAMS

• Should the compression flange of a beam be without lateral support for some distance, it will have a stress
situation similar to that existing in columns. As is well known, the longer and slenderer a column becomes,
the greater becomes the danger of its buckling for the same loading condition. When the compression flange
of a beam is long enough and slender enough, it may quite possibly buckle, unless lateral support is provided.

• There are many factors affecting the amount of stress that will cause buckling in the compression flange of
a beam. Some of these factors are properties of the material, the spacing and types of lateral support
provided, residual stresses in the sections, the types of end support or restraints, the loading conditions, etc.

• The tension in the other flange of a beam tends to keep that flange straight and restrain the compression
flange from buckling; but as the bending moment is increased, the tendency of the compression flange to
buckle may become large enough to overcome the tensile restraint.

• The I-shaped and channel shapes so frequently used for beam sections do not have a great deal of resistance
to lateral buckling and the resulting torsion. Some other shapes—notably, the built-up box shapes—are
tremendously stronger. These types of members have a great deal more torsional resistance than the I-shaped
and plate girder sections.

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• A beam that is wholly encased in concrete or that has its compression flange incorporated in a concrete slab
is certainly well supported laterally. When a concrete slab rests on the top flange of a beam, the engineer
must study the situation carefully before he or she counts on friction to provide full lateral support. Perhaps if
the loads on the slab are fairly well fixed in position, they will contribute to the friction and it may be
reasonable to assume full lateral support.

• Should lateral support of the compression flange not be provided by a floor slab, it is possible that such
support may be provided with connecting beams or with special members inserted for that purpose.

• Beams that frame into the sides of the beam or girder in question and are connected to the compression
flange can usually be counted on to provide full lateral support at the connection. If the connection is made
primarily to the tensile flange, little lateral support is provided to the compression flange. Before support is
assumed from these beams, the designer should note whether the beams themselves are prevented from
moving.

• The beams represented with horizontal dashed lines in Figure-11 provide questionable lateral support for the
main beams between columns. For a situation of this type, some system of x-bracing may be desirable in one
of the bays. Such a system is shown in Figure-11. This one system will provide sufficient lateral support for
the beams for several bays.

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 Figure-11: X-bracing for floor system

• The intermittent welding of metal roof or floor decks to the compression flanges of beams will probably
provide sufficient lateral bracing. The corrugated sheet-metal roofs that are usually connected to the purlins
with metal straps probably furnish only partial lateral support. A similar situation exists when wood flooring is
bolted to supporting steel beams.

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