UNIT: 02 CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY
Assignment Brief 2

JOSH BARRETT 194537

1
P6 Describe techniques used for remediating the site prior to
construction commencing.

Site remediation is one of the first physical processes to take place on a construction
site, it is the process to removing any unwanted elements within the space, these
include:

- Polluted or contaminated

i) soil

ii) sediment

iii) surface water

iv) groundwater

This is done because pollutants on site have an impact on human health and the
natural environment. This process is to safeguard the surrounding area, the
operatives due to work on site and the occupants of the building once the project is
handed over to the end users.

The first step is to collate information about the soil and subsoil from any existing
records. The information can be found from maps, geological surveys and aerial
photography.

Information can also be gathered about existing services and recorded suppliers of
primary services should be notified of the planned construction as part of the
remediation process.

Soil Investigation

It is necessary to investigate the soil type when remediating a site prior to

commencing, this is to check:

- strength

- consistency

- soil type

- moisture conditions

- presence of roots.

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From acquiring this information, we are able to understanding the bearing capacity
of the soil and the amount of possible movement within the foundation load bearing
soil.

Trial Pits/Boreholes

To gain this information, samples can be attained by excavating trial pits to a depth
of 3-4m which take sample which can be sent off for laboratory for testing. A trial pit
can be dug either by hand but is usually done with a machinery. Even the process of
digging a trial hole gives an indication of the ease of excavation required when
forming the substructure.

Boreholes is the sample of extracted undisturbed soil which can be reviewed in its
original form and the data recorded/ These samples are brought to the surface for
analysis and give an indication of the soil conditions before remediation processes
begin. The sample data collated will give an indication of what works are necessary.

Testing Examples are

i) Plate load test

ii) Vane shear test

iii) California bearing ratio

iv) Dry density-moisture relationship

v) SPT

vi) Lightweight dynamic penetrometers

vii) Cone penetration test (CPT)

viii) Methane/oxygen/carbon dioxide/barometric pressure test

ix) Triaxial compression test

x) Liquid and plastic limit tests

xi) Sieve analysis – particle size and distribution

xii) Moisture content

xiii) pH value tests

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Soil Remediation

There are several techniques available when faced with soil remediation to a site
prior to commencing. The technique used largely depends on what contaminant has
been found present in the soil.

Bioremediation

Bioremediation relies on organic functions undertaken by bacteria and fungi to

remove contaminants from the soil. This technique is considered the most
environmentally friendly way to remove soil contaminants as it uses a natural
process however it is a time-consuming process although does cost less.

Chemical Oxidation

This soil remediation process involves injecting chemically oxidating compounds into
the soil to begin a chemical reaction which removes soil contaminants, this process is
particularly favourable in areas which are hard to reach such as difficult soil depths
or beneath existing structures.

Soil Stabilisation

Soil stabilisation is the process of forcing the soil contaminants to remain in place by
using immobilisation agents to reduce a soils ability to spread another method is to
use chemicals to change the contaminants’ structure to become a less harmful
chemical.

Soil Washing

Soil washing is the process of eliminating soil contaminants by washing contaminants

with a liquid solution, the solution washes away the finer soils such as silt and clay
which contaminants bind to. This, however, does not destroy the contaminants like
the other methods described above.

Surface & Groundwater Remediation

There are several on-site and off-site methods for treating contaminated surface &
groundwater of a site prior to commencing construction works.

Pump & Treat

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This is an on-site method of remediating surface & groundwater on site, as the name
suggests, it uses a pump to extract the sites water, storage tanks which then treat
the water to remove contaminants and the water is either then returned to the
ground or disposed into drainage systems.

Extraction & Disposal

Using either mechanical or manual extraction methods, the surface and groundwater
is extracted, stored in either tankers or storage containers and then disposed of,
although, disposal of contaminated water is rare and usually this water is taken to a
treatment facility, for the purposes of remediating site, the water is removed from
site entirely.

Chemical Treatment

Similar to soil remediating and chemical oxidation, this chemical treatment uses the
chemical oxidation process to change the contaminants’ chemical structure to
become a non-contaminating compound. This therefore removes the contamination
from site.

Air Sparging

Air sparging is the remediating process of forcing air through the water, this process
forces the contaminant into the air that is pushed through the water and is therefore
released into the atmosphere and removed from site.

Vapour Extraction

Vapour extraction is the least effective ground & surface water remediation process.
It is the process of removing harmful vapours from the water on site by pumping the
vapours from the water and passing them through carbon filters, this largely
achieves the extraction of odours as opposed to the contaminants itself.

5
P7 Describe the types of substructure works carried out by civil
engineers.

When constructing the substructure of the underground car park of the shopping
centre we must determine what kind of substructure works are carried out by civil
engineers, we must determine what Civil Engineering is and what Civil Engineers do.
Civil Engineers are responsible for the design, construction and maintenance of the
built environment. The term ‘civil’ engineer was created to distinguish the difference
between ‘military’ engineering. Civil engineering is a broad term that covers many
aspects of the design and construction of the built environment. These aspects
include:

 Structures.
 Transportation.
 Environmental.
 Maritime.
 Geotechnical.
 Hydraulic.
 Sanitary.
 Water.

As noted in the list above ‘structures’ are one of the disciplines civil engineers cover.
This includes both substructure and superstructure. Substructure is all parts of a
building that are underground. The purpose of a substructure is to support the load of
a superstructure as the substructure pushes its forces directly against the soil beneath
it. The substructure is every element of the building that is beneath the damp proof
membrane at ground level. The substructure also includes the foundation, pier and
abutment.

According to BCIS substructure includes:

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 1. Foundations

Foundations are classed as substructure and this boundary is up to and including the
damp proof course. There are five categories of foundations that a civil engineer may
design and construct.

Strip

 Shallow foundation
 Linear ‘strips’ of concrete
 Used for load bearing masonry walls
 Suitable for most soil types because of its load spreading capacity
 Depth of strip is equal to or greater than the load bearing wall width
 Must be deep enough to withstand the ground level frost

Trench fill

 Shallow foundation
 Similar to a strip layout however this concrete is poured into excavated
trenches.
 Depth can vary depending on the subsoil if there is large amounts of clay or
trees, the excavation will have to be lower to build from a dry subsoil.
Reinforced mesh will have to be used.

Raft

 Uses an entire concrete slab as the foundation

 Spreads load of building over a larger area than other foundations
 Uses reinforced steel cage for additional support
 Uses an edge beam with a reinforced steel cage.

Pad

 Shallow foundation
 Carry out the same function of strip foundations
 Not a strip but in an isolated area called a ‘pad’
 Shaped in rectangles, squares or circles
 Load bearing capacity changes have to be made to accommodate the pad
foundation
 Pad footings can be used in several layouts
 Apart from the smallest ones, can be reinforced with steel

Pile

 Deep foundations

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  Made from reinforced concrete, steel or sometimes timber
 Driven deep into the ground to stiff soil and bedrock to bear the load of
superstructure or sometimes a basement
 Long columnar foundation
 Driven into the ground with machinery known as a ‘piling rig’
 Different types of piles:
i) Driven Pile
ii) Bored Pile
iii) Screw pile
iv) Micro pile
v) Pile Walls
vi) Geothermal piles

Lowest Floor assembly

According to BCIS elemental standard form cost analysis the lowest floor assembly is
defined as below the underside of screed or lowest floor finish. This can include:

Reference 2

Basement Excavation

When constructing a substructure there has to be processes to remove the rock, soil
and other materials to create space for the new construction. There are different types
of excavation and these are largely dependent on what type of substrate is to be

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removed and the space available in the surrounding areas. Time and budget will also
influence the methods chosen to excavate a site.

i) Topsoil Excavation

This involves the removal of the highest earth surface, this includes vegetation, soil
and other decaying materials that can make the land unsuitable for a structural load.

ii) Rock Excavation

This is a more challenging part of excavation and requires specialist equipment to

drill or blast the rock away to make space for the new construction and materials to be
installed in this area.

iii) Muck Excavation

Muck is classed as the combination of soil and water. Much is problematic with
construction and has to be spread out and dried out or removed entirely.

iv) Earth Excavation

Earth excavation is the removal of various layers of earth, this includes soil and the
layer below the topsoil.

Basement Construction

There are three main categories of basement construction4

1. Poured Concrete

Poured concrete is used to form the basement footings fr the foundations of the
basement. A cage will be constructed from reinforced steel bars which will be
shuttered, and concrete poured into the cage. This creates a seamless concrete
frame which reduces the surface area of weak spots and reduces the risk of
cracking and subsequent water and damp damage.

2. Block, masonry walls

Instead of concrete, basement construction can be done with brick and blockwork,
this is a more traditional method of basement construction. This is a faster method
of basement construction but a disadvantage of this is that the masonry wall can
become warped due to pressure. The mortar joints between the bricks and blocks
are porous and can create weak spots.

3. Precast Panel5

An increasingly more popular form of construction is the use of modular and

panel elements of works, this can be applied to basement construction with precast
concrete units that have an integrated waterproof membrane tanking system.

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 These panels are manufactured off-site and are craned into position when
delivered as a finished panelled unit.

Basement retaining walls up to and including the damp proof course

The waterproofing system for a basement needs careful consideration as the

substructure will be interacting with the water table level which will change during
the seasons of the year. Any part of the substructure which comes into contact with
the earth will be subject to what is known as ‘hydrostatic pressure’ this is the pressure
of the water in the surrounding soil being placed upon the earth retaining walls of the
substructure.

External Waterproofing System

The waterproofing systems installed surrounding a substructure is known as ‘tanking’

a tanking system involves three components which are

- Priming

The surface to be tanked must be primed before application, using a primer forces the
masonry pores to narrow which creates a hydro-phobic surface. Primers are also used
to aid in the adhesion of the chemical tanking system to the surface it is being applied
to.

- Primary waterproofing

This is the primary coating of a waterproofing compound which dries with a high
compression to create a strong watertight seal

- Secondary waterproofing

The secondary waterproofing is an external membrane which acts as a drainage

system which directs water away from the structure to reduce the hydrostatic pressure
against the earth retaining walls. The membrane is built up with raised ‘studs’ which
act as a cavity for water to drain away, this can then be incorporated with a sump
pump to pump the water away into sewage systems.

Dewatering Techniques 6

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Dewatering is when the water table is maintained to a lower level to accommodate a
substructure of a construction project. The goal of dewatering is to remove water from
the site of construction. During construction this is done using pump systems which
are temporary. For substructures, a permeant dewatering solution is needed by using
either

i) Exclusion

Exclusion is the method of installing walls that act as a physical barrier to

‘exclude’ the groundwater from the excavation and intended substructure.
These structures can be slurry walls and trenches. Diaphragm walls with
secant pile walls or grout curtains.

ii) Pumping

Pumping takes a different approach to exclusion where the groundwater is collected in

wells or ‘sumps’ which are located around the excavation site the water is then
pumped into a discharge system which can connect into the public sewer system. The
discharge rates will need to be calculated by a civil engineer and attenuation may also
be necessary to act as a form of ground water storage before ultimate discharge.

iii) Sub-surface drainage

This dewatering technique can be used for shallow foundations although for larger
substructures such as the underground car park discussed, pumping and exclusion
using sheet metal piles will be necessary. Subsurface drainage is using gravity to flow
water absorbed by the soil away to discharge points, this can be utilised by
constructing the substrate with gradients. This allows for water to permeate the
surface and allow for a subsurface water run-off into designed discharge points and
pipework systems.

When constructing the substructure of the underground car park of the shopping
centre are generally constructed using steel sheet piles as the earth retaining
structure and a concrete pad foundation.

Scope of Works for a Civil Engineer

The role of the Civil Engineer focusses on the design of the works. A civil engineer
will assist with consultation and feasibility studies during the concept of the design of
a construction project. There are a number of feasibility studies which can be
undertaken during the planning of a project.

The civil engineer will collaborate with the architect on a project to produce the
design criteria.

The civil engineer can assist with geotechnical investigation and will require
topographical surveys to determine what lies beneath the surface level of the
groundworks which can affect the substructure. It’s important to review the

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environment and the surrounding environment of the site and geotechnical and
topographical surveys can assist with this data.

Civil Engineers can create preliminary and construction issue designs for all forms of
substructures as discussed above. (basements, foundations, earth retaining walls etc)

M4 Compare different types of structural frame used to carry the

primary and secondary elements of the superstructure.

Superstructure

The superstructure is all building elements above ground and above what is defined as
the substructure. The superstructure carries that load that is bearing down upon the
substructure. This includes all internal and external finishes associated with the
building. The superstructure will consist of the frame, which can be timber, concrete
or steel. The joists, the roof and the additional storeys which can be added to a
substructure which has been designed to accommodate the load.

Primary Elements

Primary elements can be described as anything necessary to provide structural

stability of a building. This can include:

 Load bearing Walls

 Floors
 Roof
 Stairs
 Columns
 Beams
 Braces
 Slabs

Secondary Elements

Secondary Elements are elements of a building that stand up but are not causing any
structural dependency on the rest of the building. These elements stand up but do not
provide a load bearing function to the building. These elements and their functions
are:

 Non load bearing partitions

 Wall linings
 Ceilings
 Chimneys
 Flashings

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  Glazing/windows
 Doors

Structural Frames7

The ‘frame’ of a building refers to the structure that supports the building and creates
the ‘carcass’ of a given building. There are four main functional requirements of a
frame, that is strength, stability, durability and fire safety. There are different types of
structural frames that can be made out of different materials, these different materials
will vary in these four categories and will be more suitable for different sized and
purposed buildings.

 Steel frame8

A steel frame is made from structural steelwork which consists of vertical

columns and horizontal beams. The structural frame is formed using a rectilinear
grid to bear the lateral and compressive loads. Structural steel frames can be used
in all different types of buildings including, commercial, industrial and residential.
Steel frames are most commonly used in high rise and industrial buildings.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel Frames:

Advantage Disadvantage
High in strength Thermal Conductivity, steel has a high
efficiency is conducting heat and therefore heat
is transferred away from steel framework and
therefore not good for the building’s energy
retention
Low in weight Reduced flexibility on site
Able to span long distances Requires supporting structures
Ease of installation and utilises MMC – off site Less fire resistant than concrete
manufacturing is possible which can ensure
good conditions year-round and a reliable
consistent quality. Off-site fabrication also has
it’s benefits in reducing building time on site
and reducing overall costs of a project.
Able to resist dynamic forces such as wind & Prone to corrosion from oxygen and water and
earthquakes therefore corrosion protection required.
Adaptable to different shapes
Varied in what materials in can be clad in such
as brick panels, glazing, rainwater steel cladding
etc.
Wide range of joining methods such as welding
etc.

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  Timber frame 10

Timber frames has been the main building materials for hundreds of years. It has
decreased in popularity since the introduction of steel and concrete. Similar to a steel
frame, timber frame cab be used using a post and beam structure to transfer the
laterals and compressive loads. This is known as post and beam construction and is
different to what is now the industry recognised term ‘timber frame’. It is important to
distinguish between the terms ‘timber frame’ and what is a post and beam frame made
from timber. As described above a post and beam timber construction uses post and
beams erected horizontally and vertically to transfer loads.

Timber frame uses several timber structures to create a timber frame such as:

1. studs and rails alongside the panellised structural sheathing board,

2. twin timber stud frames for internal partitioning where the timber bears a
vertical load, an insulated cavity is formed between the two stud frames.
3. Cross laminated timber (CLT) 9– cross laminated timber uses high grade
timber stacked in a cross pattern to provide structural strength across two axis.
These stacked timbers for airtight, fire resistant and insulated panels which are
manufactured off-site. These CLT panels speed up the construction process
and are considered a more environmentally friendly and sustainable method of
construction, if the timber is sourced ethically of course.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Timber Frames:

Advantage11 Disadvantage12
1. Sustainability, as a timber frame 1. Shrinkage and swelling of
construction has a reduced wood is one its main
carbon footprint in its disadvantage. Timber, when
production and construction, exposed to water will absorb
timber frames are considered a it and therefore swell.
more sustainable method of Repeated exposure to water
construction which only looks to can also lead to bacterial
be more essential in the coming growth within the material
years which results in rot, this rot
2. Tensile strength. As timber is a damages the structural
relatively lightweight materials, integrity of the material. As

14
 timber actually is considered a condensation is a present in
stronger material than steel all structures, this leaves
when it comes to breaking structural timber at a
length, breaking length means disadvantage.
that it can support its own 2. Fire, although structural
weight better than steel. steel also has a weakness
3. Electrical and heat resistance. with fire, so does timber,
When in appropriate form in once a fire takes hold of a
terms of moisture content, timber structure it will very
timber has a natural resistance easily spread.
to electrical conduction.
Dependant on the strength of the
timber, the timber can have a
strong resistance to heat so
therefore can be considered a
safer option in terms of its
resistance to fire.
4. Acoustics. Timber absorbs sound
better than other structural
material and therefore reduces
echoes found in larger spaces
and is an improvement on other
materials in terms of acoustic
comfort.
5. MMC, timber can be used in
prefabricated form in panels
using cross laminated timber,
this is not only considered a
more sustainable method of
construction but can also reduce
time and money spent on site due
to the potential reduced time
spent on site for installation.
6. Environmental impact,
compared to steel and concrete,
timber uses far less natural
resources in its harvesting,
production and manufacture.
The emission requirement
comparison shows that timber
produces far less carbon
emissions than its other
structural counterparts.

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Reinforced Concrete

As mentioned above, concrete is a mixture of water, cement and aggregates. When

reinforcing steel bars are added into concrete, the two materials work together with
concrete providing the compressive strength and steel providing the tensile strength.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Compressive strength. As 1. Storage, once mixed concrete
reinforced concrete has two cannot be stored, once the
structural elements, it has a high reaction has begun it cannot be
compressive strength compared reversed which can lead to high
to other structural materials. levels of wastage if not managed
2. Tensile strength. For similar and calculated properly.
reasons to above, reinforced 2. Curing time. Concrete has a 30-
concrete can have a high day curing period. This can
tolerance to tensile stress. greatly affect programme
3. Fire resistance. Concrete is particularly if a project is
considered a more fire-resistant already behind and therefore
material than timber or steel, it losing money or at risk of
can therefore protect the steel incurring LAD’s.
bars for a period of time before 3. Greater cross-section. For a
the fire is extinguished. multi-storied building the
4. Availability. Concrete is reinforced concrete column
generally available to be section (RCC) is larger than
sourced locally in most places steel section as the compressive
which in terms of supply costs, strength is lower in the case of
can make it more cost effective RCC.
than steel and timber. 4. Shrinkage. A concrete structure
5. Durability. Reinforced concrete risk shrinkage causes crack
has a longer durability and development and strength loss
therefore life cycle than other
structural materials.
6. Adaptable. Reinforced concrete,
as a fluid material in its
production on site it therefore
can be shaped into many
different shapes to accommodate
the most bespoke structures.
7. Low maintenance. The raw
elements of concrete being sand
and water means that once
cured, reinforced concrete
requires less maintenance than

16
 any other structural material.
This keeps remedial costs at a
very low rate and makes the
structure more reliable in its
lifecycle.
8. For supporting load bearing
structures, concrete is the most
economic and effective
structural material
9. Rigidity. It acts like a rigid
member with minimum
deflection. A minimal deflection
is good for the serviceability of
buildings.
10. Reinforced concrete structures,
in their formation, require less
skilled labour than timber and
steel structures which therefore
has an impact on reducing costs.

17
P8 Describe the supply arrangements for primary services.

What are Primary Services?

Primary services are the building services that provide the basic requirements of a
building in term of Mechanical and Electrical requirements. In basic terms, the
primary building services are:

Gas
Cold Water
Electricity

How these services are supplied and arranged throughout a building differ although
they have the similar requirements in buildings in terms of their distribution. At a
macro level they are very similar but at a micro level that differ greatly from building
to building, it largely depends on the building services requirement and the building
usage and size i.e. residential or commercial etc.

Gas Supply arrangements

The primary service of gas is natural gas that is supplied through a pipeline
infrastructure known as mains gas. Natural gas/mains gas is used to fuel buildings for
the purposes of heating and cooking. Natural gas is dominantly made up from
methane however does also contain other elements such as ethane & propane.

Gas is owned by individual, certified gas suppliers however all mains gas passes
through the National Grid, the national grid work with gas suppliers to facilitate its
supply and distribution throughout the UK. The national grid assists with safety
checks and add an odouriser to assist with detecting gas leaks. Gas leaks pose a
serious risk as gas is a highly flammable fuel and without an odouriser, is
undetectable.

Gas is supplied through pipework from the National Grid, through distribution
networks to end users which include commercial and domestic buildings.

See photograph
showing the gas
supply pipework
routed throughout
the UK bypassing
the National Grid.

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Electricity Supply Arrangements

Generated electricity is supplied throughout the UK high voltage power lines which
are seen suspended between pylons throughout the country. These power lines lead to
substations where the highly generated electricity is reduced using transformers and
the reduced electricity power generated in the substation is then supplied to the
distribution networks which then powers towns, villages and cities and the buildings
within them. The need to reduce the voltage at this substation is so that the power is
safe to use and is compatible with the plant and equipment installed ready to receive
the electricity.

Before electricity reaches a building it passes through a final substation which then
supplies the electricity underground through cables which enter the building via a
meter which records the amount of electricity consumed in the building and is then
charged accordingly the end user based on the consumption and the rate agreed with
the electricity provider.

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Cold Water Supply Arrangements

Cold water is supplied through a public water supply system which is known as the
‘mains water’ Similar to gas, mains water is supplied using pipework infrastructure
throughout the UK

The water is supplied by water companies found local to each area. Water is collected
in reservoirs, rivers, streams and groundwater. The water is then relocated via a pump
system to a water treatment facility to ensure it is safe to use and in the UK’s case,
drink. The treated water is then stored in covered reservoirs and is subsequently
distributed via pipes and pumping stations to the surrounding buildings and facilities
that require a cold-water connection.

Within each building which is supplied with a cold-water connection, a stop cock or
valve is installed so that the end user may shut off the cold-water supply at any time.
This is largely to do with facilitating maintenance works on a properties cold water
distribution or in case of emergencies where the water must be shut off to prevent
damage to the building or the occupants.

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P9 Explain the distribution arrangements for primary services.

Gas Distribution Arrangements

Once natural gas has been supplied into a building. It passes through a gas meter to
record the gas consumption within that building. The gas is then distributed
throughout a building using pipework. In a commercial building, iron pipes are used
to distribute gas to its required locations, gas typically fuels boilers and cooking
apparatus. The gas will be fed from the meter through pipe systems which will run
throughout a building via risers if required to pass through multiple floors and
through voids in ceilings and floors.

Cold water distribution arrangements systems

There are two main types of cold water distribution known as:

i) Direct

Direct water distribution system is where the supply water main directly feeds the
cold water tap and a multi point water heater. One of the main benefits of using a
direct water system is that the taps will have mains water pressure as the feed is
direct.

ii) Indirect

Indirect water distribution is when the mains water not only feeds one or more
direct sources, it feeds into a storage tank which then branches from here into the
other apparatus within a building that require water such as toilets, sinks etc. This
form of distribution does not feed directly from the mains but indirectly via an on-
site storage tank which is typically found at the top of a building in a loft or on a flat
roof.

There are three main methods in which water is distribution throughout a building.

1. Pumped

When seeking to maintain optimum water pressure throughout a multi-storey

building or a large commercial building. Using a pumping distribution system can
help force the movement of cold water throughout a building. Pumping distribution
can be done from ground level, from a basement gravity tank or from a roof tank.

2. Gravity Distribution

Gravity water distribution is considered the most reliable and cost-efficient method
of distributing water throughout a building. This uses a water tank at high level in a
building and distributed via this storage facility. This water system lacks in water
pressure as it is an indirect system and is a low pressure gravity water distribution
system.

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 3. Combined pumped and gravity distribution

This method involves using a combination fo the two systems described above, the
nature of what form of supply goes where within a building depends on its needs,
toilet cisterns often do not require the pressure that a sink tap may require and
therefore one can be gravity fed and the other pumped. The building design
requirements will dictate what and where the different forms of water distribution
are used throughout a building.

Electrical distribution arrangements

For a commercial building, there are different forms of electrical distribution

throughout a building as each electrical systems will serve a different function within
the building. These systems include:

- Electrical power for low voltage equipment typically plugged directly into a
wall power socket outlet

- Auxiliary – this would be the data requirements in terms of telephone,

internet/data and audio and cable

- Building operation system – this is for larger equipment such as elevators and
escalators

- Automation – this would be lighting systems

- Fire – fire alarm systems will require both an electrical and water feed if a
sprinkler system is to be used

- Emergency lighting – in the event of a fire or other emergency, the lighting or

power may fail in a building and in commercial buildings there is a
requirement to have back up emergency lighting run on a sperate system to
illuminate exit routes and points.

Electricity is distributed through a building in two forms:

- Horizontally

Feeds each floor and its specific systems, lighting, power & data etc.

- Vertically

This is through the riser and is the electrical feed from the mains which is typically
found at ground level if the electricity supply is fed through the ground.

Electricity is distributed using wires which transport the generated electricity to its
required location.

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See below a digram showing the various distribtuon systems for Electricty in a
commercial building:

M5 Demonstrate the elements of the superstructure used to facilitate

the primary services.

In order to effectively distribute the supplied primary services. The buildings

superstructure must be designed in such a way that this distribution is possible. It
is largely accepted that aesthetically it is preferrable that building service
distributing is hidden as best possible throughout a building. There are also
health and safety implication of having building services on show. Typically, the
service distribution is out of reach from an end user so that they do not come
into contact and potentially damage the system or harm themselves.

To accommodate primary services, buildings have a number of methods available for

distribution, these include:

- Raised access flooring

A raised access floor allows services to be distributed through a building. A concrete

floor system will be made up of columns, beams and slabs. Using a raise floor system
is to use floor tiles suspended on pedestals to create a void between the tiled floor
finish and the concrete slab. Here, services such as water gas and electricity can be
run through a room or between rooms and remain unseen and undisturbed by the
function of that particular room.

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 - Suspended ceilings

Similarly, to a raised floor system, the opposite can be created on the underside of a
concrete floor slab by using a suspended ceiling system. This uses structural wires
which hold a grid system in place and lightweight ceiling tile form the visually
finished ceiling. Behind the tiled and gridded ceiling, building services including duct
work can be passed through the void and be distributed throughout a floor space.
Light fittings can be installed into the ceiling grid systems and the wiring hidden
behind the suspended ceiling detail. Ceiling voids can be altered on the basis that the
ceiling height still meets British Building Standards, this also depends on the
structure of the concrete frame I.e. how much space is there between slab floor
levels and can sufficient ceiling voids be created to accommodate building services.
This Is of a larger concern when considering ductwork sizes in a building.

- Partitioning

Internal partitioning form part of a superstructure and segregate different zones or

rooms within a building. Partitions can be constructed in a way to accommodate
building services, power, data and lighting switch outlets are typically found
mounted on walls. The boxes required can be set back into the partition to form a
flush mounted plate, this system utilises the void of a partition to a) create space for
the power data outlet box and b) a space for the cables to run either up from the
raised floor void or down from the ceiling void. In a brick and masonry construction
found in residential building, a process called chasing is required where the brick is
chipped away using low voltage tools or hand tools to cut away the space required
to run a concealed cable from the floor or ceiling, this cable is then capped using
Upvc capping to protect the cable and protect anyone potentially drilling through the
cable in the future.

- Rising ducts

In commercial budling with multiple storeys, the most common means to distribute
the mains primary services of gas, water and electricity is through vertical voids
through a building known as ‘risers’ these risers are specifically designed in building
superstructures to accommodate the distribution of services throughout, each floor
will have a riser cupboard which is securely locked and is for the purpose of
branching service distribution for each floor of the building. The riser allows for ease
of distribution from the bottom to top floor and all in between, it assist in simplicity
of design. The size of the riser duct will depends on the amount of services required
in each riser. Some buildings may require individual riser ducts for each service to
accommodate the buildings requirements.

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