182

CHAPTER 15
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

15.1 Occurrence
Carbon is found in the free state as diamond and graphite. Carbon in combination
with other elements is found in petroleum, coal, natural gas and limestone. Also, all
living things such as animals and plants contain carbon. The atmosphere contains 0.03%
by volume of carbon dioxide.

15.2 Allotropy and Allotropes of Carbon

If an element, in the same physical state, can exist in more than one form, it is
said to exhibit allotropy or polymorphism. The different forms in the same physical state
possess different physical properties and may have different chemical properties. The
differences between the forms may be due to :
(1) differences in crystal structure (diamond and graphite),
(2) differences in the number of atoms in the molecules as in the case of gases
(oxygen and ozone), or
(3) differences in the molecular structure of the liquid forms (liquid sulphur at
different temperatures).

Physical properties of crystalline allotropes of carbon

The physical properties of diamond and graphite which are the crystalline
allotropes of carbon, are given in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Physical properties of diamond and graphite

Physical Graphite Diamond

property
Density 2.3 g cm-3 3.5 g cm-3
Colour grey-black colourless
Opacity opaque transparent
Hardness soft very hard
Melting point sublimes at 3550 °C
about 3700°C
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Structure of crystalline allotropes of carbon

each dot represents a
carbon atom

Fig. 15.1 The structure of diamond

In diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by four other carbon atoms.
Diamond has a gaint structure. Diamond contains millions of carbon atoms in a three
dimensional network. Therefore, diamond is very hard and has a very high melting point.
(Diamond is the hardest among all naturally occuring substances.)
 each dot represent a
carbon atom
1 nm = 10-9 metre
1.42 A (or) 0.142 nm

Fig. 15.2 The sturcture of graphite

In graphite, each carbon atom is surrounded by three other carbon atoms in the
same plane and therefore layers of hexagons are obtained. The distance between the
layers is more than the distance between adjacent carbon atoms and so the layers are
weakly bonded to each other. Therefore, graphite is soft.
Naturally occurring graphite is not enough for industrial use. Hence, to
supplement industrial requirements, artificial graphite is prepared by heating powdered
coke at high temperatures in an electric furnace.
 184

To show that diamond and graphite are of the same element carbon
When carbon burns in oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed. Carbon dioxide
dissolves in aqueous potassium hydroxide to form aqueous potassium carbonate.
carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
C + O2 CO2
potassium carbon potassium
+ + water
hydroxide dioxide carbonate
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
Since diamond and graphite are of the same element carbon, equal masses of
diamond and graphite are found to produce equal masses of carbon dioxide.
Diamond and graphite may be burnt to form carbon dioxide under suitable
experimental conditions. From such experimental determination, it has been definitely
shown that the diamond and graphite are allotropic forms of the same element, carbon.
Other forms of carbon
Coal, coke, charcoal and carbon black are assumed to be amorphous forms of
carbon. Now it is found that these forms of carbon contain randomly oriented small
crystals of graphite.
Charcoal: Charcoal is made by heating wood in the absence of air. Charcoal is a
black porous solid.
Coal: Coal is found in nature. In coal the element carbon is mixded with compounds of
other elements. Coal is a black heavy solid.
Coke: Coke is formed by heating coal in the absence of air. Coke is a black heavy solid.
Carbon black (soot) : When kerosene is burnt in a limited amount of air, hydrogen
from kerosene combines with oxygen from the air the carbon is left as carbon black.
Carbon black is a black power.

15.3 Uses of Carbon

Diamond
Cut diamonds are used for jewellery. Small pieces of diamonds are used as glass
cutters and drill points.
Graphite
Graphite is used for making electrodes and crucibles. Graphite crucibles are used
as containers form melting metals at high temperature. Graphite mixed with clay is used
as pencil leads.

Charcoal
 185

Charcoal has a porous structure and has many small holes. Because of this
porosity, charcoal has a relatively larger surface area, and can remove colouring matter
and gases by a process known as adsorption. This adsorptive property of charcoal can be
further improved by treatment with dilute acids and other chemicals. Charcoal so treated
is known as activated charcoal or activated carbon.
Activated charcoal is used in industry for bleaching (removal of colour) and
deodourisation (removal of smell) of substances. Charcoal is also used as a fuel for
cooking.
Coal
Coal is used to produce coke and coal tar.
Coke
Coke is used as a fuel in industry and as reducing agent in the extraction of
metals, such as iron, lead, zinc etc. (See 15.4.3)
Carbon Black
Carbon black is used form making printing ink, black shoe polish and as filler in
vehicle tyres and other rubber products.

15.4 Chemical Properties of Carbon

1. When carbon burns in excess air or oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed.
carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
2C + O2 CO2
Carbon monoxide is formed when carbon burns in a limited amount or air of oxygen.
carbon + oxygen carbon monoxide
C + O2 2CO
2. Red hot carbon combines with sulphur vapour to form carbon disulphide.
carbon + sulphur carbon disulphide
C + 2S CS2
3. Reducing properties of carbon
When strongly heated, carbon can reduce the oxides of zinc and the metals below
it in the activity series to their respective metals.
carbon + zinc oxide zinc + carbon monoxide
C + ZnO Zn + CO
carbon + lead (II) oxide lead + carbon monoxide
C + PbO Pb + CO
Carbon + coper (II) oxide copper + carbon monoxide
 186

C + CuO Cu + CO
Red hot carbon reduces carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide.
carbon + carbon dioxide carbon monoxide
C + CO2 2CO
Red hot coke can reduce steam to hydrogen.
carbon + steam carbon monoxide + hydrogen
C + H2O CO + H2
4. Carbon is slowly oxidized to carbon dioxide by strong oxidizing acids such as
concentrated sulphuric acid.
sulphuric carbon sulphur
carbon + + water
+
acid dioxide dioxide
C + 2H2SO4 CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O

15.5 Compounds of Carbon

Oxides of carbon
There are two oxides of carbon, namely, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide CO
Laboratory preparation of carbon monoxide from methanoic acid
(formic acid)

Fig. 15.3 Preparation of carbon monoxide from methanoic acid

methanoic acid water + carbon monoxide

HCOOH H2O + CO

Some methanoic acid is placed in a flat-bottomed flask, and the apparatus set up
as shown in Fig. 15.3. Concentrated sulphuric acid is slowly poured into the flask
 187

through a thistle funnel. Carbon monoxide is formed by the action of concentrated

sulphuric acid on methanoic acid. Since carbon monoxide is only slightly soluble in
water and has about the same relative vapour density as air it is collected by the
downward displacement of water. The gas jar is filled with carbon monoxide, when all
the water in the gas jar is displaced.

Laboratory preparation of carbon monoxide from sodium methanoate

(sodium formate)

Fig 15.4 Preparation of carbon monoxide from sodium methanoate

sodium
sodium sulphuric hydroge carbon
+ + + water
methanoate acid n monoxide
sulphate
HCOONa + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + CO + H2O

Some sodium methanoate crystals are placed in a round-bottomed flask, and the
apparatus set up as shown in Fig. 15.4. Concentrated sulphuric acid is slowly poured into
flask through the thistle funnel. The flask is gently heated when carbon monoxide is
formed. Since carbon monoxide is slightly soluble in water and has about the same
relative vapour density as air, it is collected by the downward desplacement of water.
 188

Laboratory preparation of carbon monoxide from ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid)

Fig. 15.5 Preparation of carbon monoxide from ethanedioic acid

ethanedioic water carbon carbon

+ +
acid dioxide monoxide
COOH H2 O + CO2 + CO
COOH
Some ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) crystals are put into a round-bottomed flask,
and the apparatus set up as shown in Fig. 15.5. Concentrated sulphuric acid is slowly
poured into the flask through the thistle funnel. The flask is heated gently when a mixture
of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide formed. To remove carbon dioxidel, the mixture
of gases is passed through potassium hydroxide solution.
Carbon monoxide is only slightly soluble in water and has about the same relative vapour
density as air, it is collected by the downward displacement of water.
Physical properties of carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas. It is slightly soluble in water, but this
solution does not change the colour of litmus paper. Carbon monoxide is very poisonous.
(Carbon monoxide can combine with haemoglobin of the blood and thus prevent the
blood from carrying oxygen for use in the body.) Carbon monoxide has about the same
relative vapour density as air.
Chemical properties of carbon monoxide
1. Carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame in air.
carbon monoxide + oxygen carbon dioxide
2CO + O2 2CO2
2. Reducing properties of carbon monoxide
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Carbon monoxide can reduce the oxides of zinc and the metals below it in the
activity series to the respective metals.
Example:
When carbon monoxide is passed over heated iron (III) oxide, metallic iron is formed.
iron(III) + carbon carbon
iron +
oxide monoxide dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

Carbon monoxide can also reduce heated copper (II) oxide to metallic copper.
copper(II) carbon carbon
+ copper +
oxide monoxide dioxide
CuO + CO Cu + CO2

Heated lead (II) oxide is reduced to metallic lead by carbon monoxide.

lead(II) oxide + carbon monoxide lead + carbon dioxide
PbO + CO Pb + CO2
Carbon monoxide can reduce heated zinc oxide to metallic zinc.
zinc oxide + carbon monoxide zinc+ carbon dioxide
ZnO + CO Zn + CO2

3. Addition properties of carbon monoxide

When a mixture of carbon monoxide and sulphur vapour is passed thorugh a
heated tube, carbonyl sulphide is formed.
sulphur + carbon monoxide carbonyl sulphide
S + CO COS
Carbonyl chloride is formed when a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine is exposed
to sunlight.
chloride + carbon monoxide carbonyl chloride
Cl2 + CO COCl2
Carbon monoxide combines with bromine vapour to form carbonyl bromide.
bromine + carbon monoxide carbonyl bromide
Br2 + CO COBr2
Carbon monoxide combines with gently heated nickel to form nickel carbonyl.
nickel + carbon monoxide nickel carbonyl
Ni + 4CO Ni(CO)4
 190

When sodium hydroxide is heated to 200°C and carbon monoxide is passed over it,
sodium methanoate is obtained.
sodium + carbon monoxide sodium methanoate
hydroxide
NaOH + CO HCOONa

A solution of copper (I) chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid or ammonia

solution can absorb carbon monoxide gas.
copper (I) carbon copper (I) chloride
+ water +
chloride monoxide carbon monoxide complex
CuCl + 2H2O + CO CuCl. CO. 2H2O

Carbon dioxide CO2

Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate

Fig.15.6 Preparation of carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate

calcium hydrochloric calcium carbon
+ + water +
carbonate acid (dil) chloride dioxide
CaCO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Some marble chips (calcium carbonate)are placed in a flat-bottomed flask and the
apparatus set up as shown in Fig. 15.6. Dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into the flask
thorugh the thistle funnel. Carbon dioxide, being heavier than air, is collected by the
upward displacement of air. Since carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas, testing is
required to establish whether the gas jar is full of carbon dioxide or not. If a burning
 191

candle, brought near the mouth of the gas jar, is extinguished, the gas jar is full of carbon
dioxide.
Physical properties of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas. It is sparingly soluble in
water and heavier than air. Carbon dioxide solidifies directly when colled at atmoshperic
pressure to give dry ice, i.e., solid carbon dioxide sublimes at - 78°C.
Chemical properties of carbon dioxide
1. Carbon dioxdie does not burn and does not support combustion. However, the
temperature of burning magnesium ribbon is high enough to decompose the
carbon dioxide and liberate oxygen. The magnesium ribbon continues to burn
in the presence of this liberated oxygen

Fig. 15.7 Extinguishing a candle with carbon dioxide

magnesium + carbon dioxide magnesium oxide+ carbon

2Mg + + CO2 2MgO + C

2. Acidic properties of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is sparingly soluble in water forming a weakly acidic solution of
carbonic acid which turns blue litmus pink.
carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
CO2 + H2 O H2CO3
Carbon dioxide can react with basic oxides.
calcium oxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate
CaO + CO2 CaCO3
sodium oxide + carbon dioxide sodium carbonate
Na2O + CO2 Na2CO3
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Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky due to the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate.
calcium + carbon calcium
+ water
hydroxide dioxide carbonate
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
Calcium carbonate redissloves on passing excess carbon dioxide to give a solution of
calcium hydrogencarbonate.
calcium carbon calcium hydrogen
+ water +
carbonate dioxide carbonate
CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2
Uses of carbon dioxide
Since carbon dioxide is about one and a half times as dense as air and neither
supports combustion nor is inflammable, it is used in fire extinguishers. The heavy
carbon dioxide gas forms a blanket over the burning material, cuts off the air supply and
puts out the flames.
Carbon dioxide is used in the preparation of mineral waters. Soda-water is a
solution of carbon dioxide in water under pressure. Sweetened and flavoured soda-water
is sold as lemonade.
Carbonates
Carbonic acid is a week dibasic acid and so it can form two kinds of salts depending on
whether one or both of the hydrogens are replaced by a metal.
H2CO3

MHCO3 M2CO3 M= a mono valent metal

hydrogencarbonate carbonate

Preparation of hydrogencarbonates
Hydrogencarbonates are prepared by passing carbon dioxide through solutions or
suspensions of carbonates in water.

Example :
When carbon dioxide is passed through the solution of sodium carbonate in
water, sodium hydrogencarbonate solution is formed.
sodium carbon sodium hydrogen-
+ water +
carbonate dioxide carbonate
 193

Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 2NaHCO3

When carbon dioxide is passed through the suspension of calcium carbonate in
water, aqueous calcium hydrogencarbonate is formed.
calcium carbon calcium hydrogen-
+ water +
carbonate dioxide carbonate
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2

Properties of hydrogencarbonates
1. All hydrogencarbonates are soluble in water. Only the hydrogencarbonates of
potassium, sodium and ammonium can exist in the solid state. Solutions of other
hydrogencarbonate decompose on heating for crystallization.
calcium hydrogen calcium carbon
+ water +
carbonate carbonate dioxide
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2

2. All hydrogencarbonates decompose on heating.

sodium hydrogen sodium carbon
+ water +
carbonate carbonate dioxide
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

magnesium hydrogen magnesium carbon

+ water +
carbonate carbonate dioxide
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

3. All hydrogencarbonates react with dilute acids to give carbon dioxide.

sodium hydrogen + hydrochloric sodium + carbon
water +
carbonate acid chloride dioxide
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2

Preparation of carbonates
Some of the carbonates such as sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate occur in nature. Sodium carbonate is used for the preparation of
other carbonates.
When an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate is mixed with an aqueous solution
of metal salt, either normal carbonate or basic carbonate is precipitated.
 194

When aqueous sodium carbonate is mixed with aqueous calcium chloride, calcium
carbonate is precipitated.
sodium calcium calcium sodium
+ +
carbonate chloride carbonate cloride
Na2CO3 + CaCl2 CaCO3 + 2NaCl

When aqueous sodium carbonate is mixed with aqueous lead (II) nitrate, basic lead (II)
carbonate precipitated.
The various stages of the reaction may be represented as follows:
lead (II) sodium lead (II) sodium
+ +
nitrate carbonate carbonate nitrate
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 PbCO3 + 2NaNO3

sodium sodium carbonic

+ water +
carbonate hydroxide acid
Na2CO3 + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2CO3

Lead (II) + sodium lead (II) + sodium

nitrate hydroxide hydroxide nitrate
Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaOH Pb(OH)2 + 2NaNO3

lead (II) + lead (II) dibasic lead (II) carbonate

carbonate hydroxide
2PbCO3 + Pb(OH)2 2PbCO3. Pb(OH)2

There are no basic carbonates of potassium, sodium and calcium. Calcium carbonate is therefore
prepared by the reaction between and aqueous solution of soluble calcium salts and aqueous sodium
carbonate. The carbonates of other heavy metals may be prepared by using sodium hydrogencarbonate
instead of sodium carbonate.
sodium
lead(II) lead(II) sodium carbon
+ hydrogen + + + water
nitrate carbonate nitrate dioxide
carbonate
Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaHCO3 PbCO3 + 2NaNO3 + CO2 + H2O
Carbonates are obtained when carbon dioxide is passed through aqueous solutions of
hydroxides.
calcium carbon calcium
+ water
+
hydroxide dioxide carbonate
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Properties of carbonates
 ammonium

195

1. Carbonates of potassium, sodium and ammonium are colourless and soluble in

water. Carbonates and basic carbonates of other metals are insoluble in water.
2. Action of heat on carbonates
Carbonates of sodium and potassium do not decompose on heating. Ammonium
carbonate decomposes readily on heating to ammonia, carbon dioxide and water.

ammonium ammonia + water + carbon dioxide

carbonate
(NH4)2CO3 2NH3 + H2O + CO2

Insoluble carbonates decompose into oxide and carbon dioxide on heating.

calcium calcium carbon
+
carbonate oxide dioxide
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
magnesium magnesium carbon
+
carbonate oxide dioxide
MgCO3 MgO + CO2

3. Action of acids on carbonates

All carbonates react with dilute acids to give salts, water and carbon dioxide.
calcium
calcium hydrochlori carbon
+ chlorid + water +
carbonate c acid (dil) dioxide
e
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

sodium sulphuric sodium carbon

+ + water +
carbonate acid (dil) sulphate dioxide
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

basic copper(II) nitric acid carbon

+ copper(II) + water +
carbonate (dil) dioxide
Cu(OH)2. 2CuCO3 + 6HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2CO2

Aqueous solution of potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate or ammonium carbonate,

when mixed with metallic salt solution give either carbonate or basic carbonate.
Test for carbonates
 196

Some of the sample is put in a test tube.

Dilute sulphuric acid is added.
If a carbonate is present, there will be effervesence.
The gas evolved is passed into another test tube containing lime water.
The lime water turns milky, if the gas is carbon dioxide and the sample is carbonate.
sodium sulphuric sodium carbon
+ + Water +
carbonate acid (dil) sulphate dioxide
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

carbon calcium calcium

+ + Water
dioxide hydroxide carbonate
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O

Test for soluble carbonates

If the carbonate is soluble the following additional tests may be carried out.
1. Dissolve the sample in water. Divide the clear solution into 3 portions. To a
portion of this clear solution, add aqueous calcium chloride. If the sample is
carbonate, white precipitate of calcium carbonate will be formed.

sodium calcium calcium sodium

+ +
carbonate chloride carbonate chloride
Na2CO3 + CaCl2 CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Add ethanoic acid (acetic acid)to the white precipitate. If soluble, the precipitate
must be calcium carbonate.
calcium ethanoic calcium carbon
+ + water + dioxide
carbonate acid (dil) ethanoate
CaCO3 + 2CH3COOH (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
2. Take another portion of the clear solution and add aqueous magnesium sulphate.
The white precipitate formed must be magnesium carbonate.
sodium magnesium magnesium sodium
+
+
carbonate sulphate carbonate sulphate
Na2CO3 + MgSO4 MgCO3 + Na2SO4
Add ethanoic acid (acetic acid) to the white precipitate. If soluble, the precipitate
must be magnesium carbonate.
magnesium ethanoic magnesium carbon
+ + water +
 197

carbonate acid ethanoate dioxide

MgCO3 + 2CH3COOH (CH3COO)2Mg + H2 O + CO2

Take another portion of the clear solution and add aqueous copper (II) sulphate. The blue
precipitate formed must be basic copper (II) carbonate.
copper (II) + sodium copper(II) + sodium
sulphate carbonate carbonate sulphate
CuSO4 + Na2CO3 CuCO3 + Na2SO4
sodium sodium carbonic
+ water +
carbonate hydroxide acid
Na2CO3 + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2CO3

copper (II) sodium copper (II) sodium

+ +
sulphate hydroxide hydroxide sulphate
CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
copper(II) copper(II) basic copper (II) carbonate
+
hydroxide carbonate
Cu(OH)2 + 2CuCO3 Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3

Add ethanoic acid (acetic acid) to the blue precipitate. If soluble, the precipitate
must be basic copper (II) carbonate.
basic copper (II) ethanoic copper (II) carbon
+ + water +
carbonate acid ethanoate dioxide

Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3 + 6CH3COOH 3(CH3COO)2Cu+ 4H2O + 2CO2

Carbon and its compound

The greenhouse effect
The earth's climate is effected by the levels of carbon dioxide and water vapour in
the atmosphere. These gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect.
The earth is heated by the sun. Heat energy from the earth is radiated back into
space. The balance keeps the temperature of the anything happens to upset the balance,
the result will be a change in the world's climate.
 198

A rise in temperature could melt the ice caps at the North and South poles. A fall
could decrease the world's food production.
When the Earth sends heat energy back into space, it changes the wavelength to
that of infrared radiation. Unlike sunlight, infrared radiation cannot travel freely through
the air surrounding the Earth. Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb infrared radiation.
They act as blankets round the earth, hindering the escape of heat into space. Without
these blankets the Earth's surface would be (-40°C), instead of a life-supporting (15°C).
If additional water vapour and carbon dioxide were added to the atmosphere, it would be
like adding another blanket. The Earth would heat up. This blanketing by water vapour
and carbon dioxide is called the greenhouse effect.

SUMMARY

In this chapter ,carbon and its compounds are discussed in detail. Carbon can exist in
many allotropic forms. Two crystalline forms of carbon are diamond and graphite.
Amorphous forms of carbon are coal, coke , charcoal, and carbon black. Compounds of
carbon such as carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, are elaborated with preparation
methods, physical and chemical properties and [Link] addition, preparation , properties
and tests for hydrogencarbonates and carbonates are also presented. The greenhouse
effect caused by carbon dioxide and water vapor is summarized as follows.

The greenhouse effect

A layer of carbon dioxide and water vapour surrounds the earth. This layer reduces the
amount of heat which the Earth radiates into space. By burning hydrocarbon fuels, we
pour carbon dioxide and water vapour into the atmosphere. The layer of carbon dioxide
and water vapour is growing thicker. If it becomes too thick, the earth will warm up, and
the ice caps could begin to melt. This blanketing by water vapour and carbon dioxide is
called the greenhouse effect.. We also put many gases into the atmosphere. This
has the effect of scattering some of the sun's radiation and cooling the earth.

Questions and Problems

1. How can you show that diamond and graphite are different forms of the same
element carbon?
2. Even though diamond and graphite are the allotropes of carbon, explain why they
have different physical properties.
3. Give five examples to show that carbon has reducing properties.
4. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are colourless, odourless gases.
How will you identify these gases in separate gas jars?
5. (a) Do you think the carbon dioxide obtained by the method described on page
178 is pure?
(b) If it is not pure, what is the likely impurity?
 199

(c) How would you remove this impurity and obtain pure dry carbon dioxide?
(d) Draw the diagram of the apparatus you would use and describe the
experiment.
6. Write equations in words and symbols for the following reactions:
(a) HNO3(1) + C(s) ?
(b) Fe3O4(s) + CO (g) ?
(c) KOH(aq) + CO2(g) ?
7. Formula of basic copper (II) carbonate is Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3.
Write the equation in symbols for the reaction of aqueous sodium carbonate with
aqueous copper (II) sulphate to form basic copper (II) carbonate.
8. How would you differentiate aqueous sodium carbonate from aqueous sodium
hydrogencarbonate?
9. When carbon dioxide is passed over heated zinc, some of the gas reacts according
to the equation.
Zn + CO2 ZnO + CO
By using this reaction, how will you prepare carbon dioxide free carbon
monoxide from ethanedioic acid? You are not allowed to use caustic potash.
Draw the apparatus you will use and briefly describe the procedure.
10. Outline an experiment to show that school chalk is a compound of carbon by
actually isolating the element carbon. Give equations for each step of your
procedure.
11. Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements.
(a) Carbon is found in free state as diamond and graphite.
(b) Carbon in combination with other element is found in petroleum coal,
natural gas and limestone.
(c) Carbon cannot exhibit allotropy or polymorphism.
(d) Coal, Coke, Charcoal and carbon black are the amorphous forms of carbon.
(e) Diamond and graphite do not contain the same element carbon.

12. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or words.

(a) Diamond and graphite are the ................... allotropes of carbon.
(b) Coke, Coal, Charcola and carbon black are the ................... forms of
carbon.
(c) Diamond and graphite are of the same element ...................
(d) The two oxides of carbon are carbon monoxide and ...................
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(e) Carbon monoxide can also reduce heated copper (II) oxide to
metallic.................
(f) Carbon dioxide is …….. than air.
(g) Carbon dioxide solidifies when cooled to give …….. .
(h) Dry ice sublimes at ……oC.
(i) Carbon dioxide can be used as a fire ……… .
13. Select the correct word or words given in the bracket.
(a) Diamond and graphite belong to (amorphous, crystalline, different) forms of
carbon
(b) Carbon monoxide can (oxidise, reducem, promote) heated zinc oxide to
metallic zinc.
(c) Coal, Coke, Charcoal, carbon black are (crystalline, amorphous, same)
forms of carbon.
(d) All carbonates react with dilute acids to give salts, water and (carbon
dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide).
(e) When carbon monoxide is passed over heated iron (III) oxide, metallic
(lead, copper, iron) is formed.
(f) Which of these is not an allotrope of carbon ?
(i) coal (ii) graphite (iii) charcoal
(g) Which of the following is not a natural form of calcium carbonate ?
(i) chalk (ii) lime (iii) limestone (iv) marble
(h) Which of the following properties does not apply to carbon dioxide ?
(i) It is slightly soluble in water. (iii) It is a reducing agent.
(ii) It is denser than air. (iv) It is flammable.
(i) When carbon dioxide is bubbled into lime water , it turns milky. The white
precipitate is due to the formation of insoluble ,
(i) calcium oxide (iii) calcium hydrogen carbonate
(ii) calcium hydroxide (iv) calcium carbonate

14. Match each of the items given in list A with the appropriate item given in list B.
List A List B
(a) Diamond is the crystalline (i) to form potassium
form of carbon carbonate
(b) Diamond and graphite are the (ii) It has a giant structure
crystalline forms of carbon
(c) Carbon dioxide dissolves (iii) equal masses of diamond
 201

in aqueous potassium and graphite are found to

hydroxide produce equal masses of CO2
(d) Carbon can exit in (iv) They contain the same
amorphous and crystalline element carbon
forms
(e) Diamond and graphite are (v) It exhibit allotropy or
of the same element carbon polymorphism
15. Explain the greenhouse effect.
16. Answer the following questions.
(a) Name two allotropes of carbon..
(b) Explain the following observations with suitable equations.
(i) When carbon dioxide is bubbled through lime water , a milky white
suspension forms.
(ii) But if you continue to bubble through more carbon dioxide gas,the
suspension disappears and form a clear liquid.
(c) Give equations for addition properties of carbon monoxide.
(d) Describe the main steps involved in the test for carbonate.
(e) What is polymorphism ? Give example in crystal, in gases , in
molecular structure.

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Appendix 1
GLOSSARY OF CHEMICAL TERMS

CHAPTER 1
SUBSTANCES AND THEIR CHANGES
Solid - A solid is a substance which has definite volume and definite shape.
Liquid - A liquid is a substance which has definite volume but not definite
shape. It takes the shape of the container in which it is placed.
Gas - A gas is a substance which has no definite volume and shape. It fills
up space it can enter and it takes up the volume and the shape of the
container.
Melting - Melting is the change from the solid state to the liquid state.
Freezing - Freezing is the change from the liquid state to the solid state.
Melting point - The temperature at which the solid and liquid of the same subnstance
Can exist together is called the melting point of the solid.
Vaporization - The change from the liquid state to the vapour state is called
vaporization.
Condensation - The change from the vapour state to liquid state is called
condensation.
Evaporation - Loss of liquid due to vaporization is called evaporation.
Boiling point - The temperature at which the liquid boils in an open vessel is
commonly
Called the boiling point of the liquid.
Sublimation - Sublimation is a process in which a solid substance changes without
melting directly into its vapour on heating.
Physical change- A physical change is a change in which no new substances are formed.
Chemical change- A chemical change is a change in which one or more substances are
formed.
Changes and Energy Every change , either physical or chemical of a substance, is
accompanied by a change of energy.
Chemical energy - Chemical energy is a form of potential energy which exists in a
substance. In chemical changes, this chemical energy is converted into
heat and light, as you have seen in the burning of magnesium ribbon.
Chemical reaction- The process of undergoing a chemical change is called a chemical
reaction..
 203

Reactants - A substance or substances that take part in a chemical reaction is called a

chemical reaction.
Products - A new substance or substances are formed in a chemical reaction are
called products.
Word - A chemical reaction can be described by a word equation. The names
of the reactants are written on the left hand side and the names of the
products are written on the right hand side of the equation.
Reactants = Products
Eg., When magnesium burns in air, it combines with oxygen of the air forming
magnesium oxide. Here magnesium and oxygen are reactants and
magnesium oxide is the product.
**************************************

CHAPTER 2
ELEMENT, COMPOUND AND MIXTURE
Elements - An element is a substance which cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical means.
Natural elements- There are 92 known elements, which occur naturally, either in the free
or Combined state.
Compounds - A compound is a substance formed by a combination of two or more
elements in a fixed proportion by weight.
The difference between an element and a compound
The main difference is that an element cannot be broken down into
other elements by chemical means whereas a compound can be broken
down into other substances by chemical means.
Classification of elements
On the basis of their properties , elements may be classified into two
groups; such as metals and non-metals.
Malleability - A substance is malleable if it can be beaten or pressed into new
shapes. ( Gold is highly malleable.)
Ductile - A substance is ductile if it can be drawn out in the form of a wire.
( Gold is highly ductile.)
Examples of metals- Sodium, Potassium., Zinc, Iron , Tin , Gold etc.
Examples of non-metals- Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine
etc
Classification of compounds
Compounds may be classified into binary compounds, acids, bases,
and salts.
 204

Binary compounds - The compound formed by the combination of two elements

are called binary compounds.
Acids - All acids show common properties. They have sour taste and turn blue
litmus red.
Bases - A common property of the bases is that they can turn red litmus blue.
Salts - Salts are formed when acids and bases neutralize one another.
Mixtures - A mixture consists of two or more substances which may be present in
any proportion by weight. The constituents of the mixture do not
combine chemically.
Classification of mixtures
Mixtures may be classified into heterogenous and homogenous
mixtures/.
Heterogenous mixtures- Mixtures whose constituents can be seen separately on
visual orMicroscopic examination are called heterogenous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures- Mixtures whose costituents cannot be seen separatey on
visual or microscopic examination are called homogenious mixtures.
**************************************
CHAPTER 3
SOLUTION
Solution - A solution is a clear homogeneous mixture obtained when a substance
dissolves in a liquid.
Solvent - A solvent is a substance , mostly liquid, in which another substance
dissolves to give a homogeneous mixture.
Solute - A solute is a substance dissolved in a solvent to give a solution.
Unsaturated solution- A solution in which more of the solute can dissolve at the given
temperature is called an unsaturated solution.
Saturated solution- A saturated solution is one in which no more solute will dissolve at
the given temperature, in the presence of excess solute.
Solubility - Solubility of a substance at a given temperature is the mass in grams
of the substance which will saturate 100g of water, at that temperature.
Supersaturated solution- The solution that retains more solute than is required to
saturate the solution at a given temperature is called a supersaturated
solution.
Shape of crystals- The crystals of the same substance have the same crystalline forms the
crystals of different substances have different crystalline forms.
Water of crystallization- The water essential for the existence of the substances in
the crystalline state is called water of crystallization.
Hydrate - Crystals containing water of crystallization are called hydrates.
 205

Efflorescence - The process of losing all or part of the water of crystallization into the
air from the hydrate is called efflorescence.
Deliquescence - When some substances are exposed to the air they absorb water from
the air and become damp. This process is called deliquescence.
Hygroscopic substances- Some substances on exposure to the air absorb water but may
not dissolve in it. These substances are called hygroscopic substances.
Drying agent - As deliquescent and hygroscopic substances can absorb water vapour
from the air , these substances are used to dry other substances.
Dissolution - Some of the mixture of sand and salt is put in a test tube. Water is
added and the mixture well shaken. Salt will dissolve in water but
sand will remain undissolved.
Filtration - The technique of separating the solution from the insoluble solid by
Passage through filter paper is called filtration.
Decantation - The technique of pouring out the clear solution, without disturbing the
settled particle at the bottom of it, is called decantation.
Evaporation - The technique of recovering dissolved solids freom the solution by
Heating the solution is called evaporation.
Distillation - Distillation is a process in which differences in the volatilities of
substances are utilized to separate them.
Fractional distillation-Fractional distillation is used to separate two or more liquids
having different boiling points which are present in the form of a
homogenous
Mixture or solution.
Fractional crystallization- Fractional crystallization is a method of separation for solids
in a mixture which are all commonly soluble in a given solvent but
have different solubilities in it.
Chromatography - Chromatography is a method of separating the constituents of a
mixture by making use of their different rates of movement over
adsorbent medium in contact with an appropriate solvent.
Column chromatography- A solution containing the coloured pigments of a leaf may be
washed through a column packed with aluminium oxide (alumina).
The various components will move through the column at different
rates due to the difference in the degree to which they are adsorbed.
This type of separation is known as column chromatography. Paper
chromatography When paper is used as the adsorbent material and the
solutrion containing the mixture moves upward the paper, the
technique is called paper chromatography.
************************************************
 206

CHAPTER 4
THE LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND THE IDEA OF ATOM
The law of conservation of mass- Matter can neither be created nor destroyed Hence,
the total mass of the substances before and after a reaction is always
the same
The law of definite proportion- The same compound always contains the same elements
in the same proportion by weight.
Dalton;s atomic theory (1) Matter is made up of extremely small particles called atoms.
(2) Atoms can neither be create4d nor destroyed.
(3) Atoms of one particular e4lement have the same mass, shape,
size and other properties.
(4) Atoms of different elements have different masses and
different properties.
(5) Atoms of different elements combine in simple ratios to form
molecules and compounds.
(6) Molecules of the compound have the same mass, shape and
other properties.
(7) Molecules of different compounds have different masses and
different properties.
The law of multiple proportions- If two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the different weights of of one element that combine with
it a fixed weight of the other elements are in a ratio of small whole
numbers.
**************************************
CHAPTER 5
ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES IN SUBSTANCES
Molecular substances and molecular structures- The substances which are made up of
molecules
Are molecular substances. The structures of these substances
Are called molecular structures.
Non-molecular substances- The substances which are not made up of molecules but are
instead made up of atoms are callede non-molecular substances.
Molecules - A molecule is a group of atoms joined together . It is the smallest
particle of a substance which can exist by itself.
Giant structure - The giant structure of a solid is an assembly of atoms arranged in a
three dimentional pattern that repeat itsrlf regularly to form the whole
mass of the solid.
 207

Crystals - Crystals are solids which are bounded by plane surfaces at definite
angles. Each type of crystal has a regular shape in the form of
polyhedron.
Polyhedron - A polyhedron is a solid figure bounded by plane surfaces.
Crystalline substances - The regular arrangements of atoms and molecules in the
solid gives it a characteristic crystalline shape. The solids with
crystalline shapes are called crystalline substances.
******************************************
CHAPTER 6
MASSES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES

The hydrogen scale of atomic mass- Hydrogen is the lightest element and the mass of
hydrogen
Is taken to be the basic unit. This unit is called 1 amu (atomic mass
unit) The mass of an oxygen atom is 16 times heavier than hydrogen.
Therefore, the atomic mass of oxygen is 16 amu. The atomic mass of
carbon is taken as 12 amu.
Reason for discarding the hydrogen atom as standard- But the one draw back of the
hydrogen scale is that hydrogen cannot directly combine with all
elements to form compound.
The oxygen scale of atomic mass- It is known that oxygen combines directly with
most other elements to form compound. Thus, it is easier to compare
the masses of other atoms with the mass of an oxygen [Link] the
oxygen scale the mass of an oxygen atom is assigned exactly 16 amu.
1 amu = 1/16 x mass of oxygen [Link], masses of other
atoms are expressed in terms of this standard unit. When the atomic
mass of oxygen is taken as 16 amu, the mass of hydrogen atom is
slightly greater than 1 unit. It is 1.008 amu.
The carbon twelve ( 12 C ) scale of atomic mass- By mass spectrometer, 12C is
convenient standard in determining atomic mass . In the 12C scale
An atom of 12C is assigned a mass of 12 amu. 1
amu = 1/12 x mass of a 12C atom. The unit for determining atomic
massess is defined as one twelve the mass of an atom of 12C .
Problem (1) - The atomic mass of S is 32 amu. How many times a S – atom is
heavier than the 12C atom.
Answer : Atomic mass of S – atom = 32/12 = 2.5 times Atomic
mass of 12C atom

Problem (2) - A magnesium atgom is 2 times heavier than 12C atom.

 208

What is the atomic mass of Mg ?

Answer : Atomic mass of Mg = 2 x 12 of 12C = 24amu
Problem (3) - A silver atom is 9 times heavier than a 12C atom. What is
The atomic mass of silver ?
Answer : Atomic mass of Ag = 9 x 12 of 12C atom
= 108 amu
Relative atomic masses - Atomic masses of hydrogen (1.008 amu), oxygen (16 amu)
and magnesium (24 amu) are the ratio of 1.008 : 16 : [Link] these
numbers (1.008, 16, 24 ) can be regarded as relative atomic masses.
They are sometimes called atomic weights.
“The relative atomic mass of an element can be defined as the ratio of the
mass of an atom of that element to one twelve the mass of a carbon
twelve atom”
Mass spectrometer- Mass spectrometer is an instrument that can measure the atomic
mass of an element.
Isotopes - Atoms of the same elements with different masses are called isotopes.
1
Isotopes of other elements - Hydrogen has 2 isotopes H and 2H
16 17 18
Oxygen has 3 isotopes O, O, O
14 15
Nitrogen has 2 isotopes N and N
35 37
Chlorine has 2 isotopes Cl and Cl
12 13 14
Carbon has 3 isotopes C, C, C
Magnesium has 3 isotopes 24Mg , 25
Mg , 26
Mg
Molecular mass 1-The mass of a molecule is the total mass of the atoms present in a
molecule.

**************************************
CHAPTER 7
SYMBOLS, FORMULAE AND EQUATION

Symbols - A symbol is a short notation of an element.

“A symbol represent the name of the element, an atom of the element,
and the atomic mass of the element.”
Molecular formulae of elements- A molecular formula is a short notation
representing a molecule of a substance which may be an element or a
compound. Eg: H2 , O2
 209

Molecular formular of compounds- For those compounds, which can exist in the form
of molecules, a formular represents a molecule as well as the
molecular mass eg : CO2 of a compound.
Formulae for non-molecular compounds- For those compounds which exist in the
form of giant structure, a formular represent simplest unit of the
compound. Eg: NaCl
Empirical formula : The empirical formula is the formula represents
the relative number of atoms of each kind present in a molecule of a
given compound.
Molecular formula : The molecular formula of a compound which
shows the actual number of atoms of each kind present in a molecule
of the compound.
What is a chemical equation ? The process of undergoing a chemical
change is called a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction can be
represented by a chemical [Link] are two types of chemical
equations. eg ,:equation in words and equation in symbols.
Physical states of the reactants and products: Reactants and Products
Solids(s) , Liquid(l) , Gases (g) Solution(l)
s = solid , l = liquid , g = gas , aq = aqueous solution or water solution
Abbreviations used in chemical equation: Δ = heat
= formation of
precipitate
= gas evolved
=reversible reaction

**************************************
CHAPTER 8
FORMULA WRITING AND THE NAMING SYSTEM
Combining capacity- The combining capacity or valence of an element is represented
by the number of atoms of hydrogen, chlorine or sodium that combine
with one atom of that element
Note: The term “ valence “ is also used to express combining
capacity.
Fixed combining capacity- The element sodium reacts with other elements to form
compounds in which it shows electropositive character and a constant
combining capacity of 1.
 210

Variable combining capacities of certain elements- Two different compounds of copper

and chlorine are known. They are copper(I) chloride CuCl, and
copper (II) chloride CuCl2. Copper also forms two oxides: copper (I)
oxide, Cu2O , and copper (II) oxide CuO. Copper in
its reaction with other elements shows combining. Capacities of 1 and
2. It has more than one combining capacity.
Oxidation numbers- The combining capacity of the elements also indicates the positive
and negative nature in the compounds.
This term is
called the oxidation number.
The combining capacity of the metals are expressed by
using
positive oxidation number..
The combining capacity of non-metallic elements are expressed by
using negative oxidation number.
Oxidation number of metals
Element Symbol with oxidation number
Potassium K+1
Sodium Na+1
Calcium Ca+2
Barium Ba+2
Magnesium Mg+2
Aluminium Al+3
Zinc Zn+2
Iron Fe+2, +3
Tin Sn+2, +4
Copper Cu+1, +2
Silver Ag+1
Oxidation number of non-metallic elements
Element Symbol with oxidation number
Hydrogen H+1
Phosphorus P +3, +5
Carbon C+2, +4
Sulphur S-2, +4, +6
Iodine I-1
Chlorine Cl-1
Nitrogen N-3, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5
Oxygen O-2
Binary compound- A binary compound is a compound which contains two Elements
only.
Metallic binary compound- Binary compounds containing a metal are called metallic
binary compound.
 211

Non-metallic binary compound- Binary compounds containing non-metallic

elements only are called non-metallic compounds.
Order of symbols in a formula- Usually the symbol of the more electropositive
element present in the compound with the positive oxidation number
is written infront of the symbol of the element with the negative
oxidation number.( One exception is NH 3 , in which the symbol of
nitrogen with negative oxidation number (N) is written first. )
**************************************
CHAPTER 9
THE MOLE CONCEPT
The Avogadro number or the Avogadro constant (L)
The number of atoms present in the relative atomic mass in grams is
the same for all the elements. The numerical value of this number is
6.02 x 1023. This number is known as Avogadro number.
The unit amount of the substance “ The Mole “ Definition
One mole of the substance is the amount of that substance which
contains the same number of particles (atoms, molecules, etc. ) as
there are atoms in 12g of 12C
The molar volume- The . volume of one mole of a gas.
The density of a gas- Usujally expressed in grams per dm3.
STP ……………… Standard temperature and pressure
Standard temperature = 0 oC
Standard pressure = 760 mmHg
The volume at STP of one mole of all gases : One mole of any gas
occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at STP and the volume is called the
molar volume of the gas.
Avogadro’s theory or law- At the same temperature and pressure equal volume of all
gases contain the same number of molecules .
Relative molecular mass = No. of atoms in a molecule
Relative atomic mass
**************************************

CHAPTER 10
OXYGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
C omposition of air : 23% by weight of oxygen (21 % by volume)
 212

Industrial preparation of oxygen

The fractionnal liquefaction of liquid air will produce oxygen
Industrially at the reduced pressure at – 196oC .
The activity Series By studying the action of air, water and acids on the metals and
the ease by which the metal oxide oxides may be reduced
to metal, we may arrange the metals in a series known as the Activity
Series.
Ozone - Oxygen and ozone are the allotropes of the same element. The
difference is that oxygen is a diatomic molecule (O 2 ) and ozone is a
triatomic molecule (O3 ).
Allotropes - If an element, in the same physical state, can exist in more than one
form, it is said to exhibit allotropy or polymorphism.
Uses of ozone - Ozone is used in ventilation system to purify air. It is also used to
sterilize water.
Hydrogen peroxide- Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two different hydrides :
namely; water, H2O and hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.
Uses of hydrogen peroxide- Hydrogen peroxide is used in restoring pictures. It is used
commercially for the bleaching of paper pulp, cotton and other
material fibres.
**************************************
CHAPTER 11
OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES
Oxides - An oxide is a compound which contains oxygen and one other
element.
Six main type of oxides : 1. Basic oxides
2. Acidic oxides
3. Amphoteric oxides
4. Neutral oxides
5. Peroxides
6 Compound oxides

**************************************
CHAPTER 12
HYDROGEN
Occurrence - In the combined state, hydrogen ranks as one of the more abundant
elements. Water, acids and many organic substances reveal the wide-
spread distribution of hydrogen in nature.
Preparation of hydrogen in Laboratory- By the action of dilute mineral acids on
certain metals.
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
 213

Industrial preparation of hydrogen

1) From hydrocarbon
Natural gas (methane) can be passed with steam over a nickel catalyst at 800oC
and 30 atm. Pressure.
CH4 + H2O Ni CO + 3 H2
800ºC / 30 atm.
2) By electrolysis
Hydrogen is obtained as by-product in the electrolytic manufacture of
chlorine from common salt or brine solution.
electrolysis
2 H2 O 2 H 2 + O2
Uses of hydrogen- Since hydrogen is the lightest gas it has been used to inflate
balloons like weather balloons which floats in the air. It is used in the
conversion of oils to solid fats, in the conversion of cf coal to
synthetic petrol. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia by Haber
process.. It is used as an oxy-hydrogen torch in the cutting and
welding of steel.
**********************************
CHAPTER 13
WATER
Importance of Water- Water is involved in photosynthesis
Water is a major constituent of our bodies. Our bodies contain about 70% of
water, tyomatoes contain 90% water, potatoes eggs corn contain about
75% water.
Occurrence of water- Natural waters – rain water, river water, sea water where 12 salts
are dissolved in sea water suich as NaCl, MgCl ((hydrated),
MgSO4(hydrated), KCl, CaCO3, KBr., Borax, SrSO4 , Sodium silicate,
NaF, and AlCl3
Hard water - Hard water is water which will dissolve not readily form a permanent
lather with soap.
Soft water - Soft water is water which readily gives a permanent lather with soap.
Soap - Soap is the sodium salt of organic acid.
Detergent - They are soapless soaps used as cleaning agents.
Temporary hardness- Water is said to have temporary hardness when dissolved materials
consist mainly of calcium hydrogen carbonate or magnesium
hydrogen carbonate.
Permanent hardness- If calcium and magnesium are not present as the hydrogen
cartbonate but as the chloride or sulphate, then boiling will not remove
the hardness. This type of water is said to have permanent hardness.
Purification of water- Purification by distillation. Deionization of water.
Composition of water- Analysis , Synthesis of water by weight ( Dumas method )
Synthesis of water by volume (Eudiometry )
Test for water- Test 1: Water will turn white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue.
 214

Test 2 : Water will turn blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride pink.
*************************************
CHAPTER 14
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids - An acidf is a compound which, when dissociated in water, produces

hydrogen ions H+, as the only positive ions.
Bases - A base is usually oxide or hydroxide and will react with an acid to
form a salt and water only.
Alkalis - An alkali is a basic hydroxide which is soluble in water.
Neutralization - Neutralization is the reraction between a basic oxide or hydroxide and
an acid resulting in the formation of a salt and water.
Salts - A salt is a compound, produced from the reaction of a base or metal
with an aciod.
****************************
CHAPTER 15
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Allotropy - If an element, in the same physical state, can exist in more than one
form, it is said to exhibit allotropy or polymorphism.
Allotropes of carbon- Carbon can exist as the crystalline allotropes such as graphite and
diamond. Carbon can exist as the amorphous allotropes such as
charcoal, coal, coke, carbon black (soot).
Compounds of carbon- Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide ( CO2 )
The greenhouse effect- A layer of carbon dioxide and water vapour surrounds the
earth.
This layer reduces the amount of heat which the earth radiates into
space. By heating hydrocarbon fuels, we pour carbon dioxide and
water vapour into the atmosphere. The layer of carbon dioxide and
water vapour is growing thicker. If it becomes too thick , the earth will
warm up, and the ice caps could begin to melt. This blanketing of
water vapour and carbon dioxide is called the greenhouse effect.
****************************
215

Appendix 2

Appendix 3 start
 216

Table of relative atomic masses of the element

Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol Atomic
mass mass
Actinium Ac 227 Mercury Hg 200.61
Aluminium Al 26.98 Molybdenium Mo 95.95
Americium Am 243 Neodymium Nd 144.24
Antimony Sb 121.76 Neon Ne 20.183
Argon Ar 39.944 Neptunium Np 237.05
Arsenic As 74.91 Nickel Ni 58.71
Astatine At 210 Niobium Nb 92.91
Barium Ba 137.36 Nitrogen N 14.008
Berkelium Bk 247 Nobelium No 255
Beryllium Be 9.01 Osmium Os 190.2
Bismuth Bi 209.00 Oxygen O 16
Boron B 10.82 palladium Pd 106.4
Bromine Br 79.916 Phosphorus P 30.975
Cadmium Cd 112.40 Platinum Pt 195.09
Calcium Ca 40.08 Plutonium Pu 244
Californium Cf 251 Polonium Po 209
Carbon C 12.011 Potassium K 39.100
Cerium Ce 140.12 Praseodymium Pr 140.91
Caesium Cs 132.91 Promethium Pm 145
Chlorine Cl 35.457 Protactinium Pa 231.04
Chromium Cr 52.01 Radium Ra 226.05
Cobalt Co 58.94 Radon Rn 222
Copper Cu 63.54 Rhenium Re 186.21
Curium Cm 247 Rhodium Rh 102.91
Dysprosium Dy 162.5 Rubidium Rb 85.47
Einsteinium Es 254 Ruthenium Ru 101.07
Erbium Er 167.26 Samarium Sm 150.4
Europium Eu 151.96 Scandium Sc 44.96
Fermium Fm 257 Selenium Se 78.96
Fluorine F 19.00 Silicon Si 28.09
Feancium Fr 223 Silver Ag 107.880
Gadolinium Gd 157.25 Sodium Na 22.991
Gallium Ga 69.72 Strontium Sr 87.63
Germanium Ge 72.59 Sulphur S 32.066
Gold Au 197.0 Tantalum Ta 180.95
Hafnium Hf 178.49 Technetium Tc 97
Helium He 4.003 Tellurium Te 127.60
Holmium Ho 164.93 Terbium Tb 158.93
Hydrogen H 1.008 Thallium Tl 204.37

Appendix 3 end

Element Symbol Atomic Element Symbol Atomic

 217

mass mass
Indium In 114.82 Thorium Th 232.04
Iodine I 126.91 Thulium Tm 168.93
Iridium Ir 192.22 Tin Sn 118.70
Iron Fe 55.85 Titanium Ti 47.90
Krypton Kr 83.80 Tungsten (Wolfram) W 183.86
Lanthanum La 138.91 Uranium U 238.07
Lawrencium Lw 260 Vanadium V 50.94
Lead Pb 207.21 Xenon Xe 131.30
Lithium Li 6.940 Ytterbium Yb 173.04
Lutetium Lu 174.97 Yttrium Y 88.91
Magnesium Mg 24.32 Zinc Zn 65.38
Manganese Mn 54.94 Zirconium Zr 91.22
Mendelevium Md 258

Discovery of New Elements

Sr Atomic Symbol Name Atomic Electronic Metal Discovered
No. Wt Structure Year
1 104 Rf Rutherfordiu 261 [Link].32.10.2 Transition 1969
m
2 105 Db Dubnium 262 [Link].32.11.2 Transition 1970
3 106 Sg Seaborgium 266 [Link].32.12.2 Transition 1974
4 107 Bh Bohnium 264 [Link].32.13.2 Transition 1976
5 108 Hs Hassium 263 [Link].32.14.2 Transition 1984
6 109 Mt Meitnerium 268 [Link].32.15.2 Transition 1982
7 110 Ds Darnstadtium 271 [Link].32.17.2 Transition 1994
8 111 Uuu Unununium 272 [Link].32.18.1 Transition 1994
9 112 Uub Ununbium 277 [Link].32.18.2 Transition 1996
10 113 Uut Ununtrium 284 [Link].32.18.3 Other elements 2003
11 114 Uuq Ununquadium 285 [Link].32.18.4 Other elements 1998
12 115 Uup Ununpentium 288 [Link].32.18.5 Other elements 2003
13 116 Uuh Ununhexium 292 [Link].32.18.6 Other elements 2000
14 117 Uus Ununseptium - - Other elements -
15 118 Uuo Ununoctium - - Other elements -
 218

Appendix 4

Vapour Pressure of Water

Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure

C mm Hg C mm Hg
0 4.6 23 21.2
1 4.9 24 22.4
2 5.3 25 23.8
3 5.7 26 25.2
4 6.1 27 26.7
5 6.5 28 28.3
6 7.0 29 30.0
7 7.5 30 31.8
8 8.0 35 42.2
9 8.6 40 55.3
10 9.2 45 71.9
11 9.8 50 92.5
12 10.5 55 118.0
13 11.2 60 149.4
14 12.0 65 187.5
15 12.8 70 233.7
16 13.6 75 289.1
17 14.5 80 355.1
18 15.5 85 433.6
19 16.5 90 525.8
20 17.5 95 633.9
21 18.7 100 760.0
22 19.8 105 906.1

*******************************
219

Appendix 5