PhysicsFactsheet

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 231

Key Preparation for Atomic Structure
In your GCSE Course you will have done a little work on atomic 6. We now know that the protons and neutrons, which make up
structure. For A Level you need to be secure in this knowledge and to the atom are not the smallest particles of matter, but, in fact, the
deepen your understanding of the ideas. only stable combinations of many more fundamental particles.
For your A Level studies you will learn much more about these
Historical Sequence particles.
1. In 460BC a Greek Philosopher, Democritus, wondered if he took
a piece of matter and broke it in 2, how many times could he The Rutherford Scattering Experiment
do this. He proposed the idea that ultimately he would reach Two of Rutherford´s students, Geiger and Marsden, carried out the
something indivisible, the smallest particle of matter – he called experiment, in which alpha particles were fired at a very thin sheet
this the atom. of gold.
2. Not until the 1800s did anyone make any progress with the idea.
An English chemist, John Dalton carried out experiments and scattered particles most particles are undeflected
came up with some principles for these fundamental particles:
Dalton´s atomic theory:
a. All matter is made of atoms which are indivisible and
indestructible.
b. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and thin gold foil
properties.
c. Compounds are formed by different combinations of two
or more different kinds of atoms.
d. A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
circular flurescent screen
These ideas work perfectly well for ordinary chemical reactions (except
for the idea of isotopes, of course.), but we now know that they are
source of α particles
not actually correct.
3. Throughout the 1800s various scientists discovered:
• electricity associated with some chemical reactions They expected to find a little scattering of the charged particles.
indicating the existence of charged particles, and Most particles did roughly as expected, but a few were turned
• various “rays” emanating from atoms. through large angles, and a very few almost came back the way
4. By 1911 the standard model of the atom was “The Currant Bun” they had been sent. These results were astounding. Rutherford
model. apparently commented at the time that the results “were about as
astonishing as if you had fired a nine inch shell at a piece of tissue
electron paper and it had come back and hit you.” He realised that the model
of the atom could not explain the results and set about proposing
a model which would fit the experimental results. Thus came into
being; the “Rutherford model of the atom”.

The only way to explain the results was to postulate a very small
dense centre to the atom, (now called the nucleus) containing most
of the mass and all of the positive charge, around which the negative
charge (electrons) was distributed.

the nucleus

sphere of positive charge

Ernest Rutherford was associated with the famous

“Scattering Experiment” which not only transformed the
model of the atom, but is also a superb example of how electrons
orbits
scientific ideas develop, based on experimentation. (See
later).
5. Rutherford postulated the existence of the neutron, but it was
not detected until 10 years later – by James Chadwick.

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231. Key Preparation for Atomic Structure Physics Factsheet

The calculations from the results showed that the size of the nucleus
Worked Example:
in relation to the atom was such that if the atom was 1km across,
The Rutherford Scattering Experiment involved firing alpha particles
the nucleus would be about the size of a cricket ball at the centre,
at a thin sheet of gold and recording the scattering of the particles.
thus most of the atom is empty space.
(a) Describe the results which were obtained. (2 marks)
(b) Discuss why the accepted model of the atom at that time
– “the Currant Bun” model—could not explain the results.
(2 marks)
1. At GCSE, you are expected to show understanding of
(c) Describe the creative input of Rutherford in coming up with
how new experimental evidence changes the scientific
the Rutherford Model. (2 marks)
viewpoint, for A Level you are expected to develop this
(d) Explain how the results could be used to calculate the relative
ability further.
size of the nucleus to that of the atom. (2 marks)
2. The Rutherford Scattering Experiment provides a great
example of how Science works.
Student´s Answer:
(a) Alpha particles got turned round. (  just) ()
Mechanism of Scattering (1)
(b) The currant bun model had the electrons spread throughout
the atom ( ) ( ) (0)
atom of metal foil
(c) Rutherford thought the currant bun model did not explain the
few results. ( just) () (1)
beam of α-particles (d) The number of particles scattered showed how much of the
+ majority of atom must be nucleus. ( ) (  ) (1)
+ α-rays
Correct Answer:
+ a) Most of the particles were scattered through small angles ( ),
+
very few but a few were scattered through larger angles. ( )
nucleus
+ b) If the negative charge was evenly embedded in a general
positive charge, as in the currant bun model ( ), it would
+ majority be impossible to get large scattering. ( )
c) Rutherford made the creative leap to suggest a very small
few
dense centre ( ), even though this would mean the apparently
unlikely situation that most of the atom is space.( )
The diagram shows the mechanism - according to the Rutherford d) A detailed analysis of the results of how many particles were
model - by which the alpha particles are repelled by the distribution scattered through large angles ()
of the charge in the atom: particles some distance from the nucleus would show what proportion of the cross-sectional area of
experience only mild repulsion, but the closer to the central positive the atom contained the dense positive charge. ()
charge, the greater the deflection, and the head-on approach explains
the very few turned almost through 180 degrees. It was calculations Describing atoms
on the number of scattering through given angles, which allowed the 1. We now describe atoms of elements by their A, and Z number.
size of the nucleus to be arrived at. Z, the Atomic number -- gives the number of protons (and therefore
the number of electrons ) in the neutral atom of an element.
A, the Mass number-- gives the total number of nucleons (protons
Fit of results to the new theory and neutrons) in the atom.
A 23
The test for any new theory is to check if it can explain the results An atom of an element is depicted as: Z X e.g. 11 Na
satisfactorily. The graph of predictions from the Rutherford model of
the atom shows the close fit to Geiger and Marsden´s results. The protons and neutrons form the nucleus, the electrons inhabit the
rest of the region of the atom.
2. As you should know from your GCSE Chemistry, it is the number
of electrons and their arrangement in shells in the atom which
107 determines chemical behaviour.
3. The Mass number minus the Atomic number gives the number of
106 neutrons in the atom.
Geiger and Marsden's data points 4. In some chemical reactions, electrons are lost or gained, resulting
105 in an ion, which has a charge and behaves very differently from
scattered the atom of that element.
alpha 104 theoretical scattering 5. Isotopes are atoms of elements with different numbers of neutrons.
particles of one point charge off They behave exactly like other isotopes in normal chemical
103 another reactions, but some are more or less stable, than more common
Rutherford forms of the element.
102 formula 6. Heavier elements, particularly those with large numbers of neutrons
tend to be unstable and decay by emitting alpha, beta or gamma
10 radiation.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

scattering angle (o)

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 231. Key Preparation for Atomic Structure Physics Factsheet

Electrons are held in place by the electrostatic attraction between them

Z, atomic number – number of protons (therefore also and the nucleus.
electrons) in the neutral atom.
A, mass number – number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in The Strong Nuclear Force balances the electrostatic
235
the atom. e.g. 92 Na 92 protons, 143 neutrons repulsion of the protons to keep the atom stable.
238
92 Na 92 protons, 146 neutrons Test your understanding:
The atomic number, Z, determines which element an atom is. 4. Why are electrons described as fundamental particles, but protons
and neutrons are not?
Test your understanding: 5. What methods have been used to investigate fundamental particles?
1. An isotope of Lithium has 3 protons and 3 neutrons, write its symbol 6. What are quarks?
with the A and Z numbers. 7. Why does the electrostatic repulsion between the protons in an
2. A different isotope of Lithium has an extra neutron, write its symbol. atom not cause it to fly apart?
3. How many neutrons does this atom have: 6 Na
14 8. Discuss the extent to which Dalton´s Atomic Theory is still relevant
today.
For GCSE, your learned the origin and properties of
alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and some idea of the process
information about nuclear processes or structure within the atom.
of radioactive decay. You need to be very secure on those ideas.
are the rearrangement of atoms. It does not, however, give any helpful
For A Level you will study the process of radioactive decay more
guidelines for the behaviour of substances in chemical reactions, which
mathematically.
different mass from another. Nonetheless, the theory still gives useful
existence of isotopes of the same element in which one isotope has a
Fundamental Particles
are all atoms of the same element identical, because we know of the
particles, and protons and neutrons, which are made up of quarks. Nor
Through experiments on smashing particles together, as in the Large particles. They are made up of electrons, which are fundamental
Hadron Collider at CERN, we now know that there are whole families true, in that atoms are not indivisible and indestructible fundamental
of fundamental particles. The main points of Dalton´s Atomic Theory are no longer considered
Prose answer:

Gives no information at a nuclear level. •

Gives useful guidelines in chemical reactions. •
Chemical reactions ARE rearrangements of atoms. •
Compounds ARE combinations of atoms. •
Isotopes behave identically in chemical reactions. •
Many students find it rather confusing when they try to learn them, so masses from each other.
it makes sense to lay the foundations now. • There are isotopes of the some elements, which have different
indestructible.
Electrons • It is no longer considered true that atoms are indivisible and
Electrons are fundamental particles, part of a group known as Leptons. For this question the points could be:

Protons and Neutrons them and write it in prose.

Protons and Neutrons are not fundamental particles, they are the only select as many as necessary, decide on the order in which to make
stable forms of a group of fundamental particles known as Quarks. Approach the question by listing the important ideas as bullet points,
There are subdivisions of quarks, which you will learn about in your to include; generally, one good point to be made for each mark.
A Level course. for the question, and this would be your guide to how much detail
Level. You would normally be able to see the number of marks
It is important to be able to answer this type of question at A 8.
1. Electrons are fundamental particles, protons and neutrons force in a stable atom.
are not. The Strong Nuclear Force balances the repulsion of the electrostatic 7.
2. Electrons are of the family Leptons. stable combinations give protons and neutrons.
3. Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. Quarks are a group of fundamental particles, of which the only 6.
computer.
Forces within the atom rise to showers of short-lived particles, which can be analysed by
It is not surprising that some elements are unstable and decay circular tunnels and smashed into each other at great speeds give
radioactively , In fact, it is more surprising that many are stable, given at CERN, in which beams of particles are accelerated along
the large numbers of positive charges crammed into the small space of Experiments such as those conducted at the Large Hadron Collider 5.
the nucleus. Scientists explain this by postulating a “Strong Nuclear down into anything else. Protons and neutrons consist of quarks.
Force”, which is strong enough to overcome the electrostatic repulsion Electrons do not consist of other particles, they cannot be broken 4.
of the protons, but is very short range. It has 8 neutrons. 3.
3
2.7 Li
1. 3 Li
6
Answers
Acknowledgements:
This Physics Factsheet was researched and written by Janice Jones. The Curriculum Press,Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU . ISSN 1351-5136
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