Database system

concepts and
architecture
Chapter 2

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 Outline

§ Data Models, Schemas, and Instances

§ Three-Schema Architecture and Data
Independence
§ Database Languages
§ Centralized and Client/Server Architectures
for DBMSs
§ Classification of Database Management
Systems

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 Data Models
n Data Model:
n A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database,
the operations for manipulating these structures, and
certain constraints that the database should obey.
n Data Model Structure and Constraints:
n Constructs are used to define the database structure
n Constructs typically include elements (and their data types)
as well as groups of elements (e.g. entity, record, table),
and relationships among such groups
n Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times

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 Data Models (continued)

n Data Model Operations:

n These operations are used for specifying database
retrievals and updates by referring to the
constructs of the data model.
n Operations on the data model may include basic
model operations (e.g. generic insert, delete,
update) and user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

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 Categories of Data Models
n Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
n Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data.
n (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
n Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
n Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored
in the computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc
manner through DBMS design and administration manuals
n Implementation (representational) data models:
n Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by
many commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational
data models used in many commercial systems).

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 Schemas versus Instances
n Database Schema:
n The description of a database.
n Includes descriptions of the database structure,
data types, and the constraints on the database.
n Schema Diagram:
n An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a
database schema.
n Schema Construct:
n A component of the schema or an object within
the schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.

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 Schemas versus Instances
n Database State:
n The actual data stored in a database at a
particular moment in time. This includes the
collection of all the data in the database.
n Also called database instance (or occurrence or
snapshot).
n The term instance is also applied to individual
database components, e.g. record instance, table
instance, entity instance

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 Database schema Vs Database state

n Database State:
n Refers to the content of a database at a moment
in time.
n Initial Database State:
n Refers to the database state when it is initially
loaded into the system.
n Valid State:
n A state that satisfies the structure and constraints
of the database.

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 Database schema Vs Database state

n Distinction
n The database schema changes very infrequently.
n The database state changes every time the
database is updated.

n Schema is also called intension.

n State is also called extension.

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 Example of a Database schema

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Example of a Database state

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The three-schema architecture

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 Data independence

n Capacity to change the schema at one level of the

database system
n Without having to change the schema at the next
higher level

n Types:
n Logical
n Physical

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 DBMS languages

n Data Definition Language (DDL)

n Defines both schemas
n Storage Definition Language (SDL)
n Specifies the internal schema
n View Definition Language (VDL)
n Specifies user views/mappings to conceptual
schema
n Data Manipulation Language (DML)
n Allows retrieval, insertion, deletion, modification

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 Centralized and client-server DBMS
architecture
n Centralized DBMS:
n Combines everything into single system including-
DBMS software, hardware, application programs,
and user interface processing software.
n User can still connect through a remote terminal –
however, all processing is done at centralized site.

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 A physical centralized architecture

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 Basic 2-tier client-server architectures

n Specialized Servers with Specialized functions

n Print server
n File server
n DBMS server
n Web server
n Email server
n Clients can access the specialized servers as
needed

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 2-tier client-server architectures

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 Clients

n Provide appropriate interfaces through a client

software module to access and utilize the various
server resources.
n Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.
n Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.
n (LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

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 DBMS servers

n Provides database query and transaction services to the

clients

n Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL servers,

query servers, or transaction servers

n Applications running on clients utilize an Application

Program Interface (API) to access server databases via
standard interface such as:
n ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard
n JDBC: for Java programming access

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 3-tier client-server architectures

n Common for Web applications

n Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
n Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic
part of the application used to access the corresponding
data from the database server
n Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.
n Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
n Database server only accessible via middle tier
n Clients cannot directly access database server

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 3-tier client-server architectures

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 Classification of DBMSs

n Based on the data model used

n Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
n Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
n Other classifications
n Single-user (typically used with personal
computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
n Centralized (uses a single computer with one
database)
vs. distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple
databases)

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 Cost considerations for DBMSs

n Cost Range: from free open-source systems to

configurations costing millions of dollars
n Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL, PostgreSQL,
others
n Commercial DBMS offer additional specialized modules,
e.g. time-series module, spatial data module, document
module, XML module
n These offer additional specialized functionality when
purchased separately
n Sometimes called cartridges (e.g., in Oracle) or blades
n Different licensing options: site license, maximum number
of concurrent users (seat license), single user, etc.

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 Summary

n Data Models and Their Categories

n Schemas, Instances, and States
n Three-Schema Architecture
n Data Independence
n DBMS Languages and Interfaces
n Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
n Classification of DBMSs

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