PHYSICS SECTION

PHYSICS SECTION
TOPICS

 DATA PRESENTATION

 MEASUREMENT

 FORCE

 ENERGY

 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY

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DATA PRESENTATION

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 Present data in the form of tallies, tables and bar graphs
 Interpret data presented in the form of tallies, tables and bar graphs
 Construct a straight line graph from appropriate data
 Interpret straight line graphs

WAYS OF PRESENTING DATA

- Data is any information such as facts and statistics gathered by scientist during
experiment or during a research.
- Scientists interpret data (i.e. understand and explain the meaning of) and it to make
conclusions about their experiment.
- Data gathered need to be presented in a certain way which is not time consuming e.g.
visual or graphic.
- Data can be qualitative data (observations) or qualitative data (statistical data).

TALLIES

- Tally marks are a unary numeral system. They are a form of numeral used for counting.
They are most useful in counting or tallying ongoing results, such as the score in a game
or sport, as no intermediate results need to be erased or discarded.
- However, because of the length of large numbers, tallies are not commonly used for static
text.
- Tally marks are typically clustered in groups of five for legibility. The cluster size 5 has
the advantages of easy conversion into decimal for higher arithmetic operations and
avoiding error, as humans can far more easily correctly identify a cluster of 5 than one of
10.

- Tallies are done as follows

TABLES

- Presenting data in a table helps to make it clear and easy to read and understand.
- Tables should always have a descriptive heading
- Each column and row should be labelled and can have a unit of measurement
representing all data on the column if applicable. For example;

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Favourite fruit types for form one learners

Types of fruit Number of learners Tally

Banana 14

Mango 6

Marula 9

Apple 1

BAR GRAPHS

- A bar graph is a visual display of data on a graph. Bar graphs have vertical bars of
different heights on a pair of axes.
- Bar graphs are used when the data is in groups or categories e.g. days of the week, types
of transport, type of fruits e.t.c.
- We can use the information presented in the table above to draw a bar graph

Graph for favorite fruit type

16

14

12

10

0
Banana Mango Marula Apple

- The heights of the bars shows the values represented in the table
- From the graph we can see that bananas are the most popular fruit and apples are the least
popular.

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LINE GRAPHS

- A line graph shows one set of data in relation to another and is plotted on a set of axes.
- When drawing, a straight line graph an appropriate scale should be chosen.
- The measured data or collected data will always be presented on the vertical (y) axis.
- Next you will make dots in line with the corresponding data and this is called plotting.
- These dots are joined using a straight line between adjacent dots.
- In physics, it is important for us to know how two variables influence each other.
- To investigate such relationships, a lot of experiments are done.

A straight line graph

A straight line graph is constructed by connecting data points with a straight line. The straight
line passes through the centre of a series of points. The points are plotted on a system of axes, the
x-axis and the y-axis

x - .

6
y -value straight line graph
C with equation of the
Dependent variable 5 form:
y = mx + c

B
3
Coordinate
Point x-value y -value 2

A 1 1 A
1
B 3 3
C 5 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x-value Independent variable

Figure 1.1A straight line graph passes the centre of all the data points

Each point is a coordinate. Each coordinate has a x-value and a y-value. The first number of the
coordinate is the x-value (independent variable). The x-value is read from the horizontal x-axis.
The second number of the coordinate is the y-value (dependent variable). The y-value is read
from the vertical y-axis. The x-value and y-value of the coordinate tells you where the point is
positioned on the graph.

Investigating the relationship between voltage and current in a series circuit

- When 1 cell is connected to the bulb, it burns dimly

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- When the flying lead is moved to include cell number 2, the bulb will burn brighter.
- The brightness increases when we include 3 cells and 4.
- Clearly, there is a relationship between the brightness of the bulb and the number of cells.
- The number of cells (voltage) is the independent variable while the brightness of the bulb
(current) is the dependent variable.
- Voltage drives a current through the circuit and the size of the current determines the
brightness of the bulb.

INTERPRETING A STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH

Direct proportion

- With the straight line above, we can safely conclude that voltage is directly proportional
to the current flowing.
- If the voltage increases current also increases proportionately.
- The gradient of such a graph has a physical.
- In the experiment, the gradient gives a measure of the resistance of the bulb.
- Other pairs of variables that will give such a straight line are interpreted in the same way.

Inverse proportion

- Sometimes, when one variable increases, the other decreases.

- The product of these variables will always be a constant.
- Suppose that P and Q are inversely proportional, a straight line graph will look like the
one shown below.

Activity

Table 1 Data of distance travelled by a car and the time taken to travel the distance

Distance travelled (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50

Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20 25

Draw a line graph of the information

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MEASUREMENTS

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 estimate physical quantities
 identify appropriate instruments for measuring physical quantities
 measure accurately
 identify types of errors in measurement
 read an instrument scale to the nearest division
 identify units including S.I units
 convert units
 measure mass of a liquid
 measure the volume of an irregular object
 determine the thickness, volume and mass of small objects
 calculate density

ESTIMATING QUANTITIES

- An estimate is a guess very close to actual based on knowledge or rough calculations and
it can be done before actual measurement. Different people produce different estimates
for a given quantity.
- Estimate the length of the following and record your estimations in metres
(a) Width of the classroom door
(b) The length of the classroom walls
(c) Height of your desk
- Estimate and record estimates in kg / g of mass of the following
(a) A science textbook
(b) A pen
(c) A beaker

- Estimate and record your estimations in oC of temperature of

(a) Cold water
(b) Warm water
(c) Hot water

- Estimate and record your estimation in seconds or minutes of time it takes to

(a) Walk the length of the class
(b) Take your book out of your satchel and place it on your desk
(c) To boil 100ml of water

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- Record all observations in the table below

-
Item Estimation Actual Measurement Accurate /not accurate

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Errors occur in all physical measurements and there are two common errors that could occur
when taking measurements i.e.

PARALLAX ERROR
- It is an error in reading an instrument due to the incorrect position of the eye.
- To avoid parallax error, the person taking measurement must make sure that their line of
sight is directly in line with the instrument’s pointer and scale.

ZERO ERROR
- Is caused by incorrect positioning of the zero point.
- The pointer on the instrument must be exactly positioned near to zero on the scale

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SI UNITS

- Physical quantity is a property of an object or other substance that can be measured using
an appropriate measuring instrument.
- Each type of measurement is done in a special unit, set as a standard to be used by
scientists and other people so that they communicate effectively amongst themselves.
- SI units stand for international system of units.
- The International System (SI) units of measurements are used to measure physical
quantities.

READING AN INSTRUMENT SCALE

- It is important to be accurate when taking measurements.
- Errors in measurement can be minimised to ensure accurate measurement
- The eye must be correctly positioned in order to take correct readings
- In diagram below position 2 will give correct reading. Position 1 will give a reading that
is less than the actual measurement and position 3 will give a reading that is greater than
the actual measurement.

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- To read the scale properly, count the number of divisions between zero and one. For
example, in the scale below, there are ten divisions between zero and one. Divide 1
by the number of subdivisions to find out what each subdivision measures, in this
case, each subdivision represents 0.1cm.

- Therefore reading at position A is 0.6cm; at position B is 1.4cm and position C is

2.2cm

Units including SI Units

Physical quantity SI unit Instruments

Length Metre (m) Metre rule, measuring tape

Mass Kilogram (kg) Balance

Time Second (s) Clock, stop watch

Temperature Kelvin (K) Thermometer

MULTIPLES OF SI UNITS

- During lessons and practical experiments we often measure small lengths, small masses
and small volumes therefore we need to use multiples of SI units for example measuring
length in millimetres and centimeters.
- To indicate the multiples of SI units, we use specific prefixes such as kilo-, centi- and
milli-.

Prefix Abbreviation Factor relative to base unit

kilo k 1 000

hecto h 100

deca da 10

deci d 0.1

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centi c 0.01

milli m 0.001

- Using this information, to convert 1 metre to kilometres, you would divide the value in
the base unit, metre by the factor of the multiple, 1 000 (for kilo) to get the value.
-

TIME CONVERSION

- Time works in multiples of 60.

- There are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour.
- However, 1 000 milliseconds make a second.
- 24 hours make a day, 7 days make a week and 4 weeks make a month.
- 12 months make a year, 10 years make a decade, 100 years a century and 1 000 make a
millennium.

MASS

- Mass is the scientific measure of the amount of matter an object is made up of.
- No matter where you are, mass is constant (on earth or on the moon).

Key points about mass

 Mass can never be zero because everything in the universe has mass. If it did not have
mass it simply would not exist.
 Mass and gravity are not related but when gravity acts on mass, we end up with weight
(force).
 Kilogram is the SI unit of mass while smaller sub-units are measured in grams and
kilograms while bigger masses are measured in tonnes (1 tonnes = 1 000kg).

- Mass is measured using a balance which works by comparing known masses with
unknown masses.
- However, digital balances are now commonly used.
- On the other hand, weight depends on gravity
- Unlike mass, weight vary depending on the where you are in the universe.

Weight (W) = Mass (m) multiplied by gravitational acceleration (g)

(W = mg)

MEASURING THE VOLUME OF A REGULAR AND AN IRREGULAR OBJECT

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- Measuring the volume of regular objects is an easy task.

- Once the dimensions: length, width, height or surface area is found it is easy to work out
their volumes.
- Volume has the unit of cubic metres (m3), cubic centimeters (cm3) and cubic millimeters
(mm3).
- The volume of a liquid is measured using a measuring cylinder, burette, pipette or syringe
in litres (L) or millimeters (ml).

Measurement of the volume of an irregular object

An irregular object does not have a specific shape. It is difficult to calculate the volume of an
irregular shape by measuring the sides. You will not be able to measure the sides accurately. For
example, a stone has an irregular shape because it is not a perfect sphere, cube, pyramid or even
a hexagon! Therefore, we need to find another way of determining the volume of irregular
objects.

We can submerge an object in water (or another liquid) in order to determine its volume
accurately. When the object is placed in a container filled with water, the water level in the
container will increase.

Example 1 Nokutenda wants to determine the volume of her front door key. She tries to use a
ruler, but the shape of the key is irregular. She decides to use a measuring cylinder filled with
water to measure the volume of the key.

Volume (ml)

500
500
450 450
400
400
350
350
300
300
250
250
200 200
150
150
100
100
50 50
0
0

Figure Nokutenda’s key displaces the water and the water level rises

In Figure, Nokutenda fills a measuring cylinder with 350 mℓ of water. When she drops the key in
the water, the volume of the water increases to 450 mℓ.

Calculate the volume of the key

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key volume = 450ml – 350ml

= 100ml 100 ml = 100cm 3

Therefore, the key has a volume of 100 cm3.

When we place an irregular object in a liquid, the object will displace the water. The
volume of water that the object displaces is equal to the volume of the object.

DETERMINING THE THICKNESS, VOLUME AND MASS OF SMALL OBJECTS

- Sometimes we need to measure the length/size of very small objects, for example the
thickness of one page of a book. The smallest division on a metre rule is one millimeter.
The thickness of a page is less than one millimeter. We would need to read in between
the divisions of a metre rule. The thickness of the page is so small that it cannot be
measured accurately with a metre rule.
- To determine the thickness of one page of a book, we can measure the thickness of all the
pages in the book together. We can then determine the thickness of a single page by
calculating the average
- You can determine the volume of small objects in a similar way. In this unit we learnt
how to measure the volume of an irregular object through displacement. A seed is a small
object with an irregular shape. If we try to measure the volume of one seed by
submerging it in water (displacement), we will not get an accurate reading. The
displacement of the water will be too small to measure accurately.
- To calculate the volume of a single seed, we must measure the volume of water displaced
by many seeds. We count the number of seeds and divide the volume of the water
displaced by the number of seeds. This gives us the average volume of one seed.

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DENSITY

- Density is the amount of matter (mass) of that particular substance that can be packed
into one cubic centimetre of volume of the substance.
- Therefore the unit of density is grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) or kg/m3

Density = mass of substance (g)

volume of substance (cm3)

Example 1 Calculate the density of glass if 120cm3 of glass has a mass of 300g

Example 2 A cylinder of aluminium has a radius of 7cm and a height of 20cm. The mass
of the cylinder is 8.316kg. Calculate the density of aluminium

Example 3 A beaker has a mass of 48g. When 120cm3 of copper sulphate solution are
poured into the beaker it is found to have a mass of 174g. Calculate the density
of the copper sulphate

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FORCE

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:

 demonstrate the effect of forces on position, shape and size

 identify various types of force

 state the unit of force

 identify instruments for measuring force
 calculate the resultant of a pair of inline forces
 define moment of a force
 calculate moment of a force
 state the principle of moments
 apply the principle of moments in simple calculations
 define friction
 measure friction
 state the applications of frictional force

EFFECTS OF FORCES

A force is a push or a pull; a squeeze or a twist - Effects of forces include;

- Distortion or deformation (change in shape and size) – a force can change the
shape of a solid object e.g. when you squeeze a cool drink can, the force exerted on
the can by the hand causes the can to change shape.
- Change in speed – a force can cause the speed of a moving object to change. It can
cause the object to accelerate and move faster or decelerate and moves slower e.g.
when riding a bicycle the harder and faster you pedal, the greater the force and the
faster the bicycle goes.
- Change direction – a force can cause a moving object to change direction e.g. a
tennis ball approaching a tennis player, the player hits the ball and it changes
direction because the racket exerts a force on the ball to change direction
- Change in position – a force can cause a stationery object to move and change
position e.g. if a soccer ball is kicked, the foot exert the force on the ball and the ball
moves forward.

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TYPES OF FORCES

- There are two main types of forces i.e. contact and non-contact forces
- CONTACT FORCES are forces that are in direct contact with each other e.g. pulling,
pushing and twisting forces (mechanical forces) that are directly applied to an object.
• Weight – is the force acting on mass due to gravity
• Mechanical force – caused by the movement of objects e.g. falling water
• Friction – force that opposes motion. It occurs between two objects that
are moving against each other. It slows down a moving object or causes it to stop.

- NON CONTACT FORCES that not in direct contact with each other. Effect of the
force can be observed e.g.

• Gravitational force – that pulls objects towards the centre of the earth.
• Magnetic force – force exerted by magnets to attract or repel materials
• Electrostatic force – produced by rubbing and can attract or repel objects

MEASURING FORCE

- Is measured in Newtons (N) using a force meter or spring balance

- A forcemeter is made of a spring with a hook attached to it. The large the force applied,
the longer the spring stretches and the greater the reading. The scale of a forcemeter is
in Newtons.
- A spring balance is a type of forcemeter that measures how much a spring stretches
when an object is hung from it. This is the object’s mass. The mass reading on a spring
balance can be converted to weight by multiplying the mass by the force of
gravity(about 10N per kg) weight is measured in Newtons

100g = 1N
1kg = 10N

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RESULTANT FORCE
- A force is a vector quantity because it has magnitude and direction.
- Forces that act in the same direction can be added together to produce a new force called
the resultant or net force.
- A resultant force is a single force with the same effect as two or more forces acting on an
object
Forces that act in the same direction (at 0° relative to each other) are additive forces.

F1 = 4 N

F2 = 6 N

Resultant force = F1 + F2
= 4+ 6
= 10 N
Two forces that are acting in the same direction are added.

INLINE OR CO-LINEAR FORCES

- These are forces acting on the same line.
- Forces that point to the right are positive whilst forces that point to the left are negative
and the forces can either be balanced or unbalanced.
- Balanced forces are forces that have the same magnitude but acting in the opposite
directions. Because they cancel each other, the overall effect of the force is zero.
- Balanced forces do not result in change in the object’s motion hence the object remains
stationary or continue moving at a constant speed.
- On the other hand, unbalanced forces act in the different directions and have different
magnitudes.
- Unbalanced forces do not cancel each other, have an overall effect on an object and have
a non-zero resultant force.
- Unbalanced forces cause a change in the object’s motion.
- To work out the direction of vectors, we use a sign convention.

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- Forces acting on the right are positive (+) and forces acting on the left are negative (-)
- When the final answer is positive, we know that the resultant force acts to the right like in
the above example.
- If the answer had been negative, we would say that the resultant force acted to the left.

F1 = 100 N F2 = 100 N

Resultant force = F1 – F2
= 100 –100
=0N
Balanced (equal) forces have a resultant force that is equal to zero

MOMENT OF FORCE
- There are times when a single force acting on an object produces a turning effect for
example a door that is being opened or closed. There is a turning effect because the door
is fixed on one side of the hinge.
- The hinge in this case is the fulcrum or pivot and the door is the lever.
- Tightening a nut with a spanner also produces a turning effect.
- One end of the spanner is fixed around the head of the nut therefore it acts as the pivot
while the spanner is the lever
distance = 0.50m

Turning
Force
point
10 N

A moment is applied onto the bolt by the spanner.

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- Two values are needed, the magnitude of the force (Newtons) and the perpendicular
distance from the force to the pivot (metres), to work out the moment of force.

MOMENT OF FORCE = FORCE X PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM FORCE TO THE PIVOT

- The unit of measuring the moment of force is the Newton metres (N.m.)

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
- The principle of moments states that when an object is in equilibrium, then the total sum
of clockwise moments about a point is equal to the total sum of anticlockwise moments
- The principle of moments states that if moments of the forces acting on either side of the
pivot are equal, the beam is in equilibrium and will not accelerate or move. Remember: it
is the moments of the forces that must be balanced, not the forces themselves. The
principle of moments can be summarised as:
AT EQUILIBRIUM:

CLOCKWISE MOMENTS = ANTI-CLOCKWISE MOMENTS

Look at Figure below. The moments produced at the pivot from both sides of the see-saw are
equal. This means that the see-saw will not move up or down, but will be balanced. We say the
beam is in equilibrium.

2m 2m

resultant moment = 1 000 – 600

= 400 N

pivot

M1 = 300 x 2 M1 = 300 x 2
= 600 N = 1 000 N

F1 = 300 N F2 = 500 N

The moments of the forces acting on both sides of the pivot are equal. The beam is in
equilibrium.

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.Example 2 Use the principle of moments to calculate the unknown quantities in examples
below. In all cases, the beam is balanced.

FRICTION
- Friction is a force that opposes motion or movement of an object.
- Without friction, a moving body would continue moving at that speed with no need for
extra energy.
- A car would need to burn more fuel to keep it moving.

What is friction?
Measurement of Friction
We can measure friction by pulling an object at a constant speed across a surface. We place a
spring balance between our hand and the object that will be pulled. As we pull the object
hooked to the spring balance, we can take readings from the spring balance. The spring balance
measures the frictional force between the object and the surface.

spring balance
block

direction of surface
applied force

Measuring frictional force

What causes friction?

- Surfaces may appear smooth when in fact they are quite rough and have protruding parts
not visible by naked eyes.

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- The protruding parts interlock and make it difficult to one surface to slide over the other
smoothly. This is the cause of friction.

When friction is important

- Brakes of cars, bicycles and trains all have one surface rubbing against another trying to
bring movement to stop.
- Bicycle and car tyres must have a good tread to improve their grip on the road.
- Even our shoes need good heels and soles.
- Friction is a useful force that ensures that
 Controls motion
 Stay safe

• Car brakes are designed to maximise friction at the control of the driver. A driver
can use the braking device to increase friction around the rotating tire. This friction
causes the car to slow down.

• Car tyres are designed to increase friction at the point where the tire meets the road.
. The tire tread is specially designed so that the wheel does not slip. Instead it rolls in a
controlled fashion. When the tread of a tyre is worn the tyre will not experience the
necessary friction and will slip.

• Soles of shoes are designed to increase the friction between the shoe and the ground.
This prevents our feet from slipping on the ground surface. The frictional force helps us
push off the ground before a slip.

• Roads are made of tar. This is a flat, hard material which allows tires to roll over it
with less friction than, for example, grass or dirt (unpaved) roads.
When there is too much water on the road, cars can hydroplane when they are moving too
fast. A layer of water lies between the tires and the road. Water exerts a much smaller
frictional force than the tar. The car tyres can slide on the almost frictionless surface of the
water and spin out of control. That is why one needs to drive slower on a wet surface. The
tread also lets the water squirt out between the tyre and the road surface so that there is not
a film of water on the road surface that could cause the wheel to slip.

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When friction is a nuisance

- Moving parts in machines have one surface that rub against each other.
- Because of friction, metal parts wear away and are expensive to replace.
- There are also times when friction between two materials generates a lot of heat and this
may cause machine to stop functioning properly.

Measures to reduce friction

- Lubrication ie greasing and oiling
- Using ball bearings
- Using roller bearings
- Using light material

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MACHINES

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 define a machine

 construct a simple machine

SIMPLE MACHINES

- A machine is a device that helps us to do work easier e.g. levers, pulleys, inclined
planes, gears, wheel and axle.
- A machine is anything that magnifies a small force into a large force that is able to do
work.
- Machines are energy convertors

LEVERS

- A lever is a device which can turn about a pivot

- In a working lever a force called the effort is used to overcome a resisting force called
the load. The pivotal point is called the fulcrum
- If we use a crow bar to move a heavy boulder, our hands apply the effort at one end of
the bar and the load is the force exerted by the boulder on the other end.
- A lever changes the force applied on one end of the lever to an opposite force on the
other side

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Parts of levers
- A lever is made up of the following three components
 Fulcrum or pivot: this is the fixed point at which the lever turns
 Load: the object being moved by the lever
 Effort: this is the force required to move the object.

CLASSES OF LEVERS

FIRST CLASS: fulcrum is between the load and effort e.g. crowbars, scissors, claw
hammer, pliers.

SECOND CLASS: load is between the fulcrum and effort e.g. wheelbarrow, nutcracker,
bottle opener

THIRD CLASS LEVERS: effort is between the fulcrum and load e.g. a hoe, fishing rod,
tongs, a spade

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ENERGY

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 describe effects of energy
 identify different -forms of energy
 list forms of potential energy
 identify energy conversions
 construct energy chains
 identify energy convertors
 state the law of conservation of energy
 define work and energy
 state the S.I unit of work and energy
 calculate the work done or energy used by forces
 list sources of light energy
 show that light travels in a straight line
 state the production and transmission of sound
 demonstrate the need for a medium in the transmission of sound

- Energy is the ‘ability to do work’. Energy is a measure of the potential for a change to
occur in the universe
- Energy is neither seen nor touched by is experienced all the times.
- It is stored and used in all things around us.
- Energy allows for
 Movement
 Life
 Light
 Heat
- Energy comes in many forms like kinetic, chemical, electrical, sound and light energy.

SOURCES OF ENERGY
- A source of energy can supply the energy that can be used to do work. Source of
energy include
1. Renewable sources i.e. wind, bio-fuels, solar, hydropower
2. Non-renewable i.e. fossil fuels, nuclear energy

FORMS OF ENERGY

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KINETIC ENERGY

Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion e.g. when kicking or bouncing a ball, energy
is used to move the ball. The ball has kinetic energy. All moving objects have kinetic energy.
The faster it moves the more kinetic energy it has.

HEAT ENERGY

Heat energy is also called thermal energy and is the final fate of other forms of energy. Heat
energy causes a change in the internal energy. It is transferred by conduction, convection or
radiation. The greater the heat energy of a substance is, the higher its temperature.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Energy formed when electrons flow through a conductor. It can be changed into many other
forms like heat and light energy. It is produced by energy transfers at power stations and in
batteries

CHEMICAL ENERGY

Chemical energy is energy released if a chemical reaction takes place. The energy of food is
released by chemical reactions in our bodies during respiration. Fuels cause energy release when
they are burnt. Batteries are compact sources of chemical energy, which in use is converted to
electrical energy.

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is the energy a body has because of its position or condition e.g. water stored in
a reservoir has potential energy stored in the form of gravitational potential energy. It is therefore
stored up energy that can be released to do work - There are different types of potential energy
i.e.
- Gravitational potential energy – is the energy stored in a body due to its relative position
to the earth. For example, water stored behind a dam wall, it has more potential energy
than water at lower level. When released, the water loses potential and gains kinetic
which can used to drive machinery which generate electricity
- Elastic potential energy – is the energy stored by a stretched or squeezed body. For
example, a stretched bow or catapult has elastic potential energy which can be used
kinetic energy to a missile. Similarly, a wound up spring can drive a watch. The more an
object is stretched or squeezed, the greater its elastic potential energy.

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- Chemical potential energy – is the energy within objects that will be converted if a
chemical reaction takes place. Food and fuels are stores of chemical energy. Foods
release energy as a result of chemical reactions in the body. When fuels are burnt they
release energy mainly as heat. The heat is used to drive an engine.

LIGHT ENERGY

Light energy is energy that we can see. Light is a type of energy called radiant energy. Light
waves do not require a medium and can travel through a vacuum.
The study of light as a form of energy is called optics
Light energy is the energy that is important for green plants to make food by photosynthesis.
Main source is the sun.

SOURCES OF LIGHT ENERGY

- Sun
- Moon
- Fire
- Electric bulb
- Candle
- LEDs

TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
A ray of light is a narrow stream of light and is shown by straight lines with arrows showing the
direction in which the light is travelling.

A beam of light is a stream of light usually represented by a number of rays. A beam can be
parallel, divergent or convergent as shown below

PRODUCTION OF SHADOWS
- A shadow is an area in which light does not fall

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- Shadows are formed because some (opaque) objects do not allow light to pass through
them and that light travel in a straight lines. Sharpness of the shadow depends on the size
of the light source.
- If light is made to pass through a narrow hole, a straight ray of light is produced. This ray
has defined edges. This is because light travels in a straight line.
- If the light is blocked by a figure with sharp edges, a sharp shadow of the object with
well defined edges is cast onto a screen.

Something Interesting
Light travels at about 299 792 458 meters per second. The Sun is about 150 million
kilometres from the earth. It would take a car about 177 years to drive from the Earth to the
Sun. It takes light about 8 minutes to travel from the sun to the earth.

Sun

Sun

flight
Light ray

Sunlight travels as light rays, in a straight line from the Sun to the Earth

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SOUND ENERGY

Sound energy is energy produced when an object or substance vibrates and it moves through
materials as sound waves.

PRODUCTION OF SOUND ENERGY

- Sound is produced by vibrations.
- Vibrations are small but fast backward and forward movements.
- If an elastic band is plucked, it will be seen to vibrate and it will produce a humming
sound. The elastic band represents the tissue called the vocal chords found in the throat
which vibrate to produce sound.
- Musical instruments make sound waves when part of them or the air inside them vibrates

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND ENERGY

- Sound is a longitudinal wave.
- Longitudinal waves are propagated or transmitted when particles of a medium vibrate
back and forth in the same direction as the movement of the wave.
- When these molecules vibrate, they in turn cause the molecules around them to vibrate
causing the sound to be transmitted
- Sound waves are mechanical in nature in that they require a medium through which to
move which is usually air, liquids or solids
- Sound cannot travel in a vacuum (empty space).
- Diagram shows how a vibrating tuning-fork sends out a sound wave. When the tuning
fork moves to the right it compresses the air particles together. This disturbance is then
transmitted from particle to particle through the air, with the result that a pulse of
compression moves outward

A series of compression and rarefaction moves sound forwards but the particles of the medium
only move backwards and forwards. This is why sound needs a medium in order to be
transmitted.

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- The medium that sound is transmitted through affects the speed with which sound will
travel.
- Sound will travel faster in water than in air.
- Water has a higher density than air. In water, the particles are closer together. They can
transmit the sound from one particle to another faster than in air.
- Air is less dense than water and the particles have larger spaces between them. It will
take longer for the particles to transmit sound from one particle to another.
- The more dense a material (medium) is, the faster it can transmit sound. Sound will travel
faster along a string than through the air because the string has a higher density than air.

Figure 4.11 Sound travels faster along a string than through the air

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
- Gravitational potential energy is energy that is possessed by all objects that are in
position to move from a higher level to a lower level.
- This is made possible by the force gravity which pulls objects to the centre of the Earth.
- In the example of a pendulum, energy is constantly converted between kinetic energy (at
the bottom) and gravitational potential energy as the pendulum swings back up.

Gravitational potential energy = weight (Newtons) X height raised (metres)

-The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created not destroyed
but can only be transformed from one form to another.
- The pendulum eventually slows down to a standstill when it swings.
- Energy is not only converted from potential to kinetic energy when it swings but also to
heat energy due to friction between air particles and the mass of the pendulum.
ENERGY CHAINS

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- Energy chain is a diagram that shows energy conversion.

- Energy can be converted from one form to another

Green plants solar energy from the sun → chemical energy in carbohydrates

Catapult chemical energy → kinetic energy → potential energy → kinetic energy

Dynamo kinetic energy of dynamo → electrical energy → light energy

Bulb electrical energy → heat and light energy

Torch chemical energy from cells → electrical energy → light enrgy

Solar panel solar energy → electrical → chemical energy in cells

WORK AND ENERGY

- Work is done when a force moves an object.

- Regardless of the magnitude of force applied, now work is done when the force is not
able to move an object.
- Energy transferred is how much energy is required or used to move an object.
- Work done is how much force is required or used to move an object.
- From these two definitions, we can see that work done and energy are essentially the
same.
- Work is measured in Joules (J).

Work done = force (N) X distance (m)

Work is measured in joules (J)

Force is measured in newtons (N)
Distance is measured in metres (m)

Note that:
work done = energy transferred

examples

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× Distance
× 20 m = 40 000 J

2 000 N

20m
Figure 4.1 The man does work when pushing the car over a distance
Example 2
Calculate the work done when a bucket of 5.6 kg is carried up a 3 m high ladder.
We first need to calculate the applied force. The force we need to apply onto the bucket to lift the
bucket, is equal to the weight of the bucket.
F = mg
F = 5.6 × 10
F = 56 N
The minimum force needed to lift the bucket upwards is 56 N. Now we can calculate the
work done. work done = Force × distance
= 56 N 3 m = 168 J
The work done to carry the bucket is equal to the energy needed to lift the bucket.
work done = energy used

This is only true for systems that are 100% efficient. Later, you will learn about systems
which are not 100% efficient. Some of the energy is lost to the surrounding environment as
heat, sound or light and so:
work done = energy used

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MAGNESTISM AND ELECTRICITY

OBJECTIVES
After completing this topic you should be able to:
 distinguish magnetic material from non-magnetic materials
 identify the poles of a magnet
 state the two type of charges
 describe the production of charges
 define current
 distinguish between conductors and insulators
 identify components of direct current (d.c.) circuit
 draw and label a simple direct current (d.c) circuit
 describe properties of magnets
 state the law of magnetism
 draw magnetic fields
 define current and voltage
 state the S.I units of current and voltage
 measure current and voltage
 determine electrical power

- The Chinese people were in ancient times able to observe that magnetite (an ore of iron),
attracted other similar stones and when hung freely and free to turn, it had a tendency of
pointing in a particular direction.
- This property is useful for navigation.
- The ore was later called lodestone meaning leading stone and became the first compass.
- Nowadays manufactured magnets are used as magnets and compasses.

MAGNETS

Magnetism refers to magnetic force caused by the unique properties of certain materials. Are
usually made of metal iron or steel

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

1. Can pick magnetic materials

2. Has two poles i.e. north and south pole

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3. It has a magnetic field

4. Exerts repulsive and attractive force

TYPES OF MAGNETS

Bar magnet – consist of a straight bar of magnetic material with one end being north and
the other south pole. This shape may result in a weak magnetic force as the magnetic force
is weak on the sides and is concentrated at the ends of the bar magnet. Can be used in
refrigerator doors

Horse shoe magnet – are bar magnets that bent in a U-shape. The N and S poles point in the
same direction resulting in a strong magnetic force that is stronger around both poles.
Magnetic force of both poles is felt. It can be used for lifting any metal objects depending in
size and strength.

C magnets – are shaped like C, in an arc. They are used to create a magnetic force in a motor.
Used in washing machines, fridges, speakers, air conditioners, generators etc

E (Electromagnets) – magnetic field is caused by an electric current. It consists of a coil wire

wound around a soft iron core. The wire is connected to a power source. When current flows
through, it causes a magnetic field that magnetises the iron core

THE EARTH AS A MAGNET

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- If lines of force are plotted on a sheet of paper with no magnets near, a set of parallel
straight lines are obtained. They run roughly from S to N geographically and represent
a small part of the earth’s magnetic field in a horizontal plane.

- The earth has opposite poles i.e. the north-pole at the top of the globe and south-pole at
the bottom of the globe. It is surrounded by a magnetic field.
- The direction of the earth’s magnetic field lines is from the magnetic north pole to the
magnetic South Pole.
- The earth’s magnetic pole and geographical poles are opposite. The earth’s magnetic
south pole is where the geographical north pole is and the earth’s magnetic south pole
is where geographical north pole is

MAGNETIC FROM NON MAGNETIC MATERIALS

- Magnets can attract some objects. All materials attracted by magnets are called
magnetic materials e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt
- All materials that are not attracted by a magnet are called non magnetic materials e.g.
wood, rubber, plastic, glass, copper, aluminium.
MAGNETIC POLES

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- Magnets have two poles i.e. north and south poles. Magnetism is concentrated around
the poles (ends) of a magnet.
- Poles of a freely suspended magnet that always rest pointing towards the north is the
north pole(N) while the one that points to the south is the south pole (S)

Magnetic force acts mainly at the poles of a magnet

To determine the polarity of bar magnets;

 Take one bar magnet and hang it freely on a retort stand

 Bring one pole of the second magnet close to the hanging magnet. Observe what
happens.
 Turn the second magnet so that the poles face the opposite and hold it close to the
hanging magnet. Observe what happens.

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- If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of another magnet, repulsion
occurs. Two S (south seeking) poles also repel. By contrast, N and S poles always
attract.
- The law of magnetic poles summarises these facts and states:
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
- The force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation increases.
- To test whether an object is a magnet, bring one end of this object towards one end of
a suspended bar magnet. If repulsion occurs, the object is a magnet since repulsion
occurs between like poles
- A given sample is magnetic only if one of its ends repels a magnet. Attraction is not
used to verify a magnet because any magnetic material is attracted even if it is not a
magnet.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

- A magnetic field is the region where magnetic force is exerted on any magnetic object
placed within the influence of the field.
- Magnetic field lines show the direction and strength of the magnetic field around a
magnet. The direction of magnetic field is always from North Pole to South Pole.
- Magnetic force is strongest at the poles of a bar magnet where field lines are most
concentrated that is at the poles.
- To show the pattern of a magnetic field around a bar magnet, place a sheet of paper on
top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings lightly and evenly on to the paper. Tap the
paper gently with a pencil and the filings should form patterns showing the lines of
force. The iron filings will line up along the magnetic field lines.

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- The plotting compass can also be used to plot the combined magnetic field due to
neighbouring magnets or around a bar magnet.
- Lay a bar magnet on a sheet of paper. Place the plotting compass at appoint such as A,
near one pole of the magnet (north pole)
- Mark the position of the poles (n; s) of the compass by pencil dots. B,A
- Move the compass so that the pole s is exactly over B, mark the new position of n by
dot C
- Continue this process until the other pole of the bar magnet is reached. Join the dots to
give one line of force and show its direction by putting an arrow on it. By convention,
the field direction draws north to south.

Plot other lines by starting at different points around a bar magnet as shown below

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- Magnetic field gets weaker as the distance from the magnet increases – the lines are
further apart
- The field lines also help explain what happens as two magnets are brought together –
the field lines will interact with each other giving either repulsion or attraction,

depending on the direction of the interacting field lines

ELECTRICITY

- The conversion of kinetic or chemical energy in power generators or electrical cells

produces electrical energy
- The energy is then moved to different conductors through materials that allow the energy
to flow freely.
- Primary sources such as fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil), nuclear power and
renewable sources (wind, hydro, solar and geothermal) are used to produce electrical
energy.

STATIC ELECTRICITY

Charges

- When a strip of polythene is rubbed with a cloth it becomes charged. If it is hung up and
another rubbed polythene strip is brought near, repulsion occurs. Attraction occurs when
a rubbed strip of Perspex is brought near.

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- This shows that there are two kinds of electric charges i.e.
• positive (+) (on the perspex rod)
• negative (–) (on the polythene rod)
- It shows that like charges repel, while unlike charges attract.

The production of charges

- Atoms are made up of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons and
neutrons that have no charge.

- If an object gains electrons, it will become more negatively charged and if it loses
electrons, it will become more positively charged.

- Rubbing a rod using a woollen cloth produces an electrical charge. The production of
charges by rubbing can be explained by supposing that electrons are transferred from one
material to the other. Either the electrons are removed from the rod or electrons are
added onto the rod.

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- Rubbing polythene with a cloth makes it become negatively charged i.e. electrons are
added onto the rod

- Rubbing perspex with a cloth makes it become positively charged i.e. electrons are
removed from the rod.

• Note that it is only electrons which move; the protons remain fixed in the nucleus.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

SIMPLE D.C. CIRCUITS

- It is important to draw simple and clear diagrams. The following diagrams gives a list of
special symbols that are used to represent common devices that are usually employed in
electric circuits

Circuit symbols

Components of direct current circuit

- The cell is the source of electrical energy. The longer line is the positive terminal and
shorter and thicker line is the negative terminal of the cell.

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- The switch breaks or completes an electric circuit, stopping or starting the current flow.
When switch is open, circuit is incomplete and current does not flow. When the switch is
closed the current flows since the circuit is complete.

- A resistor is a device that offers opposition to the flow of current. It restricts the flow of
current in circuits, slowing the current down.

- A light bulb is a resistor that changes electrical energy into light and heat energy.
- A fuse is a device that protects appliances and users from electrical shocks
- An ammeter is used to measure the amount of current
- A voltmeter is used to measure voltage of the circuit
- A variable resistor regulates or controls the current in a circuit i.e. it can increase or
decrease the amount of current.

- Connecting wires provide path for electric current

- Every circuit has a power source, switch and a load (all components that use the
electrical energy and convert it to other forms)

Representing some circuit diagrams using electric symbols

Draw a standard circuit diagram using symbols for each of the circuits shown below

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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

- Conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through it e.g. copper, carbon, and
salt water.
- Insulators are materials that does not conduct an electric current e.g. rubber, plastic,
wood, glass, pure water
- A solution that conducts electricity is called an electrolyte. The solution is chemically
changed by the current
- Conductors are generally used for transmission of electricity.
- Insulators generally protects people from electrocution
- Most metals are conductors while non metals are insulators except for graphite (carbon).
- Gases are also very poor conductors of electricity
Experiment on conductivity of different materials

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- Make a simple circuit using a battery connected to two wires and a light bulb as shown
in the diagram.

- Connect different materials using crocodile clips to find out which ones conduct or do
not conduct electricity. If they do conduct electricity the light bulb will light up. - Record
results in the table below
Material Observation Conclusion

CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND POWER

CURRENT
- Current is the flow of charged particles (electrons) through a circuit.
- Current flows from positive to the negative terminal of the cell and is measured in
amperes (A).
- Current is how much charge passes through a point in a given time period
- An instrument used to measure current is called an ammeter which has low resistance and
is connected in series.

Measuring current

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- An ammeter is always placed in series with the resistance or other circuit components
through which the current is to be measured.

VOLTAGE
- Some light bulbs shine brighter than others.
- This is so because bulbs with lower resistance are used to increase brightness.
- The higher the resistance, the less current flows through the bulb.
- The bulb can shine more brightly by increasing voltage.
- Voltage is the electromotive force (emf) which pushes the electrons (charge) to flow in a
circuit.
- There are two types of voltage
 Electromotive force (emf) across a cell, battery or power supply where energy is
being given the current.
 Potential difference (p.d.) across a resistor, lamp or other component where
energy is being lost by the current.

Measuring voltage
- A voltmeter is used to measure voltage and the unit is volts.
- A voltmeter has a high internal resistance so it is connected in parallel to any component
which being measured.

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ELECTRICAL POWER
- Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.
- We defined current as the rate at which electrical charges move and voltage as the energy
transferred.
- Therefore electrical power is current multiplied by voltage.

Power (Watts) = current (Amps) X voltage (volts)

Example 1 What is the power of an electric light bulb if it is drawing a current of 0.25A
from the mains electricity supply of 240V?

Example 2 What current is drawn by a 1.5kW heater which operates on a 240V mains
supply?

Example 3 What voltage is needed for a 0.5A current to pass through a 100W light bulb

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