9.

5 Plate Tectonics
Give two pieces of evidence for the theory of plate tectonics

Plate tectonics is the theory that the Earth’s lithosphere is composed of many
large plates that move slowly over time.

Evidence for plate tectonics includes:

● Coastlines appear to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle

● Spread of fossils of multiple species show the continents were previously
joined
● Earthquakes occur at boundaries of plates
● Today we can measure the movement of the plates
● Formation of newer crust at diverging boundaries (eg: rift valleys)
Describe Wegener’s theory of Continental Drift and evidence to support it

Alfred Wegener hypothesized that all of the modern-day continents had previously been
clumped together in a supercontinent he called Pangaea (from ancient Greek, meaning “all
lands” or “all the Earth”). Over millions of years, the continents had drifted apart.

Evidence:

● Coastlines appear to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle

● Spread of fossils of multiple species show the continents were previously
joined
Describe theory of Plate Tectonics by relating the theories of Continental Drift and Sea-floor
spreading

The tectonic plates move over time. This is continental drift. At some boundaries
between plates new oceanic crust is forming as the plates move apart and magma
comes up at the boundary to form new crust, filling the space made by the shifting
plates.
Identify that a mechanism for sea-floor spreading caused scientists to re-examine the
structure of the Earth

Sea floor spreading required a mechanism for it occur. The plates had to be able
to slide and required a force to make it happen. A liquid layer (mantle) allows
plates to slide over it. Movement of heat via convection currents is a mechanism
that provides force for the movement of plates.
Identify the major tectonic plates
Explain the idea of Pangaea and how the continents have reached their current positions

Pangaea was the original supercontinent that existed when all the current
continents were clustered together. Over time they moved apart and eventually
ended up in their current positions.
Plot positions of volcanoes, earthquakes on world map and correlate with plate boundaries
Describe the movement of Earth’s plates to model convection currents and gravitational
forces with diagrams

Convection currents drive the plates apart at divergent boundaries. At convergent

boundaries the plates are forced together. This can cause plates to buckle and
fold, but usually results in one plate sliding under another.
Explain the difference between transform, convergent and divergent boundaries and
identify one event in history that correlates to each boundary

Transform boundaries are sliding past each other, convergent are pushing towards
each other and divergent are pulling away from each other.

At transform boundaries earthquakes are

common. At convergent boundaries
earthquakes and volcanoes occur, as well as
folds, mountains and valleys. At divergent
boundaries such as rift valleys, new crust
forms. This can be a valley that becomes a
lake or ocean, or could form undersea ridges.
 Correctly label a diagram of a convergent boundary and a divergent boundary

At convergent boundaries
crust is being destroyed. For
this reason they are
sometimes called destructive
boundaries.
At divergent boundaries new
crust is being formed.
Divergent boundaries are also
known as constructive
boundaries.
Describe the three possibilities for collisions of plates along converging boundaries and the
different geological features and natural events that occur there.

At ocean-ocean boundaries undersea

volcanoes can form volcanic islands.
At continental-ocean boundaries, the
oceanic crust subducts under the
continental crust and volcanic ranges
form inland from the boundary.
At continent-continent boundaries thrust
and pressure can cause very high
pressure. Mountain ranges, deep valleys
and metamorphic rocks formed under
very high pressure.
Relate boundaries to new landforms such as folds (syncline, anticline), faults (reverse,
normal, block mountain, rift valley), mid-ocean ridges, trenches, mountain chains, island
arcs and volcanoes.

Where a convergent boundary

exists between two continental
plates two situations can occur.
If the rocks are ‘plastic’ (able to
be deformed by pressure) folds
will form. Synclines and
anticlines.
Relate boundaries to new landforms such as folds (syncline, anticline), faults (reverse,
normal, block mountain, rift valley), mid-ocean ridges, trenches, mountain chains, island
arcs and volcanoes.

If the rocks at a convergent boundary

are brittle (break under pressure) then
the inward compression pushes one
side up over the other at the break.
This is called a reverse fault.
Relate boundaries to new landforms such as folds (syncline, anticline), faults (reverse,
normal, block mountain, rift valley), mid-ocean ridges, trenches, mountain chains, island
arcs and volcanoes.

If the boundary of two continental

plates is divergent, cracks form and
the rock can slip. This is called a
normal fault.
Block mountains: form at normal faults due to
upward pressure.

Mid-ocean ridge: formed at oceanic divergent

boundaries as magma fills the gap between the
plates.

Trenches form where an oceanic plate subducts

underneath a continental plate.
Island arcs form at convergent oceanic-oceanic boundaries as magma is pushed
back up from over the subducting plate.
Volcanoes often form at convergent
boundaries. The subducted plate melts as it
is dragged deeper into the mantle. If it
contains liquids such as water, these form
gases and change the density and
pressure.

This creates an upthrust of magma,

resulting in the formation of volcanoes.
Describe what has caused the various volcanoes in the Southern Volcanic Zone of South
America

Along the West coast of South America

the Antarctic and Nazca plates are
subducting underneath the South
American plate.
The subducted plates are oceanic and
contain a lot of water. The melting
lithosphere turns to magma and hot
gases such as water vapour. This causes
low density and high pressure, leading to
an upthrust of magma, forming
volcanoes on the surface inland from the
subduction zone.
Explain how volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur

Magma chambers beneath the Earth’s surface hold vast amounts of magma.
Pressure can build up here from converging plates or the formation of gases.
Eventually the pressure builds up enough to force the magma out to the surface,
resulting in a volcanic eruption. Eruptions can be very violent as they also release
a build up pressurised gases and volcanic ash over large distances.

Earthquakes are the release of tension built up in fault lines. This tension is
caused by rocks pushing against each other over time. The pressure can build to
enormous amounts before being suddenly released. The released pressure
causes violent seismic waves of force, known as earthquakes.
Explain the formation of a tsunami by an undersea a earthquake

If an earthquake occurs underneath the ocean (or close to it), the resulting shift in
the plates can cause the movement of water to fill spaces created between
displaced tectonic plates. This can result in the sudden movement of vast
quantities of water, creating large waves known as tsunamis. These waves
increase in size as they get closer to shore.
Predict possible outcomes for the Earth’s continents if they continue to drift

Eventually (in many millions of years) the continents may meet again to form a
new super continent.
Define epicentre and focus of earthquakes

The focus of an earthquake is the centre point where the tension and force is
released. The epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the
focus.
Describe types of seismic waves P, S and L compare their properties

P waves are the fastest waves, followed by S waves

then L waves.
P waves are compressional, transverse waves.
S waves are transverse, shear waves.
Both P and S waves are body waves that can travel
through all layers of the Earth.
Rayleigh and Love (L) waves are surface waves.
They move only along the Earth’s lithosphere, move
at slower speeds and create a lot of damage with
their rolling and back and forth sheer.
Find the epicentre of earthquake using time difference between P and S waves.

https://www.mtu.edu/geo/community/seismology/learn/earthquake-epicenter/
Outline methods used to measure earthquake intensity including the Mercalli Scale and
Richter Scale

The Richter scale is a logarithmic (base

10) scale measuring earthquakes based
on energy released as measured by a
seismograph. Because it is logarithmic,
every point increase on the scale
represents 10x as much energy
released.

The Mercalli scale measures an

earthquake based on the impact to
people, eg damage to cities. The
mercalli scale is linear.
Describe some impacts of natural events, including cyclones, volcanic eruptions or
earthquakes on the Earth’s atmosphere.

Cyclones cause high winds in the atmosphere, and a build up of moisture drawn
from nearby bodies of water.

Volcanic eruptions can cause gases and ash to be ejected into the atmosphere.
This can block light and cause a dimming effect on the surface of the earth below.
Compounds such as sulfates and carbonates from the volcano can mix with water
vapour to form acid rain.

Earthquakes can release underground pockets of gases such as methane into the
atmosphere. Large earthquakes can also cause dust clouds to form in the
atmosphere under some conditions.
Explain using examples how advances in technology can be used to predict, identify,
explain and improve the management of natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
tsunamis) using magnetometers,seismometers and seismic surveys.

Volcanic eruptions can be preceded by a rise in surface temperature nearby, the

release of volcanic gases or by an increase in seismic activity.

Earthquakes cannot be predicted with current technology, but seismic data can
locate the epicentre and assist in sending aid to the correct regions.
Discuss impact of volcanic eruptions eg Bali/Hawaii on the atmosphere

Large volcanic eruptions can send vast plumes of ash into the atmosphere,
causing global dimming. The eruption of mount tambora in 1815 released so much
volcanic ash, the resulting global cooling dropped global temperatures by 3oC and
led to ‘the year without a summer’. Global food crops were affected and famine
was widespread.

Volcanic eruptions can cause widespread acid rain and the falling of volcanic ash.