Chapter 5: Fluid Kinematics 175 i eu ov Ow , = AS OW in Ean. (5.7) SS in Ean. (57) ‘Tangential and normal acceleration: Refer to Fig. 5.1. When the motion is cuvilinear equ. 5.16 gives the ‘angential acceleration. A particle moving in a curved path will always have a nommal acceleration a, z towards the centre of the curved path (7 being the radius of the path, though its tangeutial acceleration (a, ) may be zero as inthe case of uniform circular motion, For motion along a curved path, in gencral, a=a,+a, _(p@ = (re Fe) (5.19) 5.3. TYPES OF FLUID FLOW Fluids may be classified as follows: Steady and unsteady flows Uniform and non-uniform flows One, two and three dimensional flows Rotational and irotational flows Laminar and turbulent flows Compressible and incompressible flows. 5.3.1. Steady and Unsteady Flows Steady flow. The typeof flow in which the fui characteristics like velocity, pressure, desiy te. at a point do nor change with time is called steady flow, Mathematically, we have: 7 a (Bann Fn Has (2) (Bean ‘where (rp. 3p- 2) sa fixed point in a fui field where these variables are being measured time. Example. Flow through a prismatic or non-prismatic conduit ata constant flow rate Q mts is steady. (Aprismatie conduit has a constant size shape and has a velocity equation inthe form ‘nx + c, which is independent of time 0. Unsteady flow. It is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point change wt. time, Mathematically, we have: (3) +0: (2) 2o(2 20 a.m Bt aya5% NO Ia 3 (2) -0(®)_ -tantoon OTs suitg Ot Laity Pr196, Fluid Mechanics Example. The flow ina pipe whose valve ts being opened or closed gradual (velacity equation ts inthe form u = ar + bet). 5.3. . Uniform and Non-uniform Flows ‘Unlform flow. The type of flow, in which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space is called 2miform flow. Mathematically, we have: (z Fs where, OV = Change in velocity, and 3 = Displacement in any direction, Example. Flow through a straight prismatic conduit (ie. flow through a straight pipe of constant diameter). ‘Non-uniform flow. Its that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to space. Mathematically, =o Example. (f) Flow through a non-prismatie conduat (i) Flow around a uniform diameter pipe-bend or a canai bend. 5.3. One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows ‘One dimensional flow. Its that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as velocity isa function of time and one space co-ordinate only. Mathematically: = S(X)v =Oand w=0 where u, v and w are velocity components in x y and = directions respectively. Example. Flow in a pipe where average flow parameters are considered for analysis ‘Two dimensional flow. The flow in which the velocity is @ function of time and two rectangular space coordinates is called two dimensional flow. Mathematically: w= fry) ve Ae. w=0 Examples. (i) Flow benveen parallel plates of infinite extent. Fig, 5.2. One dimensional flow. (i) Flow in the main stream of a wide river. ‘Three dimensional flow. Itis that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions. “Mathematically: n= Ae v= AG. Aes) Fig. 5.3. Two dimensional flow. Examples. (9) Flow ina converging or diverging pipe or channel (1). Flow ina prismatte open channel in which the width and the water depth are of te same onder of magninideChapter 5: Fluid Kinematics 177 5.3, a cca ota Tea MSG ational low. A flow ix sid to be rotevona if the Mul particles while moving ‘a the izetion of flow rtae about tics mas cues. Fl near the sold boundaries rotational Example. Motion of liquid in a rotating tank. Irvottlonl flow. A flow is sid to be froiational if the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow Boat route al Wet he cates, Poeun tas boundary layer is generally considered irrotational. Example. Flow above a drain hole of a stationary tank ara washbasin BRIER rte tow is iztaonal as wll assed, itis town as Poet flow 5.3.5. Laminar and Turbulent Flows ‘Laminar flow. A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the individual particles do not crass ne anather and move alg well defined paths (Fig. 5.3), This type of ow is ls called ‘stream-line flow or viscous flow Examples. (f) Flow through a capillary nube. (G0, Fow of blood inves and arteries (i) Ground wate fo ‘Tarbolen flow. A tubulent fw is that ow in which Dud particles move ina zigzag way ig 35) “Example. High velocity flow in a conduit of large size. Neary all fuid flow problens encounter mn onemecrng practice have a nobulen character Fig. 5.4. Thee dimensional flow. Fig. 5.5. Laminar flow. Fig. 5.6. Turbulent low. Laminar and turbulent flows are characterised on the basis of Reynolds number (refer to chapter 10). For Reynolds number (Re) < 2000 flow in pipes is laminar For Reynolds number (Re) » 4000 flow in pipes is nurbulent For Re between 2000 and 4000 flow in pipes may be laminar or turbulent. 5.8. . Compressible and Incompressible Flows ‘Compressible flow: Its that type of flow an which the density (p) ofthe uid changes from point to point (or in ter words density is not constant for ths flo). “Mathematically: p> constant. Example. Flow of gases through orifices, nozzles. gas turbines, etc. Incompressible flow. It is thar pe of flow in which density is constant forthe fluid flow Liquids ave generaily considered flowing incompressibly. Mathematically: = constant. Example. Subsonic aerodynamics.oe Fluid Mechanics 5.4, TYPES OF FLOW LINES ‘Whenever a fluid isin motion, its innumerable particles move along certain lines depending upon the conditions of flow. Although flow lines are of several types, yet some important from subject point of view are discussed in the following subarticles. 5.4.1. Path line A path line Fig, 5.7) isthe path followed by a fluid particte in motion. A path line shows the direction of particular particle as it moves ahead. In general, this is the curve in three-dimensional space. However, if the conditions are such that the flow is two-dimensional the curve ‘becomes two-dimensional 5.4.2. Stream line 1 A stream tine way be defined as an? imaginary line within the flow so that the > tangent at any point on it indicates the velocity Fig.5.7.Pathlines, ‘at that poim. Equation of a stream fine in a three-dimensional flow is given as: «oe say Following points about streamlines are worth noting: a 1, Astreamline mersect itself, nor two streamlines can cross 2, There cannot be any movement of the fuid mass across the — streamlines. 3. Streamline spacing varies inversely a the velocity; converging of streamlines in any particular direction shows accelerated flow in that direction. 4, Wheteas a path ine gives the path of one particular particle at sccessive instants of time, a streamline indicates the direction of a munber of particles atthe same instant. 5. The series of streamlines represent the flow pattern a an instant @ In steady flow, the pattem of streamlines remains invariant with time. The path lines and streamlines will then be identical. In rnsteady flow, the patter of streamlines may or may not remain the same at the next instant. Fig. 5.8. Streamline. 5.4.3. Stream Tube A stream tube isa fluid mass bounded by a group of streamiines. The contents of a stream tube are known as ‘current filament’ / == Fig. 5.9. Stream tube.Chapter 5: Fuld Kinematics 177 A Examples of stream tube: Pipes ond nozzles Following points about stream tube are worth noting: 1. The stream tube has finite dimensions, 2, As there is no flow perpendicular to stream lines, therefore, there is no Hlow across the surface (Called streain surface) of the stream tube, The stream surface functions as if it were a solid wall, 3. The shape of a stream tube changes ftom one instant to another because of change in the position of streamlines, . Streak Line ‘The streak line is a curve which gives an instamaneous picture of the location of the fluid articles, which have passed through a given point. Examples. (O) The path taken by smoke coning out of chimney (Fig. 5.10) (In an experimental work to race the motion of fluid particles, a coloured ave ‘may be injected into the flowing. fluid and the resulting coloured flament lines ‘ata given location give the steak lines (Fig S.11) 1m case ofa steady flow there is no geomesical distinction between the streamlines, path ines and streak lines: they are coincident if they originate atthe same point. For an instead flow (eg. a person ving ou whiff of smoke ftom cigarette), th path, streak and steam lines ane all different Sweakline > Nozzle ‘Smoks enero Dye injected Fig. 5.10. Streakline of smoke issuing from anczale. Fig. 5.11. Streaklinesat r= 1. Example $1. In a fluid, the velocity eld is given by P= (Gxt 21+ G2+3x)j+(2-39k Determine: @ The velocity components u,v, w at any point in the flow field; (ii) The speed at point (, 1,1): Ai) The speed at time t=2s at pon (0,0, 2) iso classifi the velocity field as stead, or wisteady, uniform or non-uniform and one, hwo or ‘re dimensional Solution. Given: Velocity field, (@ Velocity components: The velocity components are: = Ge+2 1+ @+a)J+@I-3Nk 3x +29, ¥~ Qe +30), w= Qr—3z) (Ans) (i Speed at point (1,1, 1), Vay, ‘Substituting x= 1, ‘in the expressions for n, v and w, we have: u = G42)=5,v=@+3)=5,w= (20-3) Pa tetietChapter 10 LAMINAR FLOW 10.1.Iniroduction 10.2. Reynolds experiment 10.3. Navier Stokes equations of motion 10.4, Relationship between shear stress ond pressure gradient 10.5. Flow of viscous fluid in 10.6. Flow of viscous fluid through on annulut 10.7, Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates—One- Plate moving and other at test—Couette flow—Both Plates at rest—Both plates moving in opposite direction 10.8. Laminar flow through porous medka 10.9. Power absorbed in becainge—Jounal beating Foot step beating Collar beating 10.10. Los: of head due fo fiction in viscous flow 10.11. Movernent of piston in dashpot 10.12.Measurement of vscosty— Rotating oyinder method —Faling sphere method — Copilary tube method — Effax viscometers Highlights Objective Type Questions Thecretical Questions Unsolved Examples (0.1, INTRODUCTION So far, in the preceding chapters, primarily the flow of an ideal fuid has been discussed. In the case of ‘Newtonian fui, the flows cam be classified as (laminar (orviscous), and (i) ruzbulent, depending on characteristic Reynolds number PY! where J is the characteristic length. " Examples of laminar/viscons flow: () Flow past tiny bodies (i Underground flow. (ii) Movement of blood in he eteries ofa human bod (®) Flow of oil in measuring instruments, (@) Rise of water in plants through their roots ete Characteristics of laminar flow: (‘No slip’ at the boundary. (ii) Due to viscosity, there is a shear between fluid layers. which i given by += +4 for ow in X-direction, (iii) The flow is rotational. (») Due to viscous shear, there is continuous cssipa- ton of energy and for maintaining the flow energy smuust be supplied extemally (0) Loss of eneray is proportional to frst power of ‘velocity and first power of viscosity: (i) No mixing between different fui layers (exeept ‘by molecular motion, which is very small). (GHP) The flow retains lansinar as long as Mis eas than critical value of Reynolds number. 534Chapter 10: Laminar Flow —- 535 /10.2., REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT (Osborne Reynolds in 1883, with the help of a simple experiment (see Fig. 10.1), demonstrated the existence of the following two types of flows: “Tank containing dye Constant head tank ‘Gass tube I 2x2 lament Regulating valve Fig.10.1. Reynolds apparatus. 1. Laminar low (Reynolds number, Re <2000) 2. Turbulent flow (Reynolds number, Re> 4000) (Re between 2000 and 4000 indicates transition from Iamsinar to turbulent flow) Reynolds experiment: Apparatus: Refer to Fig. 10.1. Reynolds experiment apparatus consisted essentially ofthe following: 1. A constant head tank filled with water, 2, A small tank containing dye (sp. weight of dye same as that of water) 3, Ahotizonal glass abe provided with a bell mouthed entrance, and 4, Aegulating valve Procedure followed: ‘The water was made to flow fiom the tank trough the slass tube into the atmosphere and the velocity of flow was varied by adjusting valve. The liquid dye was introduced into the flow at the bell mouth through a small tube as shown in Fig, 10.1. Observations made: 1. When the velocity of flow was low, the dye remained in the form of a straight and stable “filament passing through the glass tue so steadily that it scarecely seemed to be in motion “This was a case of laminar flow as shown in Fig. 102 (a) 2, With the increase of velocity a critical state was Dye flesed reached at which the dye filament showed irregulari- ss fies nd began to waver (see Fig. 10.28). This shows thatthe flow is no longer laminar one. This was a tvansitional state. @ werrame 9. With further increase in velocity of low the fluctuations in the filament of dye became more intense and ultimately the dye diffused over the entire cow-scton ofthe tbe, di othe inte 0) ikon Rie ‘mingling ofthe particles ofthe flowing fluid. This ‘was the case of a turbulent flow as shown in Fig. 102) © aaa = Is discovered Fid+10.2. Appearance of dye filament in On the basis of his expetiment Reynolds discovered 8-10, Appearances and (¢ turbulent flow.536, Fluid Mechanics (@ Incase of laminar flow: The loss of pressure head «velocity (2) Tn case of turbulent flow: The loss of head is approximately x [More exactly the loss of head oc 1" where n varies from 1.75 to 2.0] Fig. 10.3 shows the apparatus used by Reynolds for estimating the loss of head in a pipe by ‘measuring the pressure difference over a known length of the pipe. (@ The velocity of water inthe pipe was deteamined by measuring the volume of water (Q) col lected in the tank overa known period of ume (7 = 2 where 4 is dhe area of cross-section Fig. 10.3. Loss ofhead ina pipe. (i) The velocity of flow (7) was changed and corresponding values of Joss of head) were obtaincel, (iii) A graph was plotted between F (velocity of flow) and 1 (loss of head). Such a graph is shown in Fig. 10.4 ‘Turbulent flow (igh veloises) atmnay be seen ftomithe graph that: t (@ Atlow velocities the curve is a straight line, nya indicating thatthe /i,(loss of head) is directly. "/ i proportional to veloci-—the flow is laminar eee (or viscous), ana ®) Athigher velocities the curve is parabolic: in this range ipo P*, where the value of 7 Hes between 1.75 to 2.0 —the flow is turbulent. (© Inthe intermediate region, there isa transition re zone. This is shown by dotted tine. Fig. 104 ‘Reynolds num ‘Reynolds from his experiments found that the nature of flow in a closed conduit depends upon, the following factors (@ Diameter of the pipe (D). (Gi) Density ofthe liquid (p). (i Viscosity ofthe Hiquid (i), and (jx) Velocity of ow (1) By combining the above variables Reynolds detennined a non-dimensional quantity equal to ce which is known as Reynolds number (Re). (Low velocities) jeReynoldsmmber Re = FPChapter 10 Laminar Flow 537 i (ta general cas Dis seplced by L, known as characteristic length and we have, Re = LE It may also be expressed as: nea 2 where, vy = Kinematic viscosity (-4) when, Re < 2000 the flow is /aminar (or viscous) Re > 4000 the flow is turbulent. Re between 2000 and 4000 the flow is unpredictable. Critical Reynolds number : ‘© Allexperiments agree that a lower limit of critical value of (Re),, exists (though there appears to be no definite upper limit ofthe critical value of (Re),, which characterises full attainment of turbulence) and its value is approximstely 2000 (for circular pipe). This lower critical Reynolds mumber is of greater engineering importance as it defines the lint Below which ail turbulence, no matter how severe, entering the flow from any source will eventual be damped out by viscous action ‘© Trhas been observed that the upper limit ofcritcal Reynolds mumber (Re),, depends upon the following factors (Initial rasbulence in the flow (approach), Shape of the pipe entrance, and (ri) Koughness of pipe Reynolds found the upper limit of (Re), to lie between 12000 < (Re),, < 14000: these values are of litle practical interest and we may cotsider the upper limit of (Re),, fo be defined by 2700 < eg < 4000. —. For demarcating the regimes of laminar and turbulent flows, the concept of critical Reynolds ‘umber proves quite use The lower critical Reynolds mumber for some important cases are as under: @@),=1 for sphere (i) Re),,= 50 for open channels (ii (Re),,= 1000 for parallel plates. 10.3, NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS OF MOTION Refer to Fig. 10.5. Consider an infinitly small mass of fluid enciosed in an clemantary parallelopiped of sides dx, ‘dy and de. The motion of the fluid element is influenced by the following forces @ Normal forces due to pressure : ‘The net pressure force in the X-direction =pay ae-[p+ Bas|ay.c & 7 Pav. dy dz (i) Gravity or bods force Let B be the body force per unit mass of fuld having components B,, B, and B, in the X, 7 and Z directions respectively. Then, the body force acting on the parallelopiped in the direction of X-coordinateChapter 11 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Loss of head due to MEE NTHODUCTION ficken In piseHioN— In pipe, a laminar flow occurs when Reynolds Darey equation number (Re) is less than 2000 and a turbulent flow 11.3. Characteristics of turbulent o€curs when Re > 4000, In a turbulent flow, the fluid fen, ‘motion is imegular and chaotic and there is complete 11.4. Shear stresses in turbulent mixing of fluid due to collision of fuid masses with flow fone another. The fluid masses are interchanged between 5 q adjacent layers. AS the fluid masses in adjacent layers 118. Unreal veo abu. Siete Ass nl et 11.6. Hvdrodvnamicaly smooth —_PetWeen the adjacent Iyers is accompanied by a transfer rani rocight acaiicaiee ‘of momentum which causes additional shear stresses veloclly disibution for of high magnitude between adjacent layers. The shear SST arco in turbulent flow is mainty due to momentum transfer. ipes—veloctty disnbution for The contribution of fluid viscosity to total shcar is small futbulent flow in rough pipes and isusually neglected. In case of laminar flow, because 11.7. Velocity distibution for bath of definite functional relationship “between shear stress smooth and rough pipes die to viscosity and velocity’ it has been possible to 11.8. Veloctly distoution for derive © mathematical relationship for evaluation of fubulent flow ln smooth energy dissipation or frictional head but such a simple pipes by power law relationship does not exist for turbulent flow. However to 11.9. Resistance fo flow of flu in solve some of the practical problems, efforts have been smooth and rough pipes made io evolve semi-empirical theories of turbulence. Hightights Following points are worth noting about turbulem flow Objective Type Questions ( The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more Theoretical Questions ‘uniform than in laminar flow. Unsolved Examples (i) Tn turbulent flow the velocity gradients near the boundary shall be quite large resulting in more shear (ii) in turbulent flow the flatness of velocity distri- bution curve in the core region away from the Fig. 11.1. Shows the velocity distribution wall is because of the mixing of fluid layers and ‘curves for laminar and turbulent exchange of momentum between them. flowsina pipe. (i) The velocity distribution which is paraboloid in laminar flow, tends to follow power law and logarithmic law in turbulent flow 605,LN 606 Fluid Mechanics (+) Random orientation of fluid partcies ina tuxbulent flow gives rise to additional tresses, called the Reynolds stresses. (0) Fonmation of eddies, mixing and curving of path lines in a turbulent flow results in much, seater ftictional losses forthe same rate of discharge, viscosity and pipe size ‘The turbulent motion can be classified as follows: 1, alt tarbuience. 1 occuxs in immediate vicinity of solid surfaces and in the boundary layer flows where the fluid has a negligible mean acceleration 2, Free turbulence. Weoceurs in jets, wakes, mixing layers etc. 3. Convective turbulence. It takes place whete there is conversion of PE into K.B. by the pro- cess of mixing (e.g. the turbulent flow in the anmular space between the concentric rotating cylinder, conventional flow betwreen parallel horizontal plates et.) LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPE FLOW-DARCY EQUATION In case of turbulent flow through pipes it has been observed through experiments that the viscous fiction effects associated with fluid are proportional to: (® The length of the pipe, Z, (The wetted perimeter, P, and (iii) V", where Vis the average velocity of flow and n is an index varying from 1°5 to 2 (@epending on the material and nature of the pipe surface); for commercial pipes = 2 (with turbulent flow). Fig. 11-2. shows a horizontal pipe having steady flow, Consider contol volume enclosed between sections 1 and 2 of the pipe. Fig. 11.2. Forces on a control volume ina pipe flow. Let, Intensity of pressure at section 1, Intensity of pressure at section 2, Length of the pipe, between sections 1 and 2, Diameter ofthe pipe. ‘Non-dimensional factor (whose value depends upon the material and nature of the pipe sua fave), aul hig = Loss of head due to fiction, Propelting force on the flowing Mid between the two sections is = O-P)A (where, 4 = area of cross-section of the pipe) Frictional resistance force =f" PLY where, P= Wetted perimeter, and ¥ = Average flow velocity.‘Chapter 1: Turbulent Flow in Pipes 607 I EE ‘Under equilibrium conditions: Propelling force = Frictional resistance force ie. (yp) 4 =f PL Dividing both sides by weight density w, we have: Ja = Lor (ae « ne £[2 ox y= EE) Bk 4yF ALY w 2g wm 2g tt) The ratio % i called the nydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius, denoted by m (oF 8). i 2ef' imonsi i Theterm | x a has dimensions of hang thus the term 78 js non-dimensional quantity and let us replace it by another constant y= S f1u@1 In case ofa circular pipe. we @ Hyon mean depth. = 3 Substituting this value i eqn, (11-1 (2), we gt: = fx oF te N= S* ope Dale (112) (The factor fis known as Darcy coefficient of friction.) Eqn, (11-2) is known as Darey-Weisbach equation and it holds good for all npes of flows provided a proper value of fis chosen. Sometimes eqn. (11-2) is written as: a - SEP 4” Daag where, fis enown as friction factor (f,~ 4) Expression for co-efficient of friction in terms of shear stres: Referto Fig 112, (,—p3) A = Force due to shear stress, ty (vere, rq = shear stress atthe pipe wall) ‘Shear stress (x,) = surface area eg TON RDL or, (Py) GD? = 3% ADL on, (ora = wh aeyeL or, @-p) = = (13)A 608 Fluid Mechanics Eqn. (11-2) can be writen as: My fly? or, ©\-2) = Sag" ana) Equating equs. (11-3) and (11-4). we get: fol = AM" D ~ Dele _ Pw _ I xog _ Sov? or, al 15 @) a pe Be [15] or 11.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBULENT FLOW ‘The turbulent flow is characterised by random, irregular and haphazard movement of fluid particles. Ithas been observed during experimentation that at any fixed point in turbulent field, the velocity and consequent the pressure fluctuates with time about a mean value. Fig. 11.3. Variation ofu with time tata pointin turbulent flow. Fig. 11-3 shows random velocity fluctuations at a point in turbulent flow. ‘The instantaneous velocity 1c. velocity at any time at the given point can be expressed as: ua new AL-6) where, 1 = Instantaneous velocity, i = Time average of temporal mean velocity. and uw" = Velocity uctuation (fiuetuating component). Similarly, vs ver, ws mew, and, p> B+p LT) From the definition of average-velocities, we have: (11-8)Ghapter Il: Turbulent Flow in Pipes 607 I EE Lata =H'=0; 1 fea a > 2 ans) 2 fa =w =o where, = Large interval of time, “Magnitude of turbulence ~ Arithmetic mean of root-mean square Value of turbulent fluctuations in the thre iretions ~ Fa) - [fe are | ato) 3 Intensity of turbulence PP ae a -L3 arp where, 7 ~Line average resultant velocity tthe point. For describing the mrbulence fully, besides the intensity of turbulence, the average size of the eddy is also necessary which ean be obtained from the curve of velocity variation with time (as shown in Fig. 11-3) by multiplying the average time interval at which the curve crosses the mean value, with the average velocity of flow. 11.4, SHEAR STRESSES IN TURBULENT FLOW In turbulent flow, as stated earlier, velocity fluctuations canse momentum transport which results in developing additional shear stresses of high magnitude between adjacent layers of the fluid. In order to determine the maanimade ofthe turbulent shear stress a number of semi-empirical theories have been developed some of which are discussed below. 1-4-1 Boussinesq’s Theory According to this theory (1877), the expression for the shear stress, t, for the turbulent flow can be writen as: at arta) where n (eta) is called “eddy” viscosity, and # is the temporal mean velocity in the direction of flow at a point at distance y from the solid boundary. ‘Similar to kinematic viscosity v aa the “eddy” kinematic viscosity < (Greek ‘epsilon’) is also obtained by dividing eddy viscosity 1, by the mass density ofthe uid p. thus, eel > ‘When viscous action is also included, the total shear stress may be expressed as raat (where x, = shear stess du 10 viscosity) du, dt = pen 113 or, rants (113) ‘The magnitude of 1 may vary from zero (ifthe flow is laminar) to several thousand times that of 1. As the Values of n and € canmot be predicted, the Boussinesq’s equation has a limited use.610 Fluid Mechanics 11-4-2 Reynolds Theory According fo this theory (1886), the turbulent shear stress between two layers of a fluid at small distance apart is given as: t= pie! (acl) where 1’ and v’ are the fluctuating components of velocity in the directions of x and y due to turbulence, Since both u’ and v' vary and subsequently talso varies. therefore. to find the shear stress. the time average is taken and eqn, (11-14) becomes: t= pw) avis) 11-43 Prandél’s Mixing Length Theory According to Prandtl (1925), the mixing length (() is defined as the average lateral distance through which a smal! mass of fid particles would move from one layer tothe other adjacent lavers before acquiring the velocity of the new layer. Ke assumed that components 1’ aud v’ are of the same order and the velocity fiactuation in X-direction is elated to the mixing length as: at), (1 a) a Substituting the value of 77 in equ (1115), we ge: 2 #- e#(#) ane p (& ‘When he viseons action is also inched the total shear tess may be expressed as: . du af du at, gp ( ae at w Goon (S) avy Eqn. (1-17) is used for most of the nurbulent flow problems for determining the shear stress (viscous shear stress is negligible except near the boundary), 11.5. UNIVERSAL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION EQUATION Assuming the viscous shear stress tobe negligible near the boundary the shear stress in turbulent flow is given by the eqn. (11-16). 2 (8) - la) ‘From this equation, we can obtain velocity distribution if the relation between /, the mixing: length, and y is known. ‘Also / oy (irom the pipe wall) Prandtl’ hypothesis or, T= ay where, 2.=a constant of propostionalty, known as ‘Karman universal constant (= 0-4). ‘Substituting the values of in eqn, (11-16), we get: i) tort = px (ts) (4)