COMPUTER NETWORK

Network:
• A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing resources.
Each computer on the network is called a node.
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of sharing and exchanging
information.

Needs (Advantage of Network) :

1. Resource Sharing: means to make all programs, data and peripherals available to anyone on the

network
2. Reliability: means to keep the copy of a file on two or more different machines, so if one of them is

unavailable them its other copy can be used.

3. Cost Factor: means it greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared

4. Communication Medium: means one can send messages and whatever the changes at one end are

done can be immediately noticed at another.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks:

1. Cost Of Network : The cost of implementing the network including cabling and hardware can be
pricey.

2. Threat to Data: A computer network may be used by unauthorized users to steal or corrupt the data
and even to deploy computer virus or worms on the network.

3. Security Concerns: One of the chief downsides of computer networks involves security issues.

4. Virus and Malware: If even one computer on a network gets infected with a virus, there is a
possibility for the other systems to get infected too.
5. Lack of Independence: As networks generally have a centralised server and dependent clients, the
client users usually do not have any control whatsoever.
Evolution of Networking

1. ARPANET – 1960 –
• In the 1960s, the U.S. Department Of Defence had started a project named Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) to provide an interconnection between academic and
research institutions for research purposes. They have started communication and the first
message was communicated between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford
Research Institute (SRI). Later on, other organizations had also joined ARPANET gradually and
formed small networks.

2. Email – 1971
• In 1971, Roy Romlinson develops a networking message popularly known as E-mail. With this, the
symbol @ is used the first time with the network.

3. Internet – 1974 (INTERconnection NETwork)

• In 1974, the commercial use of ARPANET started in the name of TelNet. Later on, the word internet
was coined.
• The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. It is not owned by anybody.

4. TCP/IP – 1982
• By using the ARPANET project, now it is almost spread over countries with TelNet. In 1982 they
have started using TCP/IP protocol in ARPANET. This protocol was developed by Robert Kahn and
Vinton Cerf.

5. Domain Name System – 1983

• In 1983, the Domain Name System was started. It was created by Paul Mockapetris in November
1983 to use some simple names rather than using the traditional addresses used in the ARPANET.

6. NSFNET – 1986
• NSFNET program was launched by National Science Foundation in 1986 to bring connectivity to
more people. It was popularly used to promote advanced research and education networking in
the United States.

7. WWW – 1990
• In 1990, Tim Berners Lee worked with European Organization for Nuclear research developed a
program to make information readily available to users with different URLs and create relationships
between websites, thus it gives birth to World Wide Web.

8. WiFi – 1997
• In 1997, the first version of WiFi was introduced. Later on, so many changes and evolution took
place and modern hi-speed internet came into the existence.

9. Interspace: InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to

communicate online with real – time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
Switching Techniques:
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks. Different ways of sending data across
the network are:
1. Circuit Switching:
• In the Circuit Switching technique, first, the complete end-to-end transmission path
between the source and the destination computers is established and then the message is
transmitted through the path.
• The main advantage of this technique is guaranteed delivery of the message. Mostly used
for voice communication.
• Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

➢ Circuit establishment
➢ Data transfer
➢ Circuit Disconnect

• Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

➢ The main advantage of this technique is guaranteed delivery of the message.
➢ Mostly used for voice communication.
➢ It has fixed bandwidth.

• Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

➢ It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
➢ It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
➢ In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the
channel is free.

2. Message Switching:

• In the Message switching technique, no physical path is established between sender and
receiver in advance. This technique follows the store and forward mechanism.
• Each intermediate device receives the message and stores it until the nest device is ready to
receive it and then this message is forwarded to the next device. For this reason a message
switching network is sometimes called as Store and Forward Switching.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
 • Advantages Of Message Switching:
➢ Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.

➢ The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the

data of unlimited size.

• Disadvantages Of Message Switching:

➢ The storing and Forwarding introduces the concept of delay. For this reasons this switching is

not recommended for real time applications like voice and video.

3. Packet Switching:
• This switching technique uses TCP/IP protocol and divide the data into fixed size of packet and
transmitted across the network.

• Every packet is independent contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.

• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

• The IP (Internet protocol) does the routing for the packets.

• At the destination, the TCP protocol re-assembles the packets into the complete message.

• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then a request is sent to retransmit the message.

• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.
• Advantages Of Packet Switching:

➢ Cost-effective: Switching devices do not require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so
cost is minimized to some extent.

➢ Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted.

➢ Efficient: It does not require any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
the same communication channel simultaneously.

• Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

➢ Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.

➢ If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets.

 COMPUTER NETWORK
Data Communication Terminologies:

Channel:
• Channel is a medium through which a message is transmitted to its intended destination. Channel
can be wired (Guided) or Wireless (Unguided).
OR
• Physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged is called channel.
OR
• The information / data carry from one end to another in the network by channel.

Data Rate / Data Transfer Rate:

• The data rate defines the number data elements (bits) sent in 1 second.
• The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per unit time, is
called data transfer rate.
• The smallest unit of measurement is bits per second (bps). 1 bps means 1 bit (0 or 1) of data is
transferred in 1 second.
• The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate.
• Here are some commonly used data transfer rates −

➢ 1bps = 1 bit per second

➢ 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

➢ 1 Kbps = 1 Kilo bit per second = 1024 bits per second
➢ 1 Mbps = 1 Mega bit per second = 1024 Kbps
➢ 1 Gbps = 1 Giga bit per second = 1024 Mbps
➢ 1 Tbps = 1 Tera bit per second = 1024 Gbps

➢ 1 KBps = 1 Kilo bytes per second = 1024 bytes per second = 1024 x 8 bits per second
➢ 1 MBps = 1 Mega bytes per second = 1024 KBps
➢ 1 GBps = 1 Giga bytes per second = 1024 MBps
➢ 1 TBps = 1 Tera bytes per second = 1024 GBps

Signal Rate:
• The signal rate is the numbers of signal elements sent in 1 second. The unit is baud.
• The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
• Each communication channel has certain capacity and it can carry information up to that extent
only. This capacity is measured in terms of Baud.
• One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while decreasing the signal rate.
Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission. Decreasing the signal rate
decreasing the bandwidth requirement.
Bandwidth:
• Bandwidth is the capacity of a wired or wireless network communications link to transmit the
maximum amount of data from one point to another point over a computer network.
• Bandwidth is a range of frequencies within a given band that is used for transmitting an analog or
digital signal.
• For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second.
For analog devices, the bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) or KHz, MHz.

Transmission media:
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver.
• Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

A) Guided Media:
• It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and confined
in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

• Features:

➢ High Speed
➢ Secure
➢ Used for comparatively shorter distances

• There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted pair cable: - It consists of two identical 1 mm thick copper wires insulated and twisted
together. The twisted pair cables are twisted in order to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction.

Twisted Pair Cable

 Advantages:
(i) It is simple.
(ii) It is easy to install and maintain.
(iii) It is physically flexible.
(iv) It has a low weight.
(v) It can be easily connected.
(vi) It is very inexpensive.

Disadvantages:
(i) It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
(ii) Due to low bandwidth, these are unsuitable for broadband applications.
(iii) It supports maximum data rates 1 Mbps without conditioning and 10 Mbps with
conditioning.

Types of Twisted Pair Cable:

There are two types of twisted pair cables available. These are :
(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable. UTP cabling is used for variety of electronic
communications. The UTP cables can have maximum segment length of 100 metres.

(ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable. This type of cables comes with shielding of the
individual pairs of wires, which further protects it from external interference. But these
also, like UTP, can have maximum segment length of 100 meters. The advantage of STP
over UTP is that it offers greater protection from interference and crosstalk due to
shielding. But it is definitely heavier and costlier than UTP and requires proper grounding
at both ends.

2. Co-axial Cables: It consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or braided wire
 shields, each separated from the other by some kind of plastic insulator. It is mostly used in the
cable wires.

Advantages:
(i) The data transmission characteristics of coaxial cables are considerably better than those
of twisted-pair cables.
(ii) The coaxial cables can be used as the basis for a shared cable network.
(iii) The coaxial cables can be used for broadband transmission i.e., several channels can be
transmitted simultaneously (as with cable TV).
(iv) Offer higher bandwidths-upto 400 MBPS.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive compared to twisted pair cables.
(ii) The coaxial cables are not compatible with twisted pair cables.

Types of Coaxial Cables :

The two most commonly used types of coaxial cable are thicknet and thinnet.
(i) Thicknet: This form of coaxial cable is thicker than thinnet. The thicknet coaxial cable
segments (while joining nodes of a network) can be upto 500 meters long.
(ii) Thinnet: This form of coaxial cable is thinner and it can have maximum segment length of
185 meters i.e., using this cables, nodes having maximum distance of 185 meters can be
joined.

3. Optical fiber: - An optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information in the form of
visible light.

The fiber cable consists of three pieces :

 (i) The core, i.e., the glass or plastic through which the light travels
(ii) The cladding, which is a covering of the core that reflects light back to the core
(iii) The protective coating, which protects the fiber cable from hostile environment

Advantages:

(i) It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e., noise in any form because the
information is travelling on a modulated light beam.
(ii) It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
(iii) it guarantees secure transmission and has a very high transmission capacity.
(iv) Fiber optic cables can be used for broadband transmission where several channels (i.e.,
bands of frequency) are handled in parallel and where it is also possible to mix data
transmission channels with channels for telescope, graphics, TV and sound.

Disadvantages:

(i) Connection losses are common problems.

(ii) Fiber optic cables are more difficult to solder.
(iii) They are the most expensive of all the cables.

Types of Fibre Optic Cables:

(i) Single node: with a segment length of upto 2 kms and band- width of upto 100 Mbps
(ii) Multinode: with a segment length of 100 kms and bandwidth of 2 Gbps.

Guided Media Compared

Let us now compare the cost, ease and performance offered by each of the media, we have
studied so far.

Maximum
Type Type Sub Segment Bandwidth Installation Cost Interference
Type Length Supported

Twisted Pair UTP 100 m 100 Mbps easy cheapest high

Cable STP 100 m 500 Mbps moderate moderate moderate

Coaxial Cable Thinnet 185 m 10 Mbps easy cheap moderate

Thicknet 500 m 10 Mbps hard moderate low
Fiber Optic Singlenode 2 km 100 Mbps very hard expensive none
Cable
Multinode 100 km 2 Gbps very hard expensive none
 COMPUTER NETWORK
4. Infrared: -
• This type of transmission uses infrared light to send data. You can see the use of this type of

transmission in everyday life – TV remotes, automotive garage doors, wireless speakers etc., all
make use of infrared as transmission media.
• The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a room (bouncing
off surfaces), but will not penetrate walls.
• The infrared transmission is considered to be a secure one.

5. Radio Wave: -
• The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave transmission.

• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free
space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Advantages:

(i) Radio wave transmission offers mobility.

(ii) It is cheaper than laying cables and fibers.
(iii) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:

(i) Radio wave communication is insecure communication.

(ii) Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms
etc.
6. Microwave Wave: -

• The Microwave transmission is a line of sight transmission.

• Microwave signals are used to transmit data without the use of cables.
• Microwave signals travel at a higher frequency than radio waves and are popularly used for
transmitting data over long distances.
• In microwave communication, parabolic antennas are mounted on towers to send a beam to
other antennas tens of kilometers away.
• The higher the tower, the greater the range. With a 100-meter high tower, distances of 100 km
between towers are feasible.
 Advantages:

(i) It is cheaper than laying cable or fiber.

(ii) It has the ability to communicate over oceans.
(iii) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:

(i) Microwave communication is an insecure communication.

(ii) Signals from antenna may split up and transmitted in different way to different antenna
which leads to reduce to signal strength.
(iii) Microwave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.
(iv) Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited in case of microwaves.

7. Satellite link: -

• The satellite transmission is also a kind of line of sight transmission that is used to transmit signals
throughout the world.
• In satellite communication transmitting station transmits the signals to the satellite. (It is called
up-linking).
• After receiving the signals (microwaves) it amplifies them and transmits back to earth in whole
visibility area. Receiving stations at different places can receive these signals. (It is called down-
linking).
Advantages:

(i) The area coverage through satellite transmission is quite large.

(ii) The heavy usage of intercontinental traffic makes the satellite commercial attractive.
(iii) Satellites can cover large areas of the Earth. This is particularly useful for sparsely
populated areas.
Disadvantages:-

(i) Technological limitations preventing the deployment of large, high gain antennas on the
satellite platform.
(ii) Over-crowding of available bandwidths due to low antenna gains.
(iii) The high investment cost and insurance cost associated with significant probability of
failure.
(iv) High atmospheric losses above 30 GHz limit carrier frequencies.
(v) Installation is extremely complex.
Network devices:

1. Modem:

• A Modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with other
computers via telephone lines.
• Modem is an electronic device which converts digital signals into analog signals for transmission
over telephone lines (Modulation).
• At the receiving end, a modem performs the reverse function and converts analog signal into
digital form (Demodulation).

• Modems come in two varieties :

➢ Internal modems the modems that are fixed within the computer.
➢ External modems the modems that are connected externally to a computer as other
peripherals are connected.

2. RJ45 connector: -

• RJ-45 is short for Registered Jack-45.

• RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector, which is commonly used to connect computers on the local area
networks i.e., LANs especially Ethernets.
• Ethernet uses either a bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of upto 10 .
3. Ethernet Card: -

• Ethernet Card is a kind of network adapter and is also known as Network Interface Card (NIC).
• These adapters support the Ethernet standard for high-speed network connections via cables.
• An Ethernet Card contains connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables or fiber optic
cable.

4. Repeater –

• A repeater operates at the physical layer.

• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
• When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original
strength.

5. Hub:

• A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together. Broadcasts the
information to all the connected nodes.
• A hub is basically a multiport repeater.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
• In other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one.
• Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.
 • Types of Hub :

➢ Active Hub: - These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean, boost
and relay the signal along with the network. These are used to extend the maximum
distance between nodes.

➢ Passive Hub: - These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them
and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

6. Switch:

• A switch is a device that is used to segment networks into different subnetworks called subnets or
LAN segments. Segmenting the network into smaller subnets, prevents traffic overloading in a
network.
• A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to interconnect computers or devices
on a network.
• Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains more
intelligence than a hub.
• Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received,
determining the source and destination device of each packet, and forwarding them
appropriately.
7. Bridge

• A bridge is a device that lets you link two networks together.

• Bridges are smart enough to know which computers are on which side of the bridge, so they only
allow those messages that need to get to the other side to cross the bridge.
• This improves performance on both sides of the bridge. As a packet arrives at the bridge, the
bridge examines the physical destination address of the packet.
• The bridge then decides whether or not to let the packet cross.

8. Router:
• A Router is a network device that works like a bridge to establish connection between two
networks but it can handle networks with different protocols.
• If the destination is unknown to a router it sends the traffic (bound to unknown destination) to
another router (using logical addresses) which knows the destination.
• A router differs from a bridge in a way that former uses logical addresses and the latter uses
physical addresses.

9. Gateway:

• A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.

• It establishes an intelligent connection between a local network and external networks with
completely different structures.
• Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to another. In this
way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit data only over networks
that use same protocols.
10. Wi-Fi Card

• Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve wireless
connection to any network.
• Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local network wirelessly.
• The physical area of the network which provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi
hotspot.
• The primary benefit of using a WiFi card in a desktop computer is that it allows you to setup your
work- station or home office without considering the proximity or availability of hard line network
access.
 COMPUTER NETWORK
Network Topologies and Types

• The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the Topology.

• There are a number of factors to consider in making this choice, the most important of which are
set out below :
➢ Cost: For a network to be cost effective, one would try to minimize installation cost.
➢ Flexibility: This involves moving existing nodes and adding new ones.
➢ Reliability: The topology chosen for the network can help by allowing the location of the
fault to be detected and to provide some means of isolating it.

1. Point-to-Point Link

• A P-P (Point to Point) link basically relies upon two functions- transmit and receive.
• The main characteristic of P-P network is that each station receives exactly from one transmitter,
and each transmitter transmits to exactly one receiver.

• Advantages:
(i) This is faster and highly reliable than other types of connections since there is a direct
connection.
(ii) No need for a network operating system.

• Disadvantages:
(i) The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small areas where computers are in close
proximity.
(ii) You can't back up files and folders centrally
2. The BUS Topology: -
• The bus topology uses a common single cable to connect all the workstations.
• Each computer performs its task of sending messages without the help of the central server.
• However, only one workstation can transmit a message at a particular time in the bus topology.

• Advantages:
(i) Easy to connect and install.
(ii) Involves a low cost of installation time.
(iii) Can be easily extended.
(iv) Short cable length and simple wiring layout.

• Disadvantages:-
(i) The entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the central cable.
(ii) Only a single message can travel at a particular time.
(iii) Difficult to troubleshoot an error.

3. The STAR Topology: -

• A STAR topology is based on a central node which acts as a hub. A STAR topology is common in
homes networks where all the computers connect to the single central computer using it as a
hub.
 • Advantages:
(i) Easy to troubleshoot
(ii) A single node failure does not affect the entire network.
(iii) Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier.
(iv) In case a workstation fails, the network is not affected.
• Disadvantages:-
(i) Difficult to expand.
(ii) Longer cable is required.
(iii) The cost of the hub and the longer cables makes it expensive over others.
(iv) In case hub fails, the entire network fails.

4. The TREE Topology: -

• The tree topology combines the characteristics of the linear bus and the star topologies.
• It consists of groups of star – configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable.

• Advantages:
(i) Eliminates network congestion.
(ii) The network can be easily extended.
(iii) Faulty nodes can easily be isolated from the rest of the network.
• Disadvantages:
(i) Uses large cable length.
(ii) Requires a large amount of hardware components and hence is expensive.
(iii) Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.

5. The RING Topology: -

• In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighboring devices for communication purpose.
It is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring.
• In this topology, every computer is connected to another computer. Here, the last node is
combined with a first one.
 • This topology uses token to pass the information from one computer to another. In this topology,
all the messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

• Advantages:
(i) Easy to install and reconfigure.
(ii) Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two connections.
(iii) Failure of one computer can disturb the whole network.

• Disadvantages:
(i) Unidirectional traffic.
(ii) In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which develops unwanted power
consumption.
(iii) It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
(iv) Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.

Types of Networks:
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area.
• It is generally limited to a geographic area such as writing lab, school or building.
• It is generally privately owned networks over a distance not more than 5 Km.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

• A MAN is a network of computing/communicating devices within a city.

• It can cover an area of a few kilometers to a few hundred kilometers radius.
• A network of schools, or banks, or Government offices etc., within a city, are examples of MANs.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network):

• A WAN is a network of computing/communicating devices crossing the limits of a city, country, or
continent.
• It can cover an area of over hundreds of kilometer radius.
• A network of ATMs, BANKs, National Government Offices, International Organizations' Offices
etc., spread over a country, continent, or covering many continents are examples of WANs.
• The best known example of a WAN is the internet.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network):
• A Personal Area Network is computer network organized around an individual person.
• It generally covers a range of less than 10 meters.
• Personal Area Networks can be constructed with cables or wirelessly.
 COMPUTER NETWORK
Network Protocol:

1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

• HTTP is a communications protocol for the transfer of information on the intranet and the World
Wide Web.
• Its original purpose was to provide a way to publish and retrieve hypertext pages over the
Internet.
• HTTP is a request/response standard between a client and a server.
• A client is the end-user and the server is the web site.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

• FTP is the simplest and most secure way to exchange files over the Internet.
• It is very useful to transfer files from one network in an organization to another.
• The objectives of FTP are:
➢ To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
➢ To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
➢ To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts.
➢ To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.

3. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

• TCP –
➢ TCP is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server.
➢ Data can be lost in the intermediate network.
➢ TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data
is correctly and completely received.
➢ Generally, TCP/IP applications use four layers :

(i) an application protocol such as mail

(ii) a protocol such as TCP that provides services need by many applications

(iii) IP, which provides the basic service of getting datagrams to their destination

(iv) the protocols needed to manage a specific physical medium, such as Ethernet or a

point to point line

 • IP –
➢ IP is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node.
➢ IP forwards each packet based on a four byte destination address (the IP number).
➢ The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organizations.
➢ The organizations assign groups of their numbers to departments.
➢ IP operates on gateway machines that move data from department to organization to
region and then around the world.

NOTE: -
• TCP and IP were developed by a Department of Defense (DOD) research project to connect a

number different networks designed by different vendors into a network of networks.

• Several computers in a small department can use TCP/IP (along with other protocols) on a single
LAN.
• The IP component provides routing from the department to the enterprise network, then to
regional networks, and finally to the global Internet.

4. SLIP/PPP (Serial Line Internet Protocol / Point to Point Protocol)

• SLIP/PPP provides the ability to transport TCP/IP traffic ever serial line between two computers.
• The home user’s computer has a communications link to the internet.
• The home user’s computer has the networking software that can speak TCP/IP with other
computers on the Internet.
• The home user’s computer has an identifying address (IP address) at which it can be contacted by
other computers on Internet. E.g. dial up connection.

5. SMTP :-
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail.
• However, since it is limited in its ability to queue messages at the receiving end, it is usually used
with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let the user save messages in a server
mailbox and download them periodically from the server.
• In other words, users typically use a program that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either POP3
or IMAP for receiving e-mail.
• On Unix-based systems, send mail is the most widely used SMTP server for e-mail.
• A commercial package, Sendmail, includes a POP3 server.
• Microsoft Exchange includes an SMTP server and can also be set up to include POP3 support.
6. POP3:-
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is the standard way which has been around for decades.
• It is very similar regular mail.
• Messages are delivered to our computer, put in our mailbox, and are then our responsibility.
• Advantage of POP3 :
➢ Email is available when we are offline
➢ Email is not stored on the server, so our disk usage on the server is less
➢ Just about any email client (software) supports POP3

7. IMAP:-

• IMAP (Interactive Mail Access Protocol).

• It is not like the mailbox on your house.
• With IMAP mail is delivered to the server, and we connect to the server to see our mail.
• The mail is not stored on our machine.
• When a message is marked as read, it is marked as read on the server, not on our computer.
• Advantages of IMAP:-
➢ Email is available from any machine we happen to use.
➢ Email is stored on the server, so our email cannot be deleted/destroyed if our computer
should happen to crash, be stolen, or destroyed.
➢ We can access IMAP mail via the web, without even needing a mail client installed. This
means we can check our mail from someone else's machine or even a public terminal and
not have to worry about the security of your passwords.

8. Telnet-

• It is an older internet utility that lets us log on to remote computer system.

• It also facilitates for terminal emulation purpose.
• Terminal emulation means using a pc like a mainframe computer through networking.
➢ Run telnet client- Type telnet in run dialog box.
➢ Connect to telnet site -specify the host name, port and terminal type.
➢ Start browsing- surf the shown site with provided instruction.
➢ Finally disconnect-press Alt+F4.

Note: -
• Remote login: Remote login is the process of accessing a network from a remote place without
actually being at the actual place of working.
 COMPUTER NETWORK
Web Services:

WWW (World Wide Web)

• The World Wide Web or W3 or simply the Web is a collection of linked documents or pages,
stored on millions of computers and distributed across the Internet.
• It is a small part of Internet. It is a kind of Application of internet.
• It is a set of protocols that allows us to access any document on the Net through a naming system
based on URLS.
• Internet was mainly used for obtaining textual information. But post-WWW the internet
popularity grew tremendously because of graphic intensive nature of www.
• Attributes of WWW
➢ User friendly- www resources can be easily used with the help of browser.
➢ Multimedia documents-A web page may have graphic, audio, video, and animation etc at a
time.
➢ Hypertext and hyperlinks- the dynamic links which can move towards another web page is
hyperlink.
➢ Interactive -www with its pages support and enable interactivity between users and servers.
➢ Frame- display of more than one section on single web page.

HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language):-

• HTML is a computer language that describes the structure and behavior of a web page. This
language is used to create web pages.
• Used to design the layout of a document and to specify the hyperlinks.
• Tells the browser how to display text, pictures and other support media.
• Support multimedia and new page layout features.
• Provides many tags for control the presentation of information on the web pages, such as
<body>, <li>, <hr> etc.

XML (eXtensible Markup Language):-

• Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a meta language that helps to describe the markup
language. A markup language is a mechanism to identify structure in a document.
• XML defines a standard way to add markup to documents.
• Provides an ability to define tags and the structural relationship between them.
• All of the semantics of an XML document will either be defined by the application that process
them or by style sheets.
Domain Names:

• A domain name is a unique name that identifies a particular website and represents the name of
the server where the web pages reside.
• An Internet address which is character based is called a Domain Name, such as com, org etc. Here
“com” indicates Commercial and “org” indicates non-profit Organization.
• Two letter short form indicating the country name may be used with URL e.g.,
http://www.microsoft.co.in here the last “in” suggest that it is based in India.

URL:-

• The Uniform Resource Locator is a means to locate resources such as web pages on the Internet.
• URL is also a method to address the web pages on the Internet.
• There are two types of URL, namely, absolute URL and relative URL.
• URL specifies the distinct address for each resource on the Internet, such as ftp, http etc.
• URL looks like this: type://adress/path.
• Where, - type specifies the type of the server in which the file is located.
➢ Address is a address of the server.
➢ Path is a location of the file on the server.

Website:
• A collection of related web pages stored on a web server is known as a website.

Web browser:
• A software application that enables to browse, search and collect information from the Web is
known as Web browser, web browsers are used at client side.

Web Servers:
• The web pages on the Internet are stored on the computers that are connected to the Internet.
These computers are known as web servers.

Web Hosting: -
• Web Hosting or website hosting is the service to host, store and maintain the websites on the
World Wide Web.
• Web Hosting is a means of hosting web-server application on a computer system.
• By using web hosting electronic content on the Internet is readily available to any web browser
client.
• The computer system providing the web-hosting is known as web-server or the web host.
 • Web hosting can be classified into following four categories :
➢ Free Hosting: available with many famous sites which offer to host some web pages for no

cost.
➢ Virtual or Shared Hosting: here one’s web site domain is hosted on the web server of

hosting company along with the other web sites. Use “shared” if you have a professional
website.
➢ Dedicated Hosting: here, the company wishing to go online rents an entire web server from

hosting company. This is suitable for large, high traffic sites.

➢ Co-location Hosting: here, the company owning the site instead of web hosting company.

Suitable for those who need the ability to make change.

Web Scripting: -

• The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as Web Scripting.
• Script:
➢ A Script is a list of commands embedded in a web page. Scripts are interpreted and
executed by a certain program or scripting –engine.
➢ Types of Scripts:-
1. Client Side Scripts: - Client side scripts supports interaction within a webpage. E.g. VB
Script, Java Script, PHP (PHP‟S Hypertext Preprocessor).

2. Server Side Scripts: - Server-side scripting enables the completion or carrying out a task

at the server-end and then sending the result to the client –end. Some popula server-
side Scripting Languages are PHP, Perl, ASP(Active Server Pages), JSP(Java Server Pages)
etc.

Comparing Client-Side and Server-Side Scripting

S.No. Client Side Scripting Server Side Scripting

1. Script code is downloaded and executed at The script is executed at the server-end and
client end. the result is sent to the client-end.
2. Response to interaction is more immediate Complex processes are more efficient as the
once the program code has been down- program and associated resources are not
loaded. downloaded to the browser.
3. Services are secure as they do not have Have access to files and data bases but have
access to files and databases. security considerations when sending
sensitive information.
4. Browser dependent Does not depend on browsers

5. Affected by the processing speed of user’s Affected by the processing speed of the host
computer server.