Design Fundamentals

Dr. Sambit Bakshi

NIT Rourkela

January 25, 2019

Dr. Sambit Bakshi (NIT Rourkela) Design Fundamentals January 25, 2019 1 / 35
Outline

1 Relational Database Design

2 Functional Dependencies

3 Closure of functional dependency set

4 Closure of attribute set

5 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

6 Equivalence of functional dependency sets

7 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

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 Relational Database Design

Relational Database Design

Redundant data leads to following anamolies in database:

Insert Anamolies
Update Anamolies
Deletion Anamolies
Redundancy is often caused by a functional dependency present in the relation.

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 Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependency:
A functional dependency, denoted by X −→ Y, between two sets of attributes X and Y that are
subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuples that can form a relation state r of R.
The constraint is that, for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r that have t1 [X] = t2 [X], they must
also have t1 [Y] = t2 [Y].

Armstrong’s axioms:
Reflexivity rule: If X is a set of attributes and Y ⊆ X ,then X −→ Y holds.
Augmentation rule: If X −→ Y holds and Z is a set of attributes, then ZX −→ ZY holds.
Transitivity rule: If X −→ Y holds and Y −→ Z holds, then X −→ Z holds.

A functional dependency X −→ Y is termed as trivial if X ⊇ Y; otherwise,it is nontrivial.

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 Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependencies

More inference axioms:

Union rule. If X −→ Y and X −→ Z, then X −→ YZ holds.
Pseudotransitive rule. If X −→ Y and YW −→ Z, then XW −→ Z holds.
Decomposition rule. If X −→ YZ, then X −→ Y and X −→ Z hold.

Armstrong’s axioms are sound and complete. These inference axioms can be derived from
Armstrong’s axioms.

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 Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependencies

Proving Union rule from Armstrong’s axioms:

Given: X −→ Y; X −→ Z
=⇒ XX −→ XY; XY −→ YZ (using augmentation of X in X −→ Y and Y in X −→ Z)
=⇒ X −→ XY; XY −→ YZ =⇒ X −→ YZ (using transitivity rule)

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 Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependencies

Proving Pseudotransitive rule from Armstrong’s axioms:

Given: X −→ Y; YW −→ Z
=⇒ XW −→ YW; YW −→ Z (using augmentation of W in X −→ Y)
=⇒ XW −→ Z (using transitivity rule)

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 Functional Dependencies

Functional Dependencies

Proving Decomposition rule from Armstrong’s axioms:

Given: X −→ YZ
We know YZ −→ Y; YZ −→ Z (using reflexive rule)
From X −→ YZ; YZ −→ Y
=⇒ X −→ Y (using transitivity rule)
From X −→ YZ; YZ −→ Z
=⇒ X −→ Z (using transitivity rule)

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 Functional Dependencies

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Let F = {AB −→ CD, B −→ DE, C −→ F, E −→ G, A −→ B}. Use Armstrong’s axioms
to derive that A −→ FG is logically implied by F

Step# Inference Justification

1 A −→ B Given
2 A −→ AB Augmentation of A on step 1
3 AB −→ CD Given
4 A −→ CD Transitivity on steps 2,3
5 B −→ DE Given
6 A −→ DE Transitivity on steps 1,5
7 A −→ ACD Augmentation of A on step 4
8 ACD −→ CDE Augmentation of C,D on step 6
9 A −→ CDE Transitivity on steps 7,8
10 A −→ CE Trivial dependency from step 9
11 C −→ F Given
12 CE −→ EF Augmentation of E on step 11
13 E −→ G Given
14 FE −→ FG Augmentation of F on step 13
15 CE −→ FG Transitivity on steps 12,14
16 A −→ FG Transitivity on steps 10,15

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 Closure of functional dependency set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

The set of ALL FDs implied by a given set F of FDs is called the closure of F, and denoted as
F+ .

Armstrong Axioms can be applied repeatedly to infer all FDs implied by a set F of FDs.

We already read that Armstrong axioms are sound and complete. The exact meaning is:

Sound: The axioms generate ONLY FDs in F+ when applied to a given set of FDs F.

Complete: The axioms, when repeatedly applied to a given set of FDs F, will generate ALL FDs
in F+ .

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Attribute Closure:
For a given FD set, closure of an attribute is the set of all the attributes in the relation that the
input attribute can determine by using inference axioms and given FD set. Closure of an
attribute A is denoted by {A}+ or (A)+ .

Closure of AB = (AB)+ = {A+ ∪ B+ ∪ (Any FD in F where AB is the determinant)}

Given the following FD set F={X −→ YZ, ZW −→ P, P −→ Z, W −→ XPQ, XYQ −→ YW,

WQ −→ YZ}, find the closure of all the single attributes.

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Systematically computing Closure of an FD set:

Step 1. Compute S, which is the set all attributes in the FD set
Step 2. Compute P(S), which is the power set of S except null element
Step 3. Compute closure of each element of P(S)
Step 4. If the closure of an element of P(S) is of the form {X}+ = {Y}, then (2|Y| - 1)
number of FDs will be found from this. The FDs will be of the form X −→ Z where Z is any
element in P(Y) (power set of Y) except null.

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Systematically computing Closure of an FD set:

Find closure of F = {A −→ B, A −→ C, B −→ C}
Attribute Closure Derived FDs
A+ = {ABC} A −→ A, A −→ B, A −→ C, A −→ AB, A −→ BC, A
−→ AC, A −→ ABC
B+ = {BC} B −→ B, B −→ C, B −→ BC
C+ = {C} C −→ C
(AB)+ = {ABC} AB −→ A, AB −→ B, AB −→ C, AB −→ AB, AB −→
BC, AB −→ AC, AB −→ ABC
(BC)+ = {BC} BC −→ B, BC −→ C, BC −→ BC
(AC)+ = {ABC} AC −→ A, AC −→ B, AC −→ C, AC −→ AB, AC −→
BC, AC −→ AC, AC −→ ABC
(ABC)+ = {ABC} ABC −→ A, ABC −→ B, ABC −→ C, ABC −→ AB, ABC
−→ BC, ABC −→ AC, ABC −→ ABC
Closure of F All the FDs above in this column

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. In a schema with attributes A, B, C, D, E, following set of functional dependencies are

given: A -> B; A -> C; CD -> E; B -> D; E -> A
Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT implied by the above set?
(a) CD -> AC
(b) BD -> CD
(c) BC -> CD
(d) AC -> BC
[GATE2005]

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. In a schema with attributes A, B, C, D, E, following set of functional dependencies are

given: A -> B; A -> C; CD -> E; B -> D; E -> A
Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT implied by the above set?
(a) CD -> AC
(b) BD -> CD
(c) BC -> CD
(d) AC -> BC
[GATE2005]
ANSWER: (b)

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Extraneous Attribute:
For a given FD set F, an attribute A is extraneous in X −→ Y if A can be removed from the left
side or right side of X −→ Y without altering the closure of F.

Let G = {A −→ BC, B −→ C, AB −→ D }
Attribute C is extraneous in the right side of A −→ BC
Attribute B is extraneous in the left side of AB −→ D

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

The Satisfies Algorithm

Used to determine if a relation R satisfies or doesn’t satisfy a given FD: A −→ B
Input: Relation R and an FD: A −→ B
Output: TRUE if R satisfies A −→ B, otherwise FALSE
Step 1: Sort the tuples of the relation R on the attribute(s) A (determinant) so that tuples
with equal values under A are next to each other
Step 2: Check that tuples with equal values under A also have equal values under
attribute(s) B
Step 3: If any two tuples of R have equal values under A but different values under
attribute(s) B, output of the algorithm is FALSE
Step 4: If every two tuples of R having equal values under A also have same values under
attribute(s) B, output of the algorithm is TRUE

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Consider the relation TABLE PURCHASE DETAIL(Customer ID, Store ID, Purchase Location)

Check if the following functional dependencies are satisfied in the above relation:
Q1. Customer ID −→ Purchase Location
Q2. Store ID −→ Purchase Location
Q3. {Customer ID, Store ID} −→ Purchase Location
Q4. Customer ID −→ Store ID

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 Closure of attribute set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. Which of the following functional dependencies are

X Y Z satisfied by the instance?
1 4 2 (a) XY -> Z and Z -> Y
1 5 3 (b) YZ -> X and Y -> Z
1 6 3 (c) YZ -> X and X -> Z
3 2 2 (d) XZ -> Y and Y -> X
[GATE 2000]

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 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Redundancy in functional dependency:

Given a set F of FDs, a FD A −→ B in F is said to be redundant with respect to the FDs of F if
and only if A −→ B is implied and can be derived from a subset F0 of F such that F0 ≡ F-{A
−→ B}.

Eliminating Redundant FDs allows us to minimize the set of FDs.

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 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

The Membership Algorithm
Used to determine if there exists a redundant FD A −→ B in a given set of functional
dependencies F
Input: F and a FD A −→ B belonging to F
Output: TRUE if A −→ B is redundant in F, otherwise FALSE
Step 1: Remove temporarily A −→ B from F. Set G = F - { A −→ B }. If G 6= φ,
proceed to Step 2; otherwise halt with output FALSE
Step 2: Initialize the set of attributes Ti with i=1 with the set of attribute(s) A, i.e., Set
Ti = T1 = {A}.
Step 3: Search in G for FDs X −→ Y such that X ⊆ Ti .
Step 3a: If such FD X −→ Y is found from Step 3, form Ti+1 ←− Y ∪ Ti and assign i
←− i+1.
Step 3aa: If all the attributes of B belongs to Ti , declare the FD A −→ B to be
redundant, halt with output TRUE.
Step 3ab: If all attributes of B are not members of Ti , assign G ←− G - {X −→ Y} and
repeat Step 3.
Step 3b: If G = φ or there is no such FD is found from Step 3, then halt with output
FALSE.

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 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Given the set F={X −→ YW, XW −→ Z, Z −→ Y, XY −→ Z}. Using membership algorithm,

determine if the FD XY −→ Z is redundant in F.

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 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Given the set F={X −→ YW, XW −→ Z, Z −→ Y, XY −→ Z}. Using membership algorithm,

determine if the FD XY −→ Z is redundant in F.
Step# G Is G = φ i Ti Does Z ∈ Ti ?
1 {X −→ YW, XW −→ Z, Z −→ Y} N 1 {XY} N
2 {XW −→ Z, Z −→ Y} N 2 {XYW } N
3 {Z −→ Y} N 3 {XYWZ } Y
The algorithm halts as Z ∈ Ti at i=3.
XY −→ Z is redundant in F.

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 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Verification of the membership algorithm by iteratively applying Armstrong’s axioms and

derived axioms

Step# Inference Justification

1 X −→ YW Given
2 XY −→ YW Augmentation of Y on Step 1
3 XY −→ XYW Augmentation of X on Step 2
4 XW −→ Z Given
5 XYW −→ YZ Augmentation of Y on Step 4
6 XY −→ YZ Transitivity on Steps 3,5
7 YZ −→ Z Trivial
8 XY −→ Z Transitivity on Steps 6,7

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 Redundancy in Functional Dependency Set

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Check if BD −→ E, AC −→ E are the redundant FDs in F = {A −→ B, C −→ D, BD −→

E, AC −→ E}

Eliminate redundant FDs from F={X −→ Y, Y −→ X, Y −→ Z, Z −→ Y, X −→ Z, Z −→

X} using the Membership algorithm.

Find the redundant FDs in the set F = {X −→ YZ, ZW −→ P, P −→ Z, W −→ XPQ, XYQ

−→ YW, WQ −→ YZ}. Apply Membership algorithm |F| times to validate non-redundancy of
every member FDs.

The set G found after removing ALL redundant FDs from F is called non-redundant cover of F.

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 Equivalence of functional dependency sets

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Two sets of FDs F and G defined over same relation schema are equivalent iff
i. every FD in F can be inferred from G
AND
ii. every FD in G can be inferred from F

G covers F if every FD in F can be inferred from G (i.e., if F+ is subset of G+ )

Two sets of FDs F and G defined over same relation schema are equivalent if F covers G and F
covers G

G is a non-redundant cover of F if G covers F and no proper subset H of G exist such that H+ =

G+ .

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

A superkey is a unique set of attribute(s) that determine the set of other attributes in a relation.
In a relation R(A,B,C,D,E,F), we define set of attributes as P={A,B,C,D,E,F}. A superkey SK
is a subset of P (SK ⊆ P) that determines all other attributes,
i.e.,(SK)+ = P - SK or SK -> P - SK.

There can be many superkeys in a relation. A superkey is a set of attributes that has the
uniqueness property, but is not necessarily minimal.

candidate key is a minimal superkey, i.e. removing any attribute from a candidate key will not
retain its ability to uniquely determine other attributes.

Two properties of candidate key, or called just key, are unique and minimal.

If a relation has multiple keys, database designer specifies one of them to be the used as a key
while others won’t be. This specially selected key is called primary key.

The candidate keys which do not get elected as primary key are called alternate keys.

Convention: in a relational schema, underline the attributes of the primary key.

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

How to find superkeys / candidate keys in a given relation:

Superkeys are those sets of attributes whose closure is the set of all attributes.

Find all superkeys and candidate keys in F = {A −→ B, A −→ C, B −→ C}

Let us first find the attribute closure of all subsets of the attribute set.
Attribute set Closure Closure contains all Superkey?
attributes?
A A+ = {ABC} Y Y
B B+ = {BC} N N
C C+ = {C} N N
AB (AB)+ = {ABC} Y Y
BC (BC)+ = {BC} N N
AC (AC)+ = {ABC} Y Y
ABC (ABC)+ = {ABC} Y Y
Superkeys: A; {AB}; {AC}; {ABC}.
Candidate keys are minimal superkeys, i.e., those superkeys, whose proper subsets are not a
superkey, are candidate keys.
Candidate keys: A. In this case, there is only one candidate key!

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. An instance of relational schema R(A,B,C) has distinct values for attribute A. Can you
conclude that A is a candidate key for R?
[GATE1994]

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. Relation R has eight attributes A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H. Fields of R contain only atomic values. F
= {CH -> G, A -> BC, B -> CFH, E -> A, F -> EG} is a set of functional dependencies
(FDs) so that F+ is exactly the set of FDs that hold for R. How many candidate keys does the
relation R have?
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 5
(d) 6
[GATE2013]

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. Consider a relation scheme R (A, B, C, D, E, H) on which the following functional

dependencies hold: {A -> B, BC -> D, E -> C, D -> A}. What are the candidate keys of R?
(a) AE, BE
(b) AE, BE, DE
(c) AEH, BEH, BCH
(d) AEH, BEH, DEH
[GATE2005]

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. A Relation R with FD set {A -> BC, B -> A, A -> C, A -> D, D -> A}. How many
candidate keys will be there in R?
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. The maximum number of superkeys for the relation schema R(E,F,G,H) with E as the key is:
(a) 5
(b) 6
(c) 7
(d) 8
[GATE2014]

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. Which of the following is NOT a superkey in a relational schema with attributes V, W, X,

Y, Z and primary key VY ?
(a) VXYZ
(b) VWXZ
(c) VWXY
(d) VWXYZ
[GATE2016]

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M} and the set of functional

dependencies { {E,F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I,J}, {E,H} -> {K,L}, {K} -> {M}, {L} -> {N}}
on R. What is the key for R?
(a) {E,F}
(b) {E,F,H}
(c) {E,F,H,K,L}
(d) {E}
[GATE2014]

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 Superkeys, Candidate keys, Alternate Keys, and Primary key

Implication of Functional Dependencies and Closure

Q. The following functional dependencies hold true for the relational schema R{V, W, X, Y, Z}:
V -> W; VW -> X; Y -> VX; Y -> Z
Which of the following is irreducible equivalent for this set of functional dependencies?
(a) {V -> W; V -> X; Y -> V; Y -> Z}
(b) {V -> W; W -> X; Y -> V; Y -> Z}
(c) {V -> W; V -> X; Y -> V; Y-> X; Y -> Z}
(d) {V -> W; W -> X; Y -> V; Y -> X; Y -> Z}
[GATE2017]

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