Computer Graphics & Multimedia (5CS4-04)

Computer Science and Engineering Department

Vision of the Department

To become renowned Centre of excellence in computer science and engineering and make
competent engineers & professionals with high ethical values prepared for lifelong learning.

Mission of the Department

● To impart outcome based education for emerging technologies in the field of computer
science and engineering.
● To provide opportunities for interaction between academia and industry.
● To provide platform for lifelong learning by accepting the change in technologies.
● To develop aptitude of fulfilling social responsibilities.

Program Outcomes (PO):

• Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

• Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex

engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

• Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.

• Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

• Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.

• The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

• Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
 • Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

• Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or

leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

• Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.

• Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.

• Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO):

PEO1: To provide students with the fundamentals of Engineering Sciences with more
emphasis in computer science and engineering by way of analyzing and exploiting
engineering challenges.

PEO2: To train students with good scientific and engineering knowledge so as to comprehend,
analyze, design, and create novel products and solutions for the real life problems.

PEO3: To inculcate professional and ethical attitude, effective communication skills,

teamwork skills, multidisciplinary approach, entrepreneurial thinking and an ability to relate
engineering issues with social issues.

PEO4: To provide students with an academic environment aware of excellence,leadership,

written ethical codes and guidelines, and the self-motivated life-long learning needed for a
successful professional career.

PEO5: To prepare students to excel in Industry and Higher education by educating Students
along with High moral values and Knowledge.

Program Specific Outcome (PSO):

PSO: Ability to interpret and analyze network specific and cyber security issues, automation
in real word environment.
PSO2: Ability to Design and Develop Mobile and Web-based applications under realistic
constraints.
 Course Outcome (CO):
CO1: Implement geometric images using graphical input techniques
CO2: Design and develop images with the help of 2D & 3D transformations.
CO3: Identify visible surfaces for generation of realistic graphics display and curves
representation.
CO4: Analyse multimedia and animation techniques.

CO-PO Mapping
Computer Graphics & Multimedia Techniques 5CS4-04
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 : Implement
geometric images
3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
using graphical input
techniques
CO2: Design and
develop images with
3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 3
the help of 2D & 3D
transformations.
CO3: Identify visible
surfaces for
generation of realistic 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 3
graphics display and
curves representation.

CO4: Analyse
multimedia and 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 3
animation techniques.

CO-PSO Mapping
CO’s PSO1 PSO2
CO1: Implement geometric images using graphical input
2 2
techniques
CO2: Design and develop images with the help of 2D & 3D
2 2
transformations.
CO3: Identify visible surfaces for generation of realistic
2 2
graphics display and curves representation.
CO4: Analyse multimedia and animation techniques. 2 2
Lecture Plan of Computer Graphics & Multimedia Techniques ( CGMT)
5CS4-04

Unit
No./
Lect.
Total Topics
Req.
lec.
Req.
Unit- Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.
1
1(1)

Basic of Computer Graphics 1

Applications of computer graphic, Display devices 2

Unit-2
(6)
Random and Raster scan systems 1

Graphics input devices, Graphics software and standards 2

Points,lines,circles and ellipses as primitives, scan conversion algorithms for primitives 3

Unit-
Fill area primitives including scan- line polygon filling, inside-outside test, boundary and 2
flood-fill
3(7)
character generation, line attributes, area-fill attributes, character attributers. Aliasing, and 2
introduction to Anti Aliasing (No anti aliasing algorithm)

Transformations (translation, rotation, scaling), matrix representation 1

homogeneous coordinates, composite transformations, reflection and shearing 1

Unit- viewing pipeline and coordinates system 2
4(8)-
window-to-viewport transformation, clipping including point clipping 2

line clipping (cohen-sutherland,liang- bersky, NLN), polygon clipping 2

3D display methods, polygon surfaces, tables, equations, meshes, curved lies and surfaces 2

quadric surfaces, spline representation, cubic spline interpolation methods, Bazier curves
2
and surfaces
Unit-
B-spline curves and surfaces.3D scaling, rotation and translation, composite
5(8) 2
transformation

viewing pipeline and coordinates, parallel and perspective transformation 1

view volume and general (parallel and perspective) projection transformations. 1

Unit- Light sources – basic illumination models – halftone patterns and dithering techniques
1
6(6)
 Properties of light – Standard primaries and chromaticity diagram 2

Intuitive colour concepts – RGB colour model – YIQ colour model – CMY colour model –
2
HSV colour model – HLS colour model

Colour selection. 1

Design of Animation sequences – animation function – raster animation – key frame

systems – motion specification – morphing – tweening 3

Unit-
7(6) Tiling the plane – Recursively defined curves – Koch curves – C curves – Dragons –
space filling curves –fractals – Grammar based models – fractals – turtle graphics – ray
3
tracing.

Total No. of Lecture

42

This schedule is tentative and is subject to minimal changes during teaching.

 UNIT- I
Basic of Computer Graphics
What is computer Graphics?
Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc. using computers with the help of
programming. Computer graphics image is made up of number of pixels. Pixel is the smallest addressable
graphical unit represented on the computer screen.

Introduction
Computer is information processing machine. User needs to communicate with computer and the

computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of communication with the
 user.
It displays the information in the form of graphical objects such as pictures, charts, diagram and graphs.

Graphical objects convey more information in less time and easily understandable formats for example
 statically graph shown in stock exchange.
 In computer graphics picture or graphics objects are presented as a collection of discrete pixels.
We can control intensity and color of pixel which decide how picture look like.

The special procedure determines which pixel will provide the best approximation to the desired picture
or graphics object this process is known as Rasterization.

The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a collection of discrete pixels is
called Scan Conversion.

Advantages of computer graphics
Computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of communication
 with computer.
It provides tools for producing picture of “real-world” as well as synthetic objects such as mathematical
 surfaces in 4D and of data that have no inherent geometry such as survey result.
It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible to produce animations with computer graphics.

With the use of computer graphics we can control the animation by adjusting the speed, portion
of picture in view the amount of detail shown and so on.

It provides tools called motion dynamics. In which user can move objects as well as observes as
per requirement for example walk throw made by builder to show flat interior and surrounding.

It provides facility called update dynamics. With this we can change the shape color and other
properties of object.

Now in recent development of digital signal processing and audio synthesis chip the interactive
graphics can now provide audio feedback along with the graphical feed backs.

Application of computer graphics

User interface: - Visual object which we observe on screen which communicates with user is one of the
most useful applications of the computer graphics.

Plotting of graphics and chart in industry, business, government and educational organizations drawing
like bars, pie-charts, histogram’s are very useful for quick and good decision making.

Office automation and desktop publishing: - It is used for creation and dissemination of information. It is used
in in-house creation and printing of documents which contains text, tables, graphs and other forms 

Computer aided drafting and design: - It uses graphics to design components and system such as
automobile bodies structures of building etc. Simulation and animation: - Use of graphics in simulation
makes mathematic models and mechanical systems more realistic and easy to study.

 Art and commerce: - There are many tools provided by graphics which allows used to make their
 picture animated and attracted which are used in advertising.
Process control: - Now a day’s automation is used which is graphically displayed on the screen.

Cartography: - Computer graphics is also used to represent geographic maps, weather
maps, oceanographic charts etc.

Education and training: - Computer graphics can be used to generate models of physical, financial and
 economic systems. These models can be used as educational aids.
Image processing: - It is used to process image by changing property of the image.

Display devices
 Display devices are also known as output devices.
Most commonly used output device in a graphics system is a video monitor.

Cathode-ray-tubes

Fig. 1.1: - Cathode ray tube.

It is an evacuated glass tube.


An electron gun at the rear of the tube produce a beam of electrons which is directed towards
 the screen of the tube by a high voltage typically 15000 to 20000 volts
 Inner side screen is coated with phosphor substance which gives light when it is stroked bye electrons.
Control grid controls velocity of electrons before they hit the phosphor.

The control grid voltage determines how many electrons are actually in the electron beam. The negative
 the control voltage is the fewer the electrons that pass through the grid.
Thus control grid controls Intensity of the spot where beam strikes the screen.

The focusing system concentrates the electron beam so it converges to small point when hits
 the phosphor coating.
Deflection system directs beam which decides the point where beam strikes the screen.

Deflection system of the CRT consists of two pairs of parallel plates which are vertical and horizontal
deflection plates.

Voltage applied to vertical and horizontal deflection plates is control vertical and horizontal
 deflection respectively.
There are two techniques used for producing images on the CRT screen:

1) Vector scan/Random scan display.

2) Raster scan display.
 Vector scan/Random scan display

CPU

I/O Port

Display
buffer (Interaction (Display
memory data) command)

Display controller CRT

Keyboard Mouse

Fig. 1.2: - Architecture of a vector display.

Vector scan display directly traces out only the desired lines on CRT.

If we want line between point p1 & p2 then we directly drive the beam deflection circuitry which
 focus beam directly from point p1 to p2.
If we do not want to display line from p1 to p2 and just move then we can blank the beam as we move it.

To move the beam across the CRT, the information about both magnitude and direction is required. This
information is generated with the help of vector graphics generator.

Fig. 1.2 shows architecture of vector display. It consists of display controller, CPU, display buffer memory
 and CRT.
 Display controller is connected as an I/O peripheral to the CPU.
Display buffer stores computer produced display list or display program.

The Program contains point & line plotting commands with end point co-ordinates as well as character
 plotting commands.
Display controller interprets command and sends digital and point co-ordinates to a vector generator.

Vector generator then converts the digital co-ordinate value to analog voltages for beam deflection
circuits that displace an electron beam which points on the CRT’s screen.

In this technique beam is deflected from end point to end point hence this techniques is also called
 random scan.
We know as beam strikes phosphors coated screen it emits light but that light decays after few

milliseconds and therefore it is necessary to repeat through the display list to refresh the screen at least
 30 times per second to avoid flicker.
As display buffer is used to store display list and used to refreshing, it is also called refresh buffer.











 Raster scan display

CPU

I/O Port

(Interaction (Display
data) command

Keyboard
Display controller
Mouse

00000000000000000
00000111111100000 CRT
00000000100000000 Video controller T
00000000100000000
00000000100000000

Refresh buffer

Fig. 1.3: - Architecture of a raster display.

Fig. 1.3 shows the architecture of Raster display. It consists of display controller, CPU, video controller,
 refresh buffer, keyboard, mouse and CRT.
 The display image is stored in the form of 1’s and 0’s in the refresh buffer.
 The video controller reads this refresh buffer and produces the actual image on screen.
It will scan one line at a time from top to bottom & then back to the top.

Horizontal
Vertical
OFF ON Retrace
Retrace

Fig. 1.4: - Raster scan CRT.

In this method the horizontal and vertical deflection signals are generated to move the beam all over the
 screen in a pattern shown in fig. 1.4.
 Here beam is swept back & forth from left to the right.
When beam is moved from left to right it is ON.

When beam is moved from right to left it is OFF and process of moving beam from right to left
after completion of row is known as Horizontal Retrace.

When beam is reach at the bottom of the screen. It is made OFF and rapidly retraced back to the top left
 to start again and process of moving back to top is known as Vertical Retrace.
 The screen image is maintained by repeatedly scanning the same image. This process is known as
 Refreshing of Screen.
 In raster scan displays a special area of memory is dedicated to graphics only. This memory is called
 Frame Buffer.
 Frame buffer holds set of intensity values for all the screen points.
 That intensity is retrieved from frame buffer and display on screen one row at a time.
 Each screen point referred as pixel or Pel (Picture Element).
 Each pixel can be specified by its row and column numbers.
 It can be simply black and white system or color system.
In simple black and white system each pixel is either ON or OFF, so only one bit per pixel is needed.

Additional bits are required when color and intensity variations can be displayed up to 24-bits per pixel
are included in high quality display systems.

On a black and white system with one bit per pixel the frame buffer is commonly called a Bitmap.
And for systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred as a Pixmap.

Difference between random scan and raster scan

Base of Difference Raster Scan System Random Scan System

Electron Beam The electron beam is swept across the The electron beam is directed only to the
screen, one row at a time, from top to parts of screen where a picture is to be
bottom. drawn.

Resolution Its resolution is poor because raster Its resolution is good because this system
system in contrast produces zigzag produces smooth lines drawings because
lines that are plotted as discrete point CRT beam directly follows the line path.
sets.

Picture Definition Picture definition is stored as a set of Picture definition is stored as a set of line
intensity values for all screen points, drawing instructions in a display file.
called pixels in a refresh buffer area.

Realistic Display The capability of this system to store These systems are designed for line-
intensity values for pixel makes it well drawing and can’t display realistic shaded
suited for the realistic display of scenes scenes.
contain shadow and color pattern.

Draw an Image Screen points/pixels are used to draw Mathematical functions are used to draw
an image. an image.
 Color CRT monitors
A CRT monitors displays color pictures by using a combination of phosphors that emit different
 colored light.
 It produces range of colors by combining the light emitted by different phosphors.
 There are two basic techniques for color display:
Beam-penetration technique
Shadow-mask technique

Beam-penetration technique

Fig. 1.5: - Beam-penetration CRT

This technique is used with random scan monitors.


In this technique inside of CRT coated with two phosphor layers usually red and green. The outer layer
 of red and inner layer of green phosphor.
The color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layer.

A beam of fast electron penetrates more and excites inner green layer while slow electron excites
outer red layer.

At intermediate beam speed we can produce combination of red and green lights which emit
 additional two colors orange and yellow.
 The beam acceleration voltage controls the speed of the electrons and hence color of pixel.
 It is a low cost technique to produce color in random scan monitors.
 It can display only four colors.
Quality of picture is not good compared to other techniques.

Shadow-mask technique

Fig. 1.6: - Shadow-mask CRT.

 It produces wide range of colors as compared to beam-penetration technique.

This technique is generally used in raster scan displays. Including color TV.

In this technique CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One dot for red, one
for green and one for blue light. This is commonly known as Dot Triangle.

 Here in CRT there are three electron guns present, one for each color dot. And a shadow mask grid just
 behind the phosphor coated screen.
The shadow mask grid consists of series of holes aligned with the phosphor dot pattern.

Three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask and when they
pass through a hole they excite a dot triangle.

In dot triangle three phosphor dots are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only
its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

A dot triangle when activated appears as a small dot on the screen which has color of combination
of three small dots in the dot triangle.

By changing the intensity of the three electron beams we can obtain different colors in the shadow mask
CRT.

Direct-view storage tubes (DVST)

Fig. 1.7: - Direct-view storage tube.

 In raster scan display we do refreshing of the screen to maintain a screen image.

DVST gives alternative method for maintaining the screen image.

DVST uses the storage grid which stores the picture information as a charge distribution just behind
 the phosphor coated screen.
 DVST consists two electron guns a primary gun and a flood gun.
 A primary gun stores the picture pattern and the flood gun maintains the picture display.
A primary gun emits high speed electrons which strike on the storage grid to draw the picture pattern.

As electron beam strikes on the storage grid with high speed, it knocks out electrons from the
 storage grid keeping the net positive charge.
 The knocked out electrons are attracted towards the collector.
 The net positive charge on the storage grid is nothing but the picture pattern.
The continuous low speed electrons from flood gun pass through the control grid and are attracted to
the positive charged area of the storage grid.

The low speed electrons then penetrate the storage grid and strike the phosphor coating
 without affecting the positive charge pattern on the storage grid.
During this process the collector just behind the storage grid smooth out the flow of flood electrons.

Advantage of DVST
 Refreshing of CRT is not required.
 Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution without flicker.
Flat screen.
 Disadvantage of DVST
They do not display color and are available with single level of line intensity.

For erasing it is necessary to removal of charge on the storage grid so erasing and redrawing
 process take several second.
Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.

Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it produce unpleasant flash over
entire screen.

It has poor contrast as a result of the comparatively low accelerating potential applied to the
 flood electrons.
The performance of DVST is somewhat inferior to the refresh CRT.

Flat Panel Display

The term flat panel display refers to a class of video device that have reduced volume, weight &
 power requirement compared to a CRT.
 As flat panel display is thinner than CRTs, we can hang them on walls or wear on our wrists.
 Since we can even write on some flat panel displays they will soon be available as pocket notepads.
We can separate flat panel display in two categories:

Emissive displays: - the emissive display or emitters are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For Ex. Plasma panel, thin film electroluminescent displays and light emitting diodes.
Non emissive displays: - non emissive display or non emitters use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For Ex. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display).

Plasma Panels displays

Fig. 1.8: - Basic design of a plasma-panel display device.

This is also called gas discharge displays.


It is constructed by filling the region between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually
includes neon.

A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel and a set of horizontal ribbon is built
into the other glass panel.

Firing voltage is applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical conductors cause the gas at the intersection
of the two conductors to break down into glowing plasma of electrons and ions.

Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer and the firing voltages are applied to refresh the pixel
positions, 60 times per second.

Alternating current methods are used to provide faster application of firing voltages and thus brighter
 displays.
Separation between pixels is provided by the electric field of conductor.

One disadvantage of plasma panels is they were strictly monochromatic device that means shows only
one color other than black like black and white.
 Thin Film Electroluminescent Displays.

Fig. 1.9: - Basic design of a thin-film electro luminescent display device.

It is similar to plasma panel display but region between the glass plates is filled with phosphors such
as zinksulphide doped with magnesium instead of gas.

When sufficient voltage is applied the phosphors becomes a conductor in area of intersection of the
two electrodes.

Electrical energy is then absorbed by the manganese atoms which then release the energy as a spot
 of light similar to the glowing plasma effect in plasma panel.
 It requires more power than plasma panel.
In this good color and gray scale difficult to achieve.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

In this display a matrix of multi-color light emitting diode is arranged to form the pixel position in the
display. And the picture definition is stored in refresh buffer.

Similar to scan line refreshing of CRT information is read from the refresh buffer and converted to
voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern on the display.
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Fig. 1.10: - Light twisting shutter effect used in design of most LCD.
 It is generally used in small system such as calculator and portable laptop.
This non emissive device produce picture by passing polarized light from the surrounding or from an

internal light source through liquid crystal material that can be aligned to either block or transmit the
light.

The liquid crystal refreshes to fact that these compounds have crystalline arrangement of molecules
then also flows like liquid.

It consists of two glass plates each with light polarizer at right angles to each other sandwich the liquid
crystal material between the plates.

Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and column of vertical
 conductors are put into the other plates.
The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.

In the ON state polarized light passing through material is twisted so that it will pass through the
 opposite polarizer.
In the OFF state it will reflect back towards source.

We applied a voltage to the two intersecting conductor to align the molecules so that the light is not
 twisted.
 This type of flat panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD.
In active matrix LCD transistors are used at each (x, y) grid point.

Transistor cause crystal to change their state quickly and also to control degree to which the state has
 been changed.
Transistor can also serve as a memory for the state until it is changed.

 So transistor make cell ON for all time giving brighter display then it would be if it had to be refresh
periodically



Advantages of LCD display

 Low cost.
 Low weight.
 Small size
Low power consumption.

Three dimensional viewing devices

The graphics monitor which are display three dimensional scenes are devised using a technique
that reflects a CRT image from a vibrating flexible mirror.
Projected
3D image
Timing and
Control
System Vibrating
Flexible
Mirror

CRT
Viewer

Fig. 1.11: - 3D display system uses a vibrating mirror.

Vibrating mirror changes its focal length due to vibration which is synchronized with the display of an
object on CRT.

The each point on the object is reflected from the mirror into spatial position corresponding to distance
 of that point from a viewing position.
Very good example of this system is GENISCO SPACE GRAPH system, which use vibrating mirror to

project 3D objects into a 25 cm by 25 cm by 25 cm volume. This system is also capable to show 2D cross
section at different depth.

Application of 3D viewing devices

 In medical to analyze data from ultra-sonography.
 In geological to analyze topological and seismic data.
In designing like solid objects viewing and 3D viewing of objects.

Stereoscopic and virtual-reality systems

Stereoscopic system
Stereoscopic views does not produce three dimensional images, but it produce 3D effects by
presenting different view to each eye of an observer so that it appears to have depth.

To obtain this we first need to obtain two views of object generated from viewing
direction corresponding to each eye.

We can construct the two views as computer generated scenes with different viewing positions or
we can use stereo camera pair to photograph some object or scene.

When we see simultaneously both the view as left view with left eye and right view with right eye
then two views is merge and produce image which appears to have depth.

One way to produce stereoscopic effect is to display each of the two views with raster system
on alternate refresh cycles.

The screen is viewed through glasses with each lance design such a way that it act as a
rapidly alternating shutter that is synchronized to block out one of the views.

Virtual-reality

Virtual reality is the system which produce images in such a way that we feel that our surrounding
 is what we are set in display devices but in actually it does not.
In virtual reality user can step into a scene and interact with the environment.

A head set containing an optical system to generate the stereoscopic views is commonly used in
conjunction with interactive input devices to locate and manipulate objects in the scene.

Sensor in the head set keeps track of the viewer’s position so that the front and back of objects can
be seen as the viewer “walks through” and interacts with the display.

Virtual reality can also be produce with stereoscopic glass and video monitor instead of head set. This
 provides low cost virtual reality system.
Sensor on display screen track head position and accordingly adjust image depth.

Raster graphics systems

Simple raster graphics system

Raster graphics systems having additional processing unit like video controller or display controller.

Here frame buffer can be anywhere in the system memory and video controller access this for refresh
the screen.

In addition to video controller more processors are used as co-processors to accelerate the system in
sophisticated raster system.

Raster graphics system with a fixed portion of the system memory reserved
for the frame buffer
A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer and the video controller can
 directly access that frame buffer memory.
 Frame buffer location and the screen position are referred in Cartesian coordinates.
For many graphics monitors the coordinate origin is defined at the lower left screen corner.

Screen surface is then represented as the first quadrant of the two dimensional systems with positive X-
value increases as left to right and positive Y-value increases bottom to top.
 Basic refresh operation of video controller

Raster Scan Horizontal and Vertical

Generator Deflection Voltages

Y
registerregister

Memory Address Pixel

Intensity
register

Frame Buffer

Fig. 1.12: - Basic video controller refresh operation.

 Two registers are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels which are X and Y
 Initially the X is set to 0 and Y is set to Ymax.
 The value stored in frame buffer for this pixel is retrieved and used to set the intensity of the CRT beam.
 After this X register is incremented by one.
 This procedure is repeated till X becomes equals to Xmax.
 Then X is set to 0 and Y is decremented by one pixel and repeat above procedure.
This whole procedure is repeated till Y is become equals to 0 and complete the one refresh cycle. Then

controller reset the register as top –left corner i.e. X=0 and Y=Ymax and refresh process start for next
refresh cycle.

Since screen must be refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second the simple procedure illustrated in
figure cannot be accommodated by typical RAM chips.

To speed up pixel processing video controller retrieves multiple values at a time using more numbers of
 registers and simultaneously refresh block of pixel.
Such a way it can speed up and accommodate refresh rate more than 60 frames per second.

Raster-graphics system with a display processor

 One way to designing raster system is having separate display coprocessor.

 Purpose of display processor is to free CPU from graphics work.
Display processors have their own separate memory for fast operation.

Main work of display processor is digitalizing a picture definition given into a set of pixel intensity
 values for store in frame buffer.
This digitalization process is scan conversion.

Display processor also performs many other functions such as generating various line styles (dashed,
 dotted, or solid). Display color areas and performing some transformation for manipulating object.
It also interfaces with interactive input devices such as mouse.

For reduce memory requirements in raster scan system methods have been devised for organizing the
 frame buffer as a line list and encoding the intensity information.
One way to do this is to store each scan line as a set of integer pair one number indicate number of

adjacent pixels on the scan line that are having same intensity and second stores intensity value this
technique is called run-length encoding.

A similar approach is when pixel. Intensity is changes linearly, encoded the raster as a set of rectangular
areas (cell encoding).

Disadvantages of encoding is when run length is small it requires more memory then original frame
 buffer.
 It also difficult for display controller to process the raster when many sort runs are involved.


Random- scan system

An application program is input & stored in the system memory along with a graphics package.

Graphics commands in the application program are translated by the graphics package into a display file
 stored in the system memory.
 This display file is used by display processor to refresh the screen.
Display process goes through each command in display file. Once during every refresh cycle.

Sometimes the display processor in random scan system is also known as display processing unit or
a graphics controller.

In this system graphics platform are drawn on random scan system by directing the electron beam
 along the component times of the picture.
 Lines are defined by coordinate end points.
 This input coordinate values are converts to X and Y deflection voltages.
A scene is then drawn one line at a time.

Graphics input devices

Keyboards
Keyboards are used as entering text strings. It is efficient devices for inputting such a non-graphics data
 as picture label.
Cursor control key’s & function keys are common features on general purpose keyboards.

Many other application of key board which we are using daily used of computer graphics
are commanding & controlling through keyboard etc.

Mouse
 Mouse is small size hand-held box used to position screen cursor.
 Wheel or roller or optical sensor is directing pointer on the according to movement of mouse.
 Three buttons are placed on the top of the mouse for signaling the execution of some operation.
Now a day’s more advance mouse is available which are very useful in graphics application for example Z
mouse.

Trackball and Spaceball

 Trackball is ball that can be rotated with the finger or palm of the hand to produce cursor movement.

 Potentiometer attached to the ball, measure the amount and direction of rotation.
 They are often mounted on keyboard or Z mouse.
Space ball provide six-degree of freedom i.e. three dimensional.

In space ball strain gauges measure the amount of pressure applied to the space ball to provide input
for spatial positioning and orientation as the ball is pushed or pulled in various directions.

Space balls are used in 3D positioning and selection operations in virtual reality system,
modeling, animation, CAD and other application.

Joysticks
A joy stick consists of small vertical lever mounted on a base that is used to steer the screen
 cursor around.
 Most joy sticks selects screen positioning according to actual movement of stick (lever).
 Some joy sticks are works on pressure applied on sticks.
 Sometimes joy stick mounted on keyboard or sometimes used alone.
 Movement of the stick defines the movement of the cursor.

In pressure sensitive stick pressure applied on stick decides movement of the cursor. This pressure
 is measured using strain gauge.
This pressure sensitive joy sticks also called as isometric joy sticks and they are non movable sticks.

Data glove
 Data glove is used to grasp virtual objects.
The glow is constructed with series of sensors that detect hand and figure motions.

Electromagnetic coupling is used between transmitter and receiver antennas which used to
provide position and orientation of the hand.

Transmitter & receiver Antenna can be structured as a set of three mutually perpendicular coils
 forming 3D Cartesian coordinate’s system.
Input from the glove can be used to position or manipulate object in a virtual scene.

Digitizer
Digitizer is common device for drawing painting or interactively selecting coordinates position on
an object.

One type of digitizers is graphics tablet which input two dimensional coordinates by activating hand
 cursor or stylus at selected position on a flat surface.
Stylus is flat pencil shaped device that is pointed at the position on the tablet.

Image Scanner
Image Scanner scan drawing, graph, color, & black and white photos or text and can stored for computer
 processing by passing an optical scanning mechanism over the information to be stored.
 Once we have internal representation of a picture we can apply transformation.
 We can also apply various image processing methods to modify the picture.
For scanned text we can apply modification operation.

Touch Panels
As name suggest Touch Panels allow displaying objects or screen-position to be selected with the touch
or finger.
A typical application is selecting processing option shown in graphical icons.

Some system such as a plasma panel are designed with touch screen

Other system can be adapted for touch input by fitting transparent touch sensing mechanism over
 a screen.
 Touch input can be recorded with following methods.
Optical methods
Electrical methods
Acoustical methods

Optical method
 Optical touch panel employ a line of infrared LEDs along one vertical and one horizontal edge.
The opposite edges of the edges containing LEDs are contain light detectors.

When we touch at a particular position the line of light path breaks and according to that breaking line
 coordinate values are measured.
 In case two line cuts it will take average of both pixel positions.
LEDs operate at infrared frequency so it cannot be visible to user.

Electrical method
 An electrical touch panel is constructed with two transparent plates separated by small distance.
 One is coated with conducting material and other is coated with resistive material.
When outer plate is touch it will come into contact with internal plate.

 When both plates touch it creates voltage drop across the resistive plate that is converted
into coordinate values of the selected position.

Acoustical method
In acoustical touch panel high frequency sound waves are generated in horizontal and vertical
 direction across a glass plates.
When we touch the screen the waves from that line are reflected from finger.

These reflected waves reach again at transmitter position and time difference between sending
and receiving is measure and converted into coordinate values.

Light pens
Light pens are pencil-shaped device used to select positions by detecting light coming from points on the
CRT screen.

Activated light pens pointed at a spot on the screen as the electron beam lights up that spot and
generate electronic pulse that causes the coordinate position of the electron beam to be recorded.

Voice systems
 It is used to accept voice command in some graphics workstations.
 It is used to initiate graphics operations.
 It will match input against predefined directory of words and phrases.
Dictionary is setup for a particular operator by recording his voice.

Each word is speak several times and then analyze the word and establishes a frequency pattern for that
 word along with corresponding function need to be performed.
When operator speaks command it will match with predefine dictionary and perform desired action.

Graphics software and standard

 There are mainly two types of graphics software:
General programming package
Special-purpose application package

General programming package

A general programming package provides an extensive set of graphics function that can be used in
 high level programming language such as C or FORTRAN.
 It includes basic drawing element shape like line, curves, polygon, color of element transformation etc.
Example: - GL (Graphics Library).

Special-purpose application package

Special-purpose application package are customize for particular application which implement required

facility and provides interface so that user need not to vory about how it will work (programming). User
 can simply use it by interfacing with application.
Example: - CAD, medical and business systems.

Coordinate representations
Except few all other general packages are designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate specifications.

If coordinate values for a picture are specified is some other reference frame they must be converted
 to Cartesian coordinate before giving input to graphics package.
 Special-purpose package may allow use of other coordinates which suits application.
In general several different Cartesian reference frames are used to construct and display scene.

We can construct shape of object with separate coordinate system called modeling coordinates or
sometimes local coordinates or master coordinates.

 Once individual object shapes have been specified we can place the objects into appropriate positions
 called world coordinates.
 Finally the World-coordinates description of the scene is transferred to one or more output device
 reference frame for display. These display coordinates system are referred to as “Device Coordinates” or
“Screen Coordinates”.

Generally a graphic system first converts the world-coordinates position to normalized device
coordinates. In the range from 0 to 1 before final conversion to specific device coordinates.

An initial modeling coordinates position ( Xmc,Ymc) in this illustration is transferred to a device
  
coordinates position(Xdc,Ydc) with the sequence ( Xmc,Ymc) ( Xwc,Ywc) ( Xnc,Ync) ( Xdc,Ydc).
Graphic Function
A general purpose graphics package provides user with Varity of function for creating and manipulating
 pictures.
The basic building blocks for pictures are referred to as output primitives. They includes character,

string, and geometry entities such as point, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas and shapes defined
 with arrays of color points.
Input functions are used for control & process the various input device such as mouse, tablet, etc.
 Control operations are used to controlling and housekeeping tasks such as clearing display screen etc.
All such inbuilt function which we can use for our purpose are known as graphics function

Software Standard
Primary goal of standardize graphics software is portability so that it can be used in any
 hardware systems & avoid rewriting of software program for different system
Some of these standards are discuss below

Graphical Kernel System (GKS)

This system was adopted as a first graphics software standard by the international standard
 organization (ISO) and various national standard organizations including ANSI.
GKS was originally designed as the two dimensional graphics package and then later extension was
developed for three dimensions.

PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphic Standard)

PHIGS is extension of GKS. Increased capability for object modeling, color specifications,
 surface rendering, and picture manipulation are provided in PHIGS.
Extension of PHIGS called “PHIGS+” was developed to provide three dimensional surface
shading capabilities not available in PHIGS.