Discrete Mar, he TE rat, and coming, back to the starting point. They could mber_ of possible paths is 7! = 5049 3.2 only once not as the maximum nui eng, the great Swiss mathematician E.Euler proved ble. Euler abstracted the problem represe, al sy, : . ' 7 four points aiid the seven bridges by seven ms th s in ts as in fig.2. In 1730, a walk is not possi four land areas by ning the porn eS oy arcs jot Fig. (2) Now the Konigsberg bridge problem is the same as the problen of drawing the figure 2, starting from any point and without lifting the pen from the paper and without retracing any line and coming back to the starting point. For solving this problem Euler developed some of the fundamental concepts of graph theory and thus laying the foundation for a new branch of mathematics. Euler became the father of graph theory. 3.2 Basic concept of Graphs (V, E) consists of a nonempl sl Definition 1: A graph G = V of elements called vertices (or nodes or points) and a sot E ay elements called edges (or lines). Each edge is associated with on : 5 en | more vertices, called its end points. An edge is said to connect I points. c Examples of graph D A ———_* A B 8 B C Aneo B A Cc D A B 7 D E 3.3 Graph A a? D Note : (1) The set V may be finite or infinite. ir yt V is an infinite set, then the graph G is called an infinite graph. w 's a finite set, then the graph G is called a finite graph. Here © consider only finite graphs. Q) |V| denote the number of vertices of V. 3 . ini y The edge set E may be empty. There need not exist edges 8 every pair of vertices, Ie; . : 'S associated with {u, v} we write e = uy aor . Discrete Matherg,, 34 - ; (V, E) where V = {a,b, c,d} Example : Let G E = {ey = ab, e, = ac, e, = ad} Then this graph can be represented by a diagram as in fig. 3 ang en this gi " the diagram itself will be referred to as a graph. a b c Fig. (3) erties Note : In drawing a graph the distance between any vena and the angle between any two edges have no meaning . “i ") oh This graph has 4 vertices and 3 edges. We call it as ; Definition 2 : (p, q) — graph is called + A graph G = (V, E) with p vertices and q edges (Pa) - graph. Jed a «calle A graph with only one vertex and no edges is © graph. Clearly a trivial graph is a (1, 0) graph. ‘ al oe he edge © Mf the end vertices of an edge coincide, then U loop. ic. e = (a, 4) is a loop. alle are called P# e\=(a,b) and ¢,=(a,b), then e, and e) ate © ses are . . eric’ Two or more Cdges having the same end ver edges or multiple edges. JL— raph Leo 3.5 nition 3: Simple graph : A graph G = (V, E) without loops Del 1 edges is called a simple graph. and without paralle ample figure 3 is a simple graph. Exi Note : We are mainly concerned with simple graphs only. Graphs having multiple edges or parallel edges are called multigraphs. Graphs having loops and multiple edges is called a Pseudograph. Remark : Some authors define Pseduograph as a graph having loops or multiple edges, but not both. Definition 4 : Incidence and adjacency. (i) Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If e =uv is an edge of G then u and v are called adjacent (or neighbours) in G. We say e is incident with u and v. (i) A vertex which is not adjacent to every other vertex is called an isolated vertex. (ii) A graph having only isolated vertices (and no edges) is called a null graph. Note : a “le: (1) A loop is incident with only one vertex. (2) A non-loop edge (or link) is incident with two vertices. Definition $ : If two or more edges are incident with the same Verte, % then they are said to be adjacent edges. A . 9e: 's ing Verlex of a graph is called a pendant vertex if only one edge Ncident with it Note . oy og ©: We do not use the terminologies of geometry 1 graph © do not say a vertex (or node or point) lies om an odge ine "*) oF an od Cdge passes through a vertex.7 36 Piscrete Mather, Example : Consider the graph in the fig. 4 and indic. ME all typ of vertices and edges. va es v2 €s vs Fig. (4) Vj, ¥2 are adjacent vertices; Vy, ¥3 are non adjacent vertices, Vo ¥3 Ya M4i Vay 4s Von V53— Vs, Vg are pairs of adjacent vertices, v, and v, are pendant vertices. V>, vg are isolated vertices. Ht inci ith v,. Cy» €n Cy @s are adjacent edges as they are all incident with v, wo 4 ‘ ncepts. In graph theory incidence and adjacency are important concep! So we add some more definitions. Definition 6 : Degree of a vertex f edges The degree of a vertex in a graph G is the ae vertex incident with it. A loop at a vertex contributes degree 2 to Degree of a vertex v is denoted by deg (v). Note : (1) 0 (2) If v is a pendant vertex deg (v) = 1. In fig, 4. deg (v,) = 1, deg (vy) = 4, deg (¥3) deg (v4) If v is an isolated vertex deg (v) I 2, deg (v5) = 2, deg (Yo) ~ deg (vz) = 0 and deg (%) = gt.yy Hele BI : Let G = (VY, E) be a graph and tet ovredes “and let vj, Vzy -~ Vq be n vertices, Grp e denote the haf Then 3 deg(v,;) = 2e i=l proof : Every non-loop edge is incident with two vertices and so vatutes 2 to the degree. Every loop edge contributes 2 to the con degree. +, every edge (loop or not) contributes 2 to the sum of degrees af the vertices. So all the e edges contribute 2e degrees. 0 “. sum of degrees of vertices i 2e I n > D deg(v,) = 2e i=1 Note : (1) The theorem says the sum. of degrees of vertices of a graph is always even. (2) The sum of degrees of vertices of a (p,q) graph is 2g. (3) The theorem is true even if loops and multiple edges are there. This theorem is sometimes referred to as ‘the handshaking theorem, because of the analogy between an edge and with two end points and a handshake involving two hands’. Tieorem 2 : The number of vertices of odd degree is even. Proot [AU 2012] wi Let G = (vy, E) be a graph. Let y, et 1 and V, be the set ‘of vertices of even degree and the se Yetces Of odd degree respectively in G. Then & d(v) “ee %)+ Yay) vev, il 2e 2eey 3.8 Discrete Math, ema ey Since deg(v) is even if v Ev, then > d(v) is even = 2k vey, Md(v) = 2e-2k ~ 2(e—k) = even vey, Since each d(v) is odd, each term is odd and their sum js even and hence the number of terms must be even, Hence there are even number of vertices of odd degree, 3.2.1 Some special simple graphs These special graphs occur in many applications and they have important properties. 1. Definition 7 : Complete graph A simple graph is called a complete graph if there is exactly one edge between every pair of vertices. A complete graph on n vertices is denoted by K,. Note: (1) The symbol K is used in honour of the Polish mathematician Kuratowski (1896 - 1980) who made significant contributions to the development of graph theory. e os, A B K, K, kK K.Graph theory (2) (3) (4) 3.9 The complete graph on 5 vertices Ks is referred to as Kuratowski’s first graph. ; n(n-1 Number of edges of K, is "CG, = afi and degree of each vertex is (n — 1). If we represent cach guest as a vertex of a complete graph, then the number of edges = the number of handshakes. Complete graphs are useful in modelling round-robin tournaments, where every team plays exactly once with every other team. K, provides the model if there are n teams in the tournament, taking teams an vertices. Definition 8 : Regular graphs : A simple graph is called regular if every vertex of the graph has the same degree. The degree of each vertex is called the degree of the graph. If each vertex of a regular graph has degree n, then the graph is called a n-regular graph. 1 regular 2 regular 2 regular and complete 3 regular 2 regular 3 regular se and completeoY VW a Discrete Mather hen, Note : MW is clear that any complete graph is regular, by » bur converse is not true, Some of the above regular graphs are NOt com, : Phere, Definition 9 : Cycles or cyclic graph or circuit Woevery vertex of a simple graph G is of degree 2, then ¢ ” dh called a eycle or cyclic graph or circuit. A cycle with n vertices is denoted by Cyn 2 3. Thus a cycle graph is 2-regular. Definition 10: Wheel graph W,, (n = 3) is obtained from C, bo | ) adding, a vertex v inside ©, and connecting v to every vertex of ¢, by new edges. The wheels W,, W,, W, and W,, are shown below. 6 \ \ \ v \ \ . w, w, w, Me graphs Note that wheels are not regular graphs, and not complete Definition VW: n-cubes Q, 1 is th She n-dimensional hypercube or n-cube denoted by 2," graph with cach vertex represeming one of the n-bit word’_ «raph eon 311 Ne . soe there are 2" bit strings of | . Since 8 length n, O, has 2" vertices, two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit Strings they represent giffer exactly in one position. - In otherwords, two vertices of Q, are adjacent if the Hamming distance between them is 1. 011 10 ul tu 001 J\_/ . | o—______-® 7 ho 00 01 999 100 Q Q, Q Note that Q, is 1-regular, Q, is 2-regular and Q, is 3-regular. Q, is simply called a cubic graph. Definition 12 ; Bipartite graph [AU 2011] » A simple graph G is called bipartite graph if its vertex set V can * Partitioned into two disjoint non-empty sets V, and V, such that ever . . . Y edge in G connects a vertex in V, and a vertex in V5. Note: (1) From the definition it is obvious that no edge connects Wo verti ertices erlices of V, or two vertices of V>. In other words, no two vertices fy, . Face 1 are adjacent and no two vertices of V, are adjacent. (2) . The pair (V,,V,) is a called a bipartition of V. (3) . A bipartite graph is also known as bigraph.a i Discrete Mathemay, TAU 2011 v2 ‘I We can partition it as V; = {Pr V3, vs} Vi = 2» Vay v%h Then the bipartite graph is vs V3 v6 So C, is bipartite. Example 2. Is K, bipartite? ML K, is va Here V = {¥p¥¥3} tee : woes two we can not partition V into disjoint sets, because here any vertices are adjacent. So K, is not bipartite.Graph theo” G bipartite? “M1 Nz example 3. Is Yo vs v4 G v= {PY Vay Vago Vsp ve} We cannot partition V into two disjoint subsets because v. 2 is adjacent to every other vertex and Ve is adjacent to every other vertex. ". the graph G is not bipartite. Definition 13 : Complete bipartite graph Let G = (V, E) be a bipartite graph with bipartition (V,, V3). If there is an edge of G connecting every vertex in V, and in V,, then G is called a complete bipartite graph. I |Vj=m, | V, | =n then the complete bipartite graph is denoted by Kn 4 , When m and n are the number of vertices in V, and in V, respectively. Note: In a complete bipartite graph K,,, (i) the number of vertices is m + (i) the number of edges is mn see -< called Kuratowshi’s (iii) the complete bipartite graph K,, 's called Second graph. (iv) Kaan iS not regular if m #7”, Discrete Mathemai f K,, is shown here : ‘1 v3 vs ve v2 va 6 The next theorem gives a criterion to determine a bipartite graph Theorem 3 : A simple graph G is bipartite if and only if it is Possible to assign one of two different colours to each vertex of the graph so that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same colour. Proof : Let G = (V, E) be a bipartite graph and let (V;, Vo) be a bipartition of V. That is V= ViUV, and VinV, =@¢9 . eis 7 : i d Since G is bipartite every edge in E connects a vertex in V, a a vertex in V,. . : other If we assign one colour say red to each vertex in V, and au 2 . ices ate colour green to each vertex in V,, then no two adjacent verti assigned the same colour. H iM , adjacem Conversely, let us assign different colours red and green (0 vertices in G, e stl be the Let V; be the set of vertices with red colour and V3 of vertices with green colour. Then it is obvious (V,,V,) is a partition of V. da” - * al Further every edge of E connects a vertex in V; in Vy. Hence G is bipartite. Hence the theorem. fe.ory Graph the’ pefinition 14 + Subgraph Let G=(V,E) be a graph. A graph H=(V,,£,) is called a cubgraph of G if V, CV and EY CE. H is a proper subgraph of G if H#G. Example : Let G be the graph in fig. V3 © es v i ¢s V5 e1 ve v4 G N3 “v v3 M e “—, e) 3 e) e3 e ey ; v2 5 v4 e es 4 NG e. ‘2 v2 ’ 73 ca v4 H H 1 Hy H, : "Hy, Hy, Hy, are clearly sub graphs of G. Note: (1) G itself is a subgraph, by definition. (2) Every vertex is a subgraph. (3) Every edge with its end points is a subgraph Pefinition 18 + If Hf = (V,, E,) is a subgraph of G = (WE) and \ "sv then H is called a spanning subgraph of G. A spanning “tberaph of G need not contain all the edges of G Note The null br * Every graph G is a spanning subgraph of G "Dh-com . sao cube) G. aining all vertices of G is a spanning subgraph of GDiscrete Mathematics an be obtained from a given graph G by removin certain edges. It should be noted that when . re not removed. Subgraphs ¢ certain vertices and ¢ edge is removed, its end points a But when a vertex is removed, all edges with this as an end point are removed. Definition 16 : Deleted subgraph : Let G = (V,E) be a graph. If a subset U of vertices are deleted, then the remaining graph is called a vertex deleted subgraph, and is denoted by G-U. If a subset F of edges are removed, then the remaining graph is called edge deleted subgraph, and is denoted by G-F. G-F = (V, E-F) Definition 17 : Induced subgraph Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Let V, be a non-emply subset of V. The subgraph H of G whose vertex set is Vj and whose edge set is the set of those edges of G which have both ends in V, is called the induced subgraph of G induced by V,. We denote it by GM) Examples : | CC \ IT v4 V5 vg v1 ‘ 7 v4 vg G Spanning subgraph of G (2) Ys v6 "1 M4 va “7 v2 vy ‘5 . v2 vs Vy) G induced subgraph of OM , vy, ith V, = (pha ts? §theory 3.17 Graph it G= (VE) where |V| =m, |E| =n and |V|, |E| Note * * denote the number of clements in V and E respectively, then the total number of non-empty subsets of V is Met Meg ti. + ey = 2-1 and the total number of subsets of E is MC HMC, + PCy He FACE a (because we have graphs without any edge, null graph). The total number of subgraphs = Q™ —1).2" For spanning subgraphs vertex set must be V, so total number of spanning subgraphs = 2°. Definition 18 : Union of graphs Let G.=(V,, E,) and G, = (V,, E,) be any two simple graphs. The union of G, and G, is the simple graph G whose vertex set is YUV, and edge set is E, UE, and we write G= G, UG, Definition 19 : Intersection of graphs Let G,=(V,,E,) and G, = (V,, E,) be any two simple graphs. The intersection of G, and Gy, is the simple graph G whose vertex set Is . YOY, and edge set is E, ME, and we write G=G,NG, Eample : va vs. Discrete Matheray, Vy, {e¥a V3, vy}. Y= {¥. Var ¥5 5 vs E, fenenevea} E, = {eo € 5 CG ey} » G = G,UG, VjUV, = {rp %¥y 5% E, U E, = {eves C35 ly Csr gy er} G = V,UV,, E, VE) Now V, NV, = {35 va} , ENE, = {es} ve G = G,NG, is v3 Definition 20 : Complement Graphs d the complemet! tof G and uct tices Let G be a simple graph, then the graph Gis calle graph of G if the vertex set of G is the same as thal that two vertices of G are adjacent if and only if those ver! non-adjacent in G. Example : v4 “ va v3 2 vy v2 Gtheory 3.19 raph vate () G= i) na complete graph K, every pair of vertices are adjacent. ( Therefore in its complement K, no pair of vertices are adjacent, So K, has no edges. Hence K, is a null graph with n_ vertices. iii) Let G be any graph with n vertices. The vertices which are not adjacent in G are adjacent in G. So in GUG every pair of vertices are adjacent and so it is the complete graph K,. Example 1. Find the number of vertices, number of edges and the degree of each vertex. Verify the handshaking theorem. vi v: 4 3 2 v3 v6 vs . (i) (ii) ew vi va v5 Soluti . olution : (j) IV\=5, |E| = 10 5, deg (v3) = 4 deg (v)) = 3, deg (v5) 5 Ml deg (%4) = 3, deg (v5) ~ 2deg(v) = 345444345 = 20 = 2e, where e=|F | yy =7,|E| = 12 deg (v,) = 3, deg (vy) = 4 dew (v3) ~ &3.20 Discrete Mather, icy deg (v4) 4, deg (v5) = 6 deg (v,) = 3, deg (vz) = 0 - deg (wv) = 3444444464340 = 24 = 212 = 2e,e=|E|=12 Example 2. Determine |V| for the following graphs (i) G has 9 edges and all vertices have degree 3. (ii) G is regular with 15 edges (iii) ¢ has 10 edges with two vertices of degree 4 and all others of degree 3, (iv) G is regular of degree 4 with 10 edges. Solution : Let | V | =n. Given each vertex has degree 3. “ Sideg(v) = 3n veV By handshaking theorem © deg (v) = 2e >3n =2x9 en = 6 ". number of vertices | V| =6 (ii) Given G is regular with 15 edges. Let |V| =n. . . r Since G is regular all the vertices have same degree “ Zdeg(v) = nr Since e = 15, by handshaking theorem nr W 2x15 = 30 n = 1 or 2 or 3 or 5 or 6 or 10 oF sor (i) Let |V | =n. Given e = 10 347° 2 vertices are of degree 4, +. their total degre’ =" . 2 Each of the remaining (n — 2) vertices are of deat dftheory. (ap their total = 3 (nm — 2) BY handshaking theorem Zdeg v = 2¢ >= 84+3(n-2) = 2x19 > +2 = 03 = ong (iv) Let |V| =n, then & deg (v) u 4n > 2x10 =4nen=5 Example 3. If all the vertices of an undirected graph are each of odd degree K, show that the number of edges of the graph is a multiple of K. [AU 2010] Solution : Let G be a graph with n vertices and let each vertex is of odd degree K. We know the number of vertices of odd degree is even. Since all the vertices are of odd degree, n is even, say 2m 2m . But by hand-shaking theorem ); deg(v) = 2e, where ¢ is the T number of edges. 2m = mK >>K = 2e > 2mK = 2e 7 € = 1 Thus the number of edges is a multiple of K. 7 E such zi ices, A, B,C, Ds Example 4. Draw the graph with 5 vertices, degC) = 28 that deg (A) = 3, B is an odd vertex, rau 200 D and E are adjacent. ’ E. Solution ; Given the vertices are A, B.C: P a B is odd HRA) = 3, deg(C) = 2, D and E are adjacent 3 = 3, deg = 2, “gree,3.22 Discrete Matheney ics D E or A c B Example 5. Draw the complete graph Ky with vertices A, B, C, D, E. Draw all complete subgraphs of K, with 4 vertices, [AU 2010] A Solution : The complete graph K, is fig. 1 we have to find the subgraphs E B of Ks with 4 vertices c D fig. 1 When a vertex is omitted the edges adjacent with it will also be omitted. We shall list all possible subgraphs with 4 vertices. A, A A B B B E E > Cc Cc Cc D B E B E ~ © D Cc D Thus we have 5 subgraphs of Ks with 4 vertices. _ eea Graph theory a . 3.23 Let G be a (p, q) graph. Let ‘M’ be the maximum Example 6. ‘ degree of the vertices of G and let m be the minimum degree of the vertices of G. Show that m < 24 deg (v,) = 24 T and M = deg(v;) Wy “ip > Mp = > deg(y) = 24 i=1 mp < 24 =Mp > m<4em P Example 7, Let G be a n-regular bigraph with bipartition Wu ¥2) and n> 0. Prove that | V, | =| V2! Solution : Given G = (V,E) is bipartite with bipartition Wp") s v=VubV, and V,NV,=¢ Further G is regular with degree of each vertex 7. ws : i and one __ Since G is bipartite, every edge of G has one end i" mar nd in b,. Discrete Mathematics deg) = SY deg(v) = 4 w (1) vey, vev, [where q is the number of edges of G| Also deg (”) = 2 VVEV = V,UV, Hence D deg(v) = 2 |V,| and Dd deg(v)=n| Vy | vevV, veV, .alVjl=nlIKleIWlelhl larg Example 8. For any simple bipartite graph G with e edges and v vertices, prove that e <* Solution : Let G be a bipartite graph with bipartition (V,,V,) and lt |V,| =m, |V,| =n .v=smtn we know the number of edges of a bipartite graph is maximum when it is complete bipartite graph K,, ,. So the maximum number of edges is mn. “. the number of edges of G smn » > esmn _ . iM] We know min > Vmn [ AM2& 2 : (moat >mn>e {using (0) = ¥ 2e weat 4 7 <4Graph_theory ; 3.25 Example 9. Prove that any self complementary graph has 4n or 4 or vertices. nt Solution : Let G = (V, E) be a self complementary graph with P vertices. Since G is self complementary, |VG)| = | VG) | and | E(G)| = \E(G) We know GUG = K, Where K, is the complete graph with p vertices. LEU )| = PC, = 22D br any 2 vertices pre on et > |E(G)|+|E@)|= ea [Gand G have no common edge -1 ° 2\E@|= 22-9 > |E@|= eat) is an integer. Since one of p or p—1 is odd, 4 must divide one of p orp} “porp-lisa multiple of 4. =p =4norp-1> "7? 4n +1 das the number of Note : The above result may also be stated ay INS “entices y = Q or 1 (mod 4).39 ___B Wahug, Aticy Example 10. Show that the total number of simple graphs vt p(p-}) p vertices is 2 2 = nh, say. Solution : Given that there are p vertices. Joining any two Verte . ‘§ we get an edge. So the number of edges formed is pc, <2 =D) Cy 2 = Nn, say A simple graph with p vertices may have 0 edge (null gra) 1 edge, 2 edges, 3 edges, ..., n edges. So the number of such graphs will be Coy Cy "Cy sans 8Cy, - total number of simple graphs with p vertices. = "Cyt "C, + *C, +... + "C, [sum of all binomial coefficients in (1 +2)'] I ay Example 11. Prove that any graph G with 6 vertices is such that either G or G contains a triangle, . Ve, Y Solution : Let G be a graph with the 6 vertices Vy) Yq "3 "# a v4 N3 “i @ v2 % @ ‘I; 3.27 Graph theory Consider ¥- It is adjacent to the other vertices either in Gor G. Without loss of generality we may assume that v, is adjacent to three vertices V2, V3» Y4- If any two of these three vertices are adjacent, then they form a triangle with vj. If these three vertices are mutually adjacent then they form a triangle in G. Suppose no two of these three vertices are adjacent in G, then they are adjacent is-G and so they form a triangle in G. Further, if 1, Ys, Vg are mutually non adjacent in G, then they are mutually adjacent in G and so they form a triangle in G. Thus in any case G or G contains a triangle. Example 12. Show that in any group of two or more people, there will be two people with exactly the same number of friends inside the group. Solution : Let there be n people. We shall construct a graph G with the People as vertices Vis Voy vy Vas We connect two vertices, if these two people are friends. Then deg v = number of friends of v. So we have to only prove that at least two vertices of G have the “ame degree, Clearly 9 < degv, , 3:30 Discrete Mathema, Here p=5 -. p-1 = 4 and so cach dS p~1 = 4, so, it can be graphic. ML The graph is vs v2 v4 “3 (ii) The sequence is 4, 4, 4, 3, 2 Sum of the terms = 4+4+4+3+42 = 17, which is odd. So, it is not graphic. There is no simple graph with this as degree sequence. (iii) The sequence is 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. Sum of the terms = 5+4+3+2+1 = 15, which is odd aud so it is not graphic. (iv) The sequence is 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, 2 Sum of the terms = 6+54+4+4+3+2 = 4 Here p=6 -. p-1 = 5. Since 6 € 5, it is not graphic. (v) The sequence is 1, 1, 1, 1, 1. Sum of terms = 1+1+1+1+1 = 5, which is odd. So it is not graphic. (vi) The sequence is 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1. Sum of the terms = 54443424141 = 16 ee p=6-.p-1=5