CIEN 30064

ENGR. EDNA P. ARROJADO

ENGR. JOHN IVAN A. SANTOS
ENGR. NOLI B. SIBAYAN
ENGR. MELVIN G. SINGAYAN
ENGR. KENNETH BRYAN M. TANA
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

HYDRAULICS

The Overview:
The course emphasizes the continuity equation, energy equation, and momentum
equation. Familiarization of the properties of common liquids in the study of hydraulics. Application
of fundamental principles to solve problems involving liquid pressure and corresponding forces
resulting from this pressure. Applications of appropriate equations in performing calculations
involving flow velocity, flow rate and forces exerted by moving liquids in closed conduits and open
channels. Familiarization and applications of flow measuring devices such as orifice, weirs, pitot
tube.
Watch: Fluid Mechanics
(https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLZOZfX_TaWAH0baRhA8OosWVbEsJK5sPe&fbclid=I
wAR0Kp88wKYlDozZnz7_erVWkxJK8OJZwDoiSVF7gdku5MoBHrmOCsuXiHFI)
Read: Hydraulics by Ruben A. de la Fuente et. al.

Lesson 1: Properties of Fluids

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the different properties of fluids.
• Explain the importance of the different properties of fluids in solving applications of fluid
mechanics.
• Solve problems related to properties of fluids.

Course Materials:
HYDRAULICS is the branch of mechanics which is concerned with the laws controlling the
behavior of water and other liquids in the states of rest and motion.
a. HYDROSTATICS – the study of liquid at rest.

b. HYDROKINETICS – deals with the geometry of motion of liquids without considering the
forces causing that motion.

c. HYDRODYNAMICS – deals with the forces exerted by or upon liquids in motion including
relations between velocities and acceleration involved in such fluid motion.

FLUID MECHANICS is a unified course of general fluid motion. Fluids have dissimilar behavior
due to their differences such as density, viscosity, compressibility and cohesion.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SOLID AND A FLUID
SOLID – the molecules are spaced closer than that of a fluid and the intermolecular attraction in
a solid is sufficiently strong that it tends to retain its form unlike in a fluid.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

LIQUID AND GAS (FLUIDS) – in a liquid, the intermolecular attraction is relatively weak, while in
gas, the intermolecular attraction is very weak.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Properties of fluids which are of fundamental importance in the study,
WEIGHT, W: The earth’s gravitational pull upon a body. Its dimension is Newton (N) in SI units.
MASS, m: The quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given body. The dimension
used for the mass in SI units is kilogram (kg) which is a base unit.
The basic relation between the weight and the mass of a body is,
W = mg
Where: g = 9.81 m/s2 (32.2 ft/s2), the acceleration of gravity at sea level
SPECIFIC WEIGHT, g : the weight of fluid in a unit volume, or
g= W / V
DENSITY, r : the mass of fluid contained in a unit volume,
r =M/V
SPECIFIC VOLUME, v : the volume per unit mass of fluid, or the reciprocal of the density,
v=V/M
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, s: the dimensionless ratio of the specific weight g or density r of a fluid to
the specific weight gs or density rs of a standard substance,
s = g / g s = r /rs
REMARK: For liquids and solids, the standard substance is pure water at 4°C at which temp, its
specific weight, gs = 9.81 kN/m3 and density rs = 1000 kg/m3 are at their maximum values.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
SPECIFIC WEIGHT OF WATER
The specific weight of water is dependent on its temperature, purity, and the pressure
under which it exists. The maximum density, and thus specific weight, of water occurs at a
temperature of 4°C.
COMPRESSIBILITY AND ELASTICITY OF WATER
The compressibility of water or any other liquid varies inversely as its volume modulus of
elasticity, also known as bulk modulus.
Ev = - v (DP/Dv)
Where: P = unit pressure in Pa
v = specific volume in m3/kg
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as that property of a fluid which determines the amount of its
resistance to a shearing stress.
m = t(dy/dV)
Where: m = dynamic/absolute viscosity
t = shearing stress
V = velocity

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY - is the ratio of the viscosity to the density.

v = m /r

COHESION, ADHESION: SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

Cohesion – property of liquid which enables it to resist tensile stress.
Adhesion – property of liquid which enables it to adhere to another body.
Capillarity – a phenomenon which arises when surfaces of liquids come in contact with
vertical solid surfaces.
Surface Tension – the noticeable tension effects depend basically upon the relative amounts
of cohesion and adhesion between liquid molecules. This manifests itself as an imaginary
“skin” over the surface which could support small loads.

VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the gas molecules (vapor) if confined in a closed
space.

PROPERTIES OF AIR
State of gas follows this equation:
r = p / RT and g = pg / RT
Where: r = density
p = absolute pressure in Pa
R = gas constant in N-m/kg-K
T = absolute temperature in
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Activities/Assessments:
1. If a certain gasoline weighs 7 KN/m3, what are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to water at 15°C?

2. A certain gas weighs 16N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What are the values of
its density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative to air weighing 12 N/m3? Specific
Gravity?

3. If 5.30 m3 of a certain oil weighs 43,860 N, calculate the specific weight, density and specific
gravity of this oil.

4. A cubic meter of air at 101.3 kPa and 15°C weighs 12 N. What is its specific volume? Gas
constant R of air is equal to 287 N-m/kg-K.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

5. If the dynamic viscosity of water at 20°C is 1x10-3 N-s/m2, what is the kinematic viscosity in the
English units?

Lesson 2: Pressure of Fluids at Rest

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the difference of hydrostatics from fluid dynamics.

• Explain how a hydrostatic pressure can be measured.
• Solve problems related to measurement of hydrostatic pressures.
• Discuss how Boyle’s Law can be used in calculating hydrostatic pressures.
• Answer problems related to measurement of hydrostatic pressures using Boyle’s Law.
• At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

Course Materials:

PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS
Intensity of pressure (known also as the unit pressure or simply pressure) is the force
per unit of area.
p=F/A
Where: p = average pressure (Pa)
F = force (N)
A = area (m2)
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

LAW OF PASCAL
The law of Pascal on fluid statics states that “at any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is
the same in all directions”.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
PRESSURE VARIATION IN LIQUID
Consider two points 1 and 2 lie in the ends of fluid prism having a cross-sectional area dA
and length L. The difference in elevation between these two points is h as shown in Figure 02
below. The fluid is at rest and its surface is free. The prism is therefore in equilibrium and all forces
acting on it sums up to zero.

The volume of the prism is equal to the length times the base area of the fluid.

The weight of the fluid prism shown is equal to the product of the unit weight and volume.

Sum up all the forces in x-direction:

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any two points
is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of the points.

If h = 0 so that points 1 and 2 are on the same horizontal plane, p2 - p1 = 0 or

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points along the same
horizontal plane are equal.

If point 1 lie on the FFS, the gauge pressure p1 = 0, making p2 - 0 = γh or simply

This means that the pressure at any depth h below a continuous free fluid surface at rest is equal
to the product of the unit weight of fluid and the depth h

ATMOSPHERIC, GAUGE, AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURES

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of all gasses above the surface in which it comes in
contact. Under normal conditions, atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to 101.325 kPa
(14.696 psi), usually rounded off to 100 kPa (14.7 psi) by engineers. With increase in altitude,
atmospheric pressure decreases.

Gauge pressure, measured with the use of pressure gauges, is the pressure above or below
atmospheric pressure. Negative gauge pressure indicates a vacuum which cannot go below –
101.325 kPa. Positive gauge pressure indicates that the pressure is above atmospheric. Gauge
pressure is also called relative pressure.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. There is no such
thing as negative absolute pressure. In the absence of all matter (complete vacuum), the
absolute pressure is zero.

PRESSURE HEAD

where h or its equivalent p/γ is in hydraulics called the pressure head. Pressure head is the height
of column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight γ that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
PRESSURE HEAD – the vertical distance from the free surface to the point under consideration
that causes the pressure p.
In absolute pressure units, the pressure head formula is

To convert pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure head of liquid B

To convert pressure head of any liquid to equivalent pressure head of water

TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE
Transmission of pressure states that the pressure at any point in a liquid at rest is
transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the liquid.

p2 = p1 + h
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
PRESSURE VARIATION IN A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

-gh/RT R p1
p2 = p1 e h= T
g ln p2

where T is the constant absolute temperature in Kelvin (K) and R is the gas constant in N-m/kg-
K.
If the specific weight g of the gas is assumed constant, the equation is reduced to

p2 = p1 - h

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING PRESSURE

• Bourdon Gage • Aneroid Barometer
• Barograph • Manometer
The term manometer is given to a wide variety of devices that measure pressure by
balancing the pressure against a column of liquid in static equilibrium. The more common
types in use are:
(1) The open type which has an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of measuring
relative or gage pressures.
(2) The differential type which does not have any atmospheric surface and used for
measuring pressure differences.

PIEZOMETER is the simplest form of the open-type manometer

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER is a class of manometers not open to the atmosphere. This is
used to measure the difference in pressure between two points in a pipeline or in a pipe system
instead of measuring actual pressure at specific points.

MICROMANOMETER is the special type of differential manometers ordinarily used for measuring
the difference in gas pressure. This type provides a higher precision and is used when the
pressure difference to be read is very small.

Steps in Solving Manometer Problems

Ordinarily, it is easier to work in units of pressure head rather than pressure for solving any
manometer problem.

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer approximately to scale.

2. Decide on the fluid of which head are to be expressed. Water is more desirable. In most
cases, we suggest to use head in water even if there is no water in the system.
3. Starting at a point of know pressure head, number in order the levels of contact of fluids
of different specific gravities.
4. Proceed from level to level, add pressure head in going down and subtract pressure
head in going up with due regard to the specific gravity of the fluids

Activities/Assessments:

1. If the pressure 3 m below the free surface of the liquid is 140 KPa, calculate its specific weight
and specific gravity.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

2. An open vessel contains carbon tetrachloride (s = 1.50) to a depth of 2 m and water above this
liquid to a depth of 1.30 m. What is the pressure at the bottom?

3. At ground level, the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa at 15°C. Calculate the pressure at a
point 6500m above the ground, assuming (a) no density variation, (b) an isothermal variation of
density with pressure.

4. The manometer in the figure is tapped to a pipeline carrying oil (s = 0.85). Determine the
pressure at the center of the pipe.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
5. Find the pressure and pressure head at point m in the figure. Fluid A is oil (s = 0.90), fluid B is
carbon tetrachloride (s = 1.50) and fluid C is air.

5. In the figure, fluid A is water, fluid B is oil (s = 0.85). Determine the pressure difference between
points m and n.

6. In the figure, fluids A and D are both air, fluid B is kerosene (s = 0.805) while fluid C is calcium
chloride (s = 1.25). The diameters of the reservoirs and the tube are 10 cm and 5 mm,
respectively. Determine the reading y if the pressure difference between m and n is 1.25 cm of
water.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
Lesson 3: Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Discuss how a hydrostatic force is acting on a plane surface.
• Explain the application of hydrostatic force in gates, dams, and tanks.
• Answer problems related to the hydrostatic force acting on submerged plane surfaces.

Course Materials:
“The total hydrostatic force on any plane surface submerged in a fluid of specific weight g
is equal to the product of the area of the surface and the intensity of pressure at its center of
gravity.”

Where:
A = submerged area of the plane
surface
H = the vertical distance of the center
of gravity of the submerged area from
the free surface

From the figure, ȳ sinθ = ħ, thus,

The product γ ħ is a unit pressure at the centroid at the plane area, thus, the formula can be
expressed in a more general term below.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne
CENTER OF PRESSURE ON PLANE SURFACES
“If the total hydrostatic force F on any surface were applied at center of pressure, its effect
would be the same as the distributed pressure over the entire submerged area.”

Where:
Ig = moment of inertia of the submerged area
about a horizontal line through its center of gravity
y = the distance of the center of gravity of the
submerged area from the free surface along plane AB
e = location of the total force from the centroid of plane AB
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Activities/Assessments:

1. A vertical circular gate 1 m in diameter is subjected to pressure of liquid of specific gravity

1.40 on one side. The free surface of the liquid is 2.60 m above the uppermost part of the
gate. Calculate the total force on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.

2. The composite area is submerged vertically in a liquid with specific gravity of 0.85.
Determine the magnitude and location of the total hydrostatic force on one face of the
area.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

3. The gate shown is hinged at B and rests on a smooth surface at A. If the gate is 1.60m
wide perpendicular to the paper, find the horizontal and vertical component of the force at
hinge B.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 4: Hydrostatic Force on Curve Surfaces

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss how a hydrostatic force is acting on a curve surface.

• Explain the application of hydrostatic force in curve gates, tanks, and dams.
• Answer problems related to the hydrostatic force acting on submerged curve surfaces.

Course Materials:
Horizontal Component of the Hydrostatic Force
The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force, FH, is equal to the total force on the projection
of that surface on a vertical plane which is normal to the chosen axis.

FH =  h A

Vertical Component of the Hydrostatic Force

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force, F V, is equal to the weight of that volume of water
or liquid extending vertically from the surface of the free surface of liquid. The location of this force
is at the centroid of the volume.

FV =  V

Total Hydrostatic Force Direction of F

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Case 1: Liquid is above the curve surface

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is downward and equal to the volume of the real
liquid above the submerged surface.

Case 2: Liquid is below the curve surface

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is going upward and equal to the volume of the
imaginary liquid above the surface.

Activities/Assessments:
1. Find the magnitude and location of each of the components of the total force on the curved
surface shown. The length of the gate AB is 3m and it is normal to the plane of the paper.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

2. The corner of a floating body has a quarter cylinder AB having a length normal to the paper of
3m. Calculate the magnitude and location of each of the components of the force on AB.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

3. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the total force on the gate. The width of
the gate normal to the paper is 2m.

Lesson 5: Dams

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Describe the application of hydrostatic force in designing of dams.
• Differentiate dams that neglect hydrostatic uplift and dams that consider hydrostatic uplift.
• Discuss overflowing dams and dams with water on both upstream and downstream side.
• Answer problems related to designing of dams through factor of safety against overturning
and sliding.

Course Materials:
GRAVITY DAMS
Any dam that does not depend on arch action to resist the various forces to which it is subjected
is called a gravity dam. The gravity dam depends for its stability entirely upon its own weight and,
in spite of its massive form, have a small factor of safety. Dams are built for the primary purpose
of impounding water in the reservoir upstream of its location.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Step 1
Consider 1-unit length (1 m length) of dam perpendicular to the cross section.
Step 2
Determine all the forces acting:

1. Vertical forces
o W = Weight of dam
o FV = Weight of water in the upstream side (if any)
o U = Hydrostatic uplift
o Weight of permanent structures on the dam
2. Horizontal forces
o FH = Horizontal component of total hydrostatic force
o Wind pressure, wave action, floating bodies, earthquake load, etc.
Step 3
Solve for the reaction
1. Horizontal component of the reaction Rx=ΣFH
2. Vertical component of the reaction Ry=ΣFV
Step 4
Moment about the toe
1. Righting moment, RMRM
RM = Sum of all rotation towards the upstream side
2. Overturning moment, OM
OM = Sum of all rotation towards the downstream side

Step 5
Location of Ry as measured from the toe

STABILITY AGAINST SLIDING AND OVERTURNING

Factor of Safety against Overturning, FSo

 R.M.
FSO =
 O.M.
Factor of Safety against Sliding, FSs

 RV
FSS
RH
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON THE FOUNDATION OF DAMS

Eccentricity, e

If e≤B/6,Ry is within the middle third and the foundation pressure is trapezoidal acting from heel
to toe. If ee is exactly B/6, the shape of foundation pressure is triangular also acting from heel to
toe.

For the sign of 6e/B, use (+) at point where Ry is nearest. From the diagram above, use (+)
for qT and (-) for qH. A negative q indicates compressive stress and a positive q indicates
tensile stress. A positive q will occur when e>B/6. In foundation design, soil is not allowed to
carry tensile stress, thus, any +q will be neglected in the analysis.

If e>B/6, Ry is outside the middle third and the foundation pressure is triangular.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Activities/Assessments:
1. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross-section, with one face vertical and a horizontal base,
is 8 m high. It has a thickness of 70 cm at the top and 4 m at the bottom. The weight of
the masonry is 23, 450 N/m 3. What is the depth of water on the vertical side if the resultant
force intersects the base at the downstream edge of the middle third? Assume that there
is no hydrostatic uplift.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 6: Hoop Tension and Thin-Walled Cylinders

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Describe how hydrostatic affects the stresses in hoop tensions and thin-walled cylinders.
• Discuss how thin-walled cylinders are designed.
• Answer problems related to hoop tensions and thin-walled cylinders.

Course Materials:

The circumferential stress, also known as tangential stress, in a tank or pipe can be determined
by applying the concept of fluid pressure against curved surfaces. The wall of a tank or pipe
carrying fluid under pressure is subjected to tensile forces across its longitudinal and transverse
sections.
Tangential Stress, σt (Circumferential Stress)
Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of the tank
is L perpendicular to the drawing and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of the tank:
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Longitudinal Stress, σl
At the end of the tank, the total stress PT = σl Aend should equal the total fluid force F at that end.
Since the wall thickness t is so small compared to internal diameter D, the area Aend of the wall
is close to πDt.

Observe that the tangential stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress.
Activities/Assessments:
1. A pipeline carrying oil under a head of 135 m is horizontally submerged in water to a depth
of 2m. If the inside diameter of the pipe is 120 cm and has a thickness of 6 mm, determine
the pipe wall stress. Specific gravity of oil is 0.82.

2. A wood-stave pipe carries water under a head of 100 m. It is bound by 2.50 cm round steel
hoops having an allowable stress of 100 MPa. Find the proper spacing of the hoops if the pipe’s
inside diameter is 180 cm.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 7: Buoyancy

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Explain how an upward buoyant force acts on a floating body.

• Discuss how a buoyant force can be solved.
• Solve problems related to buoyancy.

Course Materials:

PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES
“A body submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.”

where:

BF = buoyant force
γ = unit weight of fluid
VD = volume of fluid displaced by the body

W = W - BF
w a

Buoyant force acting on a body submerged in fluid is merely the resultant of two vertical
hydrostatic forces. Consider the cylindrical body shown below to have some length perpendicular
to the drawing. The horizontal components of hydrostatic force acting on the body are in
equilibrium because the vertical projection of the body in opposite sides is the same.

The upward force FV1FV1 is the total

force exerted by the fluid on the under
surface of the body; the downward
force FV2FV2 is the total force exerted by
the fluid on the upper surface of the body.
Since liquid pressure increases by depth,
FV1 is greater than FV2. The difference
FV1−FV2 is therefore upward, and this
difference is the buoyant force.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

For homogeneous body of volume VV "floating" in a homogeneous liquid at rest, the volume
displaced is

For a floating body of height HH and constant cross-sectional area parallel to the liquid surface,
the submerged length DD is given by

For a floating body whose cross-sectional area AA is perpendicular to the liquid surface, the
area submerged is given by

Activities/Assessments:
1. Determine the depth of flotation of a scow in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped 10
m long, 5 m wide, weighing 400 kN and placed in sea water (g = 10.10 kN/m 3).
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

2. Determine the depth of flotation of a log (s=0.80) in the shape of a circular cylinder, 4 m
long, 60 cm diameter and placed in fresh water.

Lesson 8: Stability of Floating Bodies

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the vertical stability of floating bodies.
• Explain the relationship of buoyancy to the stability of floating bodies.
• Explain the importance of locating the metacenter in determining the stability.
• Solve problems related to vertical stability of floating bodies.

Course Materials:
A floating body in equilibrium is supported by a buoyant force which is equal, opposite to and
along the same line of action as its gravity force or weight. Depending more on its physical and
geometrical characteristics, a floating body may be classified under any of the following conditions
of equilibrium:
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

1. Stable equilibrium;

2. Neutral equilibrium; and

3. Unstable equilibrium.

STABLE EQUILIBRIUM NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM

UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM

The body may tilt from many causes like wind or wave action causing the center of buoyancy to
shift to a new position BO' as shown below.

Point M is the intersection of the axis of the body and the line of action of the buoyant force, it is
called metacenter. If M is above G, BF and W will produce a righting moment RM which causes
the body to return to its neutral position, thus the body is stable. If M is below G, the body becomes
unstable because of the overturning moment OM made by W and BF. If M coincides with G, the
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

body is said to be just stable which simply means critical. The value of righting moment or
overturning moment is given by
RIGHTING (or UPSETTING) MOMENT
If MG > 0, the moment that will be produced is a restoring or righting moment, while if MG
< 0, the moment is an upsetting moment.

where:
R.M. (or U.M.) = W x x = MG sin θ

METACENTRIC HEIGHT
The distance MG is called metacentric height.

Use (-) if G is above BO and (+) if G is below BO.

Note that M is always above BO

Value of MBo

where:
v = volume of the wedge
L = horizontal distance between the centroids of the wedges
V = volume of the displaced fluid
q = angle of rotation; angle of heel

For relatively small angles,

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

For small value of θ, tan θ ≡ sin θ and note that (1/12) LB3 = I, thus,

where:
I
MBO = I = moment of inertia of the waterline
section or area of the ship about its
V longitudinal axis through O
V = volume of the displaced fluid

MG = MBo + GBo
For floating vessels in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped,

where:
D is the depth of flotation and b transverse width
Activities/Assessments:
1. A ship of 39,140 KN displacement floats in sea water with the axis of symmetry vertical
when a weight of 490 KIN is mid ship. Moving a weight 3 m toward one side of the deck
cause a plumb bob, suspended at the end of a string 4 m long, to move 24 cm. Find the
metacentric height.

2. A rectangular raft 3 m wide and 6 m long has a thickness of 60 cm and is made of solid
timber (s = 0.60). If a man weighing 890 N steps on the edge of the raft at the middle of
one side, how much will the original water be depressed below the water surface?
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 9: Relative Equilibrium on Fluids

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the relative equilibrium on fluids and the different motion of moving vessels with
constant acceleration.
• Explain how the acceleration and reverse effective force affects the hydrostatic force
acting on moving tanks.
• Solve problems related to moving vessels with constant acceleration (horizontal, vertical,
and inclined motion).

Course Materials:
Relative equilibrium of liquid is a condition where the whole mass of liquid including the vessel in
which the liquid is contained, is moving at uniform accelerated motion with respect to the earth,
but every particle of liquid have no relative motion between each other.
There are two cases of relative equilibrium that will be discussed: linear translation and rotation.
Note that if a mass of liquid is moving with constant speed, the conditions are the same as static
liquid.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION:
MOVING VESSEL
(a) HORIZONTAL DIRECTION
If a mass of fluid moves horizontally along a straight line at constant acceleration a, the liquid
surface assume an angle θ with the horizontal, see figure below.

For any value of a, the angle θ can be found by considering a fluid particle of mass m on the
surface. The forces acting on the particle are the weight W = mg, inertia force or reverse effective
force REF = ma, and the normal force N which is the perpendicular reaction at the surface. These
three forces are in equilibrium with their force polygon shown to the right.

(b) VERTICAL DIRECTION

The figure shown to the right is a mass of liquid moving vertically upward with a constant
acceleration a. The forces acting to a liquid column of depth h from the surface are weight of the
liquid W = γV, the inertia force REF = ma, and the pressure F = pA at the bottom of the column.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for downward motion. Also note that a is positive for
acceleration and negative for deceleration.

(c) UP AN INCLINE
Consider a mass of fluid being accelerated up an incline α from horizontal. The horizontal and
vertical components of inertia force REF would be respectively, x = mah and y = mav.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Use (+) sign for upward motion and (-) sign for downward motion

Activities/Assessments:
1. An open tank 3 m square in horizontal section weighs 3.5 kN and contains water to a
depth of 1 m. It is acted upon by an unbalanced force of 15 kN parallel to a pair of sides.
(a) What must be the height of the tank so that no water will spill out? (b) If the acceleration
in is increased to 2 m/s2, determine the amount of water that will spill out considering the
height obtained in (a).
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 10: Rotating Vessels

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the cylindrical rotating vessels with free liquid surfaces.

• Explain how an angular velocity can affect the volume spillage in rotating vessels.
• Solve problems related to rotating vessels.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Course Materials:

Where tan θ is the slope at the surface of paraboloid at any distance x from the axis of rotation.

For cylindrical vessel of radius r revolved about its vertical axis, the height h of paraboloid is

Other Formulas
By squared-property of parabola, the relationship of y, x, h and r is defined by

Volume of paraboloid of revolution

Important conversion factor

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

NOTE: Volume of the paraboloid is equal to one half of the value of the circumscribing cylinder.
That is:

Activities/Assessments:
1. An open cylindrical vessel 60 cm in diameter and 1.20 m high contains water to a depth
of 1m. If it is rotated about its vertical axis, find the angular velocity w if: (a) the water
surface just touches the edge of the open top without spillage, (b) the water surface just
touches the bottom, and (c) the water surface intersects the bottom and express a circular
part having a diameter of 0.30 m.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 11: Introduction to Hydraulics

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Identify the succeeding courses to highlight the importance of their knowledge and
understanding about the course
• Determine the components of the course’s grading system
• Identify all the requirements for the course
• Identify the topics under the course
• Recall the applicable principles and concepts in Mechanics
• Define the important terms under the course

Course Materials:

PRINCIPLE OF HYDRODYNAMICS

HYDRAULICS is the branch of mechanics which is concerned with the laws controlling the
behavior of water and other liquids in the states of rest and motion.

a. HYDROSTATICS – the study of liquid at rest.

b. HYDROKINETICS – deals with the geometry of motion of liquids without considering the
forces causing that motion.
c. HYDRODYNAMICS – deals with the forces exerted by or upon liquids in motion including
relations between velocities and acceleration involved in such fluid motion.

PATH LINES AND STREAMLINES

PATH LINE – a line made by a single particle as it moves during a particular period of time.

STREAM LINE – a line which gives the velocity direction of the fluid at each point along the line
at a given instant.

LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

LAMINAR FLOW – when the velocity of movement is sufficiently low, the individual particles will
follow well defined paths that do not cross or intersect one another.

TURBULENT FLOW – the separate particles or groups of particles will follow irregular paths
which keep on crossing and re-crossing one another to form an intricate pattern or interlacing
lines.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 12.1 – Continuity Principle

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Recall volume flow rate, mass flow rate and weight flow rate
• Identify Ideal Fluid
• Identify Incompressible Flow
• Apply the law of conservation of mass or the continuity principle in calculation of fluid flow
• Apply the law of conservation of energy and the Bernoulli’s principle in flow calculations

Course Materials:

Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Principles relating to fluids at rest can be obtained with no ambiguity by purely rational
methods. Some natural principles which are universally true are the basis of calculations. In
flowing fluid, however, the laws that govern the motion are complex and most of the time defies
mathematical expressions. Thanks to experimental data combined with mathematical theories
which solved countless engineering problems in the past.

Discharge

Also known as flow rate, discharge is the amount of fluid passing a section of a stream in
unit time is called the discharge. If v is the mean velocity and A is the cross sectional area, the
discharge Q is defined by Q = Av which is known as volume flow rate. Discharge is also expressed
as mass flow rate and weight flow rate.

Where:
Q = discharge in m3/sec or ft3/sec
A = cross-sectional area of flow in m 2 or ft2
v = mean velocity of flow in m/sec or ft/sec
ρ = mass density of fluid in kg/m 3 or slugs/ft3
γ = unit weight of fluid in N/m 3 or lb/ft3

Laminar Flow
Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or intersect. By
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

many careful experiments to commercial pipes of circular cross section, the flow is laminar
when the Reynolds’ number Re is less than 2100.

Turbulent Flow
The flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves and continuously cross
each other. The paths of particles of a stream flowing with turbulent motion are neither parallel
nor fixed but it aggregates to forward motion of the entire stream. Reynolds’ number greater
than 2100 normally defines turbulent flow but in highly controlled environment such as
laboratories, laminar flow can be maintained up to values of Re as high as 50,000. However, it
is very unlikely that such condition can occur in the practice.

Steady Flow
Flow is said to be steady at a point in the flowing fluid if the velocity, pressure and other flow
characteristics at that point do not change with time.

Steady flow occurs if the discharge Q passing a given cross section of a stream is constant with
time, otherwise the flow is unsteady.

Uniform Flow
The flow is said to be uniform if, with steady flow for a given length, or reach, of a stream, the
average velocity at every cross-section is the same. Uniform flow usually occurs to
incompressible fluids flowing in a stream of constant cross section. In streams where velocity
and cross section changes, the flow is said to be non-uniform.

Continuous Flow
By the principle of conservation of mass, continuous flow occurs when at any time, the
discharge Q at every section of the stream is the same.

Continuity Equations

For incompressible fluids:

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

For compressible fluids:

Sample Problems:
1. A fluid flowing in a pipe 30cm in diameter has a uniform velocity of 4m/s. the pressure at the
center of the pipe is 40kpa and the elevation of pipes centerline above an assumed datum is
4.5m. compute the total energy per unit weight of the flowing fluid if:
(a) oil (sp.gr. 0.80)
(b) gas(w=8.50N/m3)

2. A liquid of specific gravity 1.75 flows in a 6cm pipe. The total energy at appoint in the flowing
liquid is 80 J/N. the elevation of the pipe above a fixed datum is 2.60m and the pressure in the
pipe is 75kpa. Determine the velocity of flow and the power available at the point.

3. A city requires a flow of 1.5m3/s for its water supply. Determine the diameter of the pipe if the
velocity of flow is to be 1.80m/s.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 12.2 – Bernoulli’s Principle

The Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Apply the law of conservation of energy and the Bernoulli’s principle in flow calculations
• Identify the head loss in a system
• Identify the head added by a pump to a system
• Identify the head extracted by a turbine in a system
Course Materials:

ENERGY AND HEAD OF FLOW

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

Energy is defined as ability to do work. Both energy and work are measured in Newton-meter
(or pounds-foot in English). Kinetic energy and potential energy are the two commonly
recognized forms of energy. In a flowing fluid, potential energy may in turn be subdivided into
energy due to position or elevation above a given datum, and energy due to pressure in the
fluid. Head is the amount of energy per Newton (or per pound) of fluid.

Kinetic Energy and Velocity Head

Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. The kinetic energy of a
mass m having a velocity v is ½mv2. Since m = W/g,

Velocity Head of Circular Pipes

The velocity head of circular pipe of diameter D flowing full can be found as follows.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Elevation Energy and Elevation Head

In connection to the action of gravity, elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by virtue of its
position or elevation with respect to a horizontal datum plane.

Pressure Energy and Pressure Head

A mass of fluid acquires pressure energy when it is in contact with other masses having some
form of energy. Pressure energy therefore is an energy transmitted to the fluid by another mass
that possesses some energy.

Total Energy of Flow

The total energy or head in a fluid is the sum of kinetic and potential energies. Recall that potential
energies are pressure energy and elevation energy.

Total energy = Kinetic energy + Pressure energy + Elevation energy

Total head = Velocity head + Pressure head + Elevation head
In symbol, the total head energy is

Where:
v = mean velocity of flow (m/sec in SI and ft/sec in English)
p = fluid pressure (N/m2 or Pa in SI and lb/ft2 or psf in English)
z = position of fluid above or below the datum plane (m in SI and ft in English)
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec2 in SI and 32.2 ft/sec2 in English)

γ = Unit weight of fluid (N/m 3 in SI and lb/ft3 in English)
Power and Efficiency

Power is the rate of doing work per unit of time. For a fluid of unit weight γ (N/m3) flowing at the
rate of Q (m3/sec) with a total energy of E (m), the power (Watt) is

Note:
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts
1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
1 Watt = 1 N-m/sec = 1 Joule/sec

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

In 1738, the Swiss Mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli, demonstrated a general theorem with
reference to fluid motion under steady flow condition. He proved that, in any fluid motion where
friction is neglected, the total energy possessed by a given mass of the fluid is the same at every
point along the path of flow.

Bernoulli's Energy Equations

A. Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss

Without head losses, the total energy at point (1) is equal to the total energy at point (2).
No head lost is an ideal condition leading to theoretical values in the results.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

B. Energy Equation Considering Head Loss

The actual values can be found by considering head losses in the computation of flow
energy.

Energy Equation with Pump

In most cases, pump is used to raise water from lower elevation to higher elevation. In a more
technical term, the use of pump is basically to increase the energy of flow. The pump consumes
electrical energy (Pinput) and delivers flow energy (Poutput).
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Energy Equation with Turbine

Turbines extract flow energy and converted it into mechanical energy which in turn converted
into electrical energy.

Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

Hydraulic grade line, also called hydraulic gradient and pressure gradient, is the graphical
representation of the potential head (pressure head + elevation head). It is the line to which
liquid rises in successive piezometer tubes. The line is always at a distance (p/γ + z) above the
datum plane.

Characteristics of HGL

• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to change
in pressure.
• HGL is parallel to EGL for uniform pipe cross section.
• For horizontal pipes with constant cross section, the drop in pressure gradient
between two points is equivalent to the head lost between these points.

Energy Grade Line (EGL)

Energy grade line is always above the hydraulic grade line by an amount equal to the velocity
head. Thus, the distance of energy gradient above the datum plane is always (v2/2g + p/γ + z).
Energy grade line therefore is the graphical representation of the total energy of flow.

Characteristics of EGL

• EGL slopes downward in the direction of flow and will only rise with the presence
of pump.
• The vertical drop of EGL between two points is the head lost between those
points.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

• EGL is parallel to HGL for uniform pipe cross section.

• EGL is always above the HGL by v2/2g.
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal

Illustration showing the behavior of EGL and HGL

Sample Problems:
1. A 20cm pipe contains a short section in which the diameter is gradually reduced to 7.5cm and
then gradually enlarged to full size. The pressure of the water at a point where the reduction starts
is 520kpa. If the rate of flow is 35L/s, determine the pressure at 7.5cm section. Neglect losses

2. A 30cm pipe is connected by a reducer to a 10 pipe points 1 and 2 are along the same elevation.
The pressure at 1 is 200KPa. The flows is 30 liters and the energy lost between 1 and 2 is
equivalent to 20KPa. Compute the pressure at 2 if the liquid flowing is water.

3. . The turbine shown extracts 50 J/N of water from the given pipe system. At the summit, S,
480 kPa is maintained. Determine the flow and the pressure at the discharge side of the turbine
considering the following losses: summit to turbine: 4 times the velocity head in the 20 cm pipe;
turbine to reservoir: 3 times the velocity head in the 30 cm pipe.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 13.1: Flow Measurement Devices Part 1

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Recall the fundamental concepts the Bernoulli’s Energy Equation

• Identify the different flow measurement devices
• Compute the flow in a Nozzle and Pitot Tube
• Calculate the flow in a Venturi Meter
• Identify the different types of weirs
• Calculate the flow through a weir
Course Materials:

COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY

It has been shown experimentally that the actual mean velocity of the jet from a sharp-edged
orifice is a little less than the theoretical velocity. To correct for the head losses initially neglected,
a correction factor known as the coefficient of velocity and defined

Cv = Va / Vt

is applied to get the actual velocity

Va = Cv Vt
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION

The section m-n where the contraction of the jet ceases is called as the vena contracta and its
distance from the inner wall of the orifice is approximately ½ of the diameter of the orifice D o.
Moreover, the dimensionless ratio of the area of the vena contracta to the area of the orifice is
known as the coefficient of contraction, or

Cc = a / Ao

is applied to get the area of the contracted section

a = Cc Ao

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE

The ideal or theoretical discharge is the product of the area of the orifice and the theoretical
velocity,

Qt = Ao Vt

On the other hand, the real or actual flow is obtained at the issuing jet (vena contracta) and
represented as the product of the area of the contracted section and the actual velocity,

Qa = a V a

As previously discussed, the coefficient of discharge is given as

C = Q a / Qt

In summary, the coefficient of discharge is the product of the coefficient of contraction and the
coefficient of velocity. That is

C = Cc Cv
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

VENTURI METER. Invented by an American engineer, Clemens Herschel, which was named in
honor of an early Italian hydraulician, Venturi. It is a device usually installed across a pipeline for
the purpose of measuring the quantity of fluid flowing in the line.

Neglecting head loss,

V12/2g + P1/𝛾 + z1 = V22/2g + P2/𝛾 + z2

It should be noted that the equation gives only the mean theoretical velocity at the throat since
initial considerations did not include frictional losses. Accordingly, the discharge computed with
this velocity also represents the theoretical flow, or

Qt = A2 V2

which must be corrected by the multiplication of a correction factor, C, known as the “meter
coefficient” or “discharge coefficient”.

Qa = C Qt or Qa = C A2 V2

NOZZLE. A nozzle is a converging tube connected to the end of a pipe or hose and is used in
engineering practice for the creation of jets and streams for variety of purposes as well as for
metering.

Neglecting head loss,

V12/2g + P1𝛾+ z1 = V22/2g + P2/𝛾 + z2

The velocity V2 which will result from the equation is the theoretical velocity of the jet and this is
corrected by a correction factor called the “coefficient of velocity”, Cv, or the actual velocity is

Va = Cv Vt

and with this, the actual flow may be computed as

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Qa = A2 Va or Qa = Cv A2 V2

Head Loss in a Nozzle. If the frictional loses are eliminated, the total energy per unit weight at the
base of the nozzle will exactly be the same as the total energy per unit weight in the issuing jet.
Actually, there is a loss of head between these points and this is obtained by considering the
actual condition at the tip,

𝟏 𝑽𝒂 𝟐
𝑯𝑵 = ( 𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝑪𝒗 𝟐𝒈

1. ISA 1932 Nozzle 2. Long Radius Nozzle

PITOT TUBE. A tube with circular cross-section bent in the shape of an L, with both ends open
was first used by the French scientist, Henry Pitot, in 1732 for measuring the velocity of liquids in
an open flow.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Sample Problems:
1. A Venturi meter 60 cm by 30 cm has its axis inclined downward 30 deg. from the
horizontal. The distance, measured along the axis, from the inlet to the throat is 1.20 m.
The differential manometer shows a deflection of 15 cm of Hg. If the flowing fluid is
water, find the discharge if the meter coefficient C = 0.98.

2. A 6cm fire host water discharges through a nozzle having a diameter of 2.5cm. the head
lost in the nozzle is 4% of the velocity head in the jet. If the gage pressure at the base of
the nozzle is 400kpa, find the flow and the maximum horizontal range to which the
stream can be thrown.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

3. The flowing fluid in the figure is water and the gage liquid is mercury (s = 13.6). If the Pitot
tube is centered inside the pipe, what is the center velocity if the deflection of mercury is
5 cm?

Lesson 13.2: Flow Measurement Devices Part 2

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Recall the fundamental concepts the Bernoulli’s Energy Equation

• Identify Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow in an Orifice
• Calculate the flow in an orifice

Course Materials:

In fluid flow, the term orifice is used to denote an opening with a closed perimeter, made in a
wall or in a partition. The primary purpose of an orifice is the metering control of fluid flow.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

LOST HEAD AT AN ORIFICE

To determine the loss of energy per unit weight of the fluid mass passing any orifice, just apply
the Bernoulli’s Energy Equation between two points.

V12/2g + P1/γ + z1 = V22/2g + P2/γ + z2 + Ho

But for a large chamber A, where V 12/2g = 0; and if P1 = P2 = 0, the head loss that can be used is

 1 V 2
HO =  2 − 1 a
Cv  2g

THE THREE ORIFICE COEFFICIENTS

One of the several methods of finding the three coefficients of an orifice is hereunder:

a. Coefficient of Discharge, C:

By experimental considerations, maintain a constant head over the orifice and measure the actual
flow by collection the flows out of the orifice for a predetermined period of time t,

Qa = Volume Collected/Time (m3/s)

or

Qa = W/gt
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

b. Coefficient of Velocity, Cv:

This orifice coefficient is measured by making use of the principle of the projectile in mechanics.

(y<0)

c. Coefficient of Contraction, Cc:

To measure directly the amount of contraction of the jet issuing from an orifice, a caliper is
ordinarily used.

UNSTEADY FLOW IN ORIFICES:

DISCHARGE UNDER A FALLING HEAD OR RISING HEAD

If, in addition to the outflow Qo (at time, t = 0) through the orifice in the tank shown, there is a
constant inflow Qi which supplies the tank, then the type of flow may be classified as steady or
unsteady depending upon the relative value of Q i and Qo.

(a) The flow is steady if Qi = Qo, that is, when h1 is maintained constant.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

(b) The flow is unsteady if Qi ≠ Qo.

CASE 1: When Qi = 0, the surface drops and the volume decreases or d(Vol)/dt < 0.

By definition, the rate of change in volume of the contained liquid is the outflow Q o,

If the time in the interval h2 ≤ h ≤ h1 is required, the above equation is integrated as

Where: A = f(h), the cross-sectional area of the container at elevation h above the orifice.

Note that if the sides of the tank are vertical, the area A at any elevation is constant and the
equation may be evaluated further as

CASE 2: When Qi ≠ Qo at time, t = 0. Under this condition, there are two related subcases:
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

(a) Qi < Qo: the liquid surface drops as in the first case. Here, the rate of change of the
contained volume

and

Where: A = f(h), the cross-sectional area of the container at elevation h above the orifice.

(b) Qi > Qo: the liquid surface rises and the volume increases, or d(Vol)/dt > 0.

and

Sample Problems:

1. Oil of specific gravity of 0.72 flows through a 7.5 cm diameter orifice with Cv = 0.95, Cc =
0.65. What must be the pressure of the air on the surface so that the jet’s available
power is 6 KW?

Given : Cv = 0.95 Cc = 0.65 Find : P1

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

2. A cylindrical tank 1m in diameter and 3m high contains 1m of water, 1.20m of oil (s=0.80)
and air under a pressure of 16KPa. Find the theoretical velocity of the jet through a 5cm
diameter orifice 30cm above the bottom of the tank.

3. What will be the discharge through a 2.5cm orifice (C=0.61) in the bottom of a tank
moving upward with an acceleration of 3𝑚 𝑠2 if the water stands 2.50m over the orifice?

4. A vertical cylindrical tank has orifice for its outlet. When the water surface in the tank is
5m above the orifice, the surface can be lowered 4m in 20minutes, the pressure on the
surface being atmospheric. What uniform air pressure must be applied to the surface if
the same volume of water is to be discharged in 10minutes?
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 14: Flow in Closed Conduits

The Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Identify the types of flow in pipes
• Identify laminar flow by using the Reynold’s Number
• Identify turbulent flow by using Reynold’s Number
• Determine the effects of fluid viscosity in a pipe
• Identify the different types of head losses in pipes
• Calculate head losses using Darcy-Weisbach, Manning’s and Hazen-William’s Equation

Course Materials:

Generally, a pipe is a closed conduit carrying liquids or gases under pressure. It is commonly
circular in section, a form which combines structural strength and simplicity. Moreover, circular
pipes have the advantage of offering the least resistance to surface friction since, for a given
cross-sectional area, a circular section has the smallest perimeter and thus, the least surface area
in contact with the flowing fluid.

CRITICAL VELOCITY

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when a certain velocity, known as the critical
velocity, is attained. This limiting condition was determined through the efforts of Reynolds who
made a study of the problem in 1883.

REYNOLDS NUMBER
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Determination of the flow type can be computed by the dimensionless parameter called as the
Reynolds number,

where:

V = the mean velocity (m/s)

D = the pipe diameter (m)

ρ = the density (kg/m3)

µ = the dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)

Re < 2000 Laminar flow

Re > 3000 Turbulent flow

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

As mentioned in the development of the energy equation, head losses are expressed in meters
of the flowing fluid or in energy per unit weight (J/N) of the fluid. In pipe flow, these losses are
attributed to the following:

1. “pipe friction” or friction due to the sliding of the particles of fluid against each other.

2. “local disturbance” effecting changes in the velocity and flow direction.

Respectively, these are categorized as major losses and minor losses.

Losses due to local disturbances or minor losses (also known as form losses) may further be
classified individually as follows:
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

(a) Head loss due to sudden contraction, hc, of the pipe’s cross-section. (entrance loss)

(b) Head loss due to sudden enlargement, h e. (discharge loss)

(c) Head loss due to obstruction caused by gates or valves, h o.
(d) Head loss due to pipe bend, h b.

The collective major and minor losses is usually designated as

ΣHL = hf + hc + he + ho + hb

the first term being the major “pipe friction” loss and the last four terms represent the minor losses
due to contraction, enlargement, obstruction and pipe bend, respectively.

HEAD LOSS DUE TO PIPE FRICTION

In the study to determine the laws governing the loss of head due to pipe friction, it has been
observed that the resistance to flow is

1. directly proportional to the length of the pipe, L

2. varying to a certain power of the mean velocity, V
3. dependent on the pipe wall’s roughness, only under turbulent conditions
4. inversely proportional to some power of the diameter, D
5. independent of the pressure which effects fluid motion.

The head lost is written as

where: f = coefficient of pipe friction

L = length of the conduit or pipe

V = mean velocity of the flow

D = diameter of the conduit or pipe

This equation is known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation in honor of the investigators Darcy and
Weisbach who, about mid-19th century, proposed said equation.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

COEFFICIENT OF PIPE FRICTION, f, FOR WATER

For straight smooth pipes which carries water under turbulent condition, Fanning gives the
average values of the pipe friction coefficient f for different diameters and mean velocities of flow.
See Table 7.1, p. 341.

HEAD LOSS USING DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION

In terms of mean velocity:

In terms of discharge:

THE FRICTIONAL LOSS IN LAMINAR FLOW: HAGEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION

For laminar flow, the pipe friction coefficient is

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

WETTED PERIMETER AND HYDRAULIC RADIUS

In any conduit, flowing full or partially full, the wetted perimeter P is the curve of intersection of its
wetted surface with cross sectional plane.

The hydraulic radius R of any flow section is defined as the ratio of the flow area A to the wetted
perimeter P of the section, or

In case of non-circular pipes, D = 4R may be used in determining the Reynolds number and head
loss.

SLOPE OF ENERGY GRADIENT

The slope of the energy gradient S is the tangent of the inclination a, or

OTHER PIPE FORMULAS

(a) The Chezy Equation

Where: 𝐶 = √8𝑔/𝑓
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

This is known as the Chezy equation in which the constant C is dependent on the pipe friction f.
The equation gives the mean velocity V in terms of the hydraulic radius R and the slope of the
energy gradient S.

(b) The Manning Equation

Where n is known as the coefficient of roughness.

(c) The Hazen-Williams Equation

This formula is in the English units and is widely used in the United States particularly in water
supply system designs.

MINOR LOSSES

Losses caused by local disturbances in pipes such as the ones incurred by change of section,
bends, elbows, valves and fittings of all types are called minor losses. In a relatively long pipe
these losses are usually insignificant compared to pipe friction loss and can be neglected without
introducing serious error. However, in shorter pipes, minor losses must accurately be defined as
their effects are essential for correct engineering calculations.

Based on experiments with water, the minor losses have been found to vary approximately with
the square of the velocity that led to the proposal of expressing them as

Where K must be determined for each case.

(a) Sudden Contraction

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

If a pipe suddenly decreases in diameter the flowing fluid cannot conform or follow the sharp
curvature at the corner and so the stream leaves it contracted and at some point, at downstream
of point m the liquid expands to fill the pipe.

The amount of contraction at point m depends greatly on the ratio D 2/D1 and so it follows that the
entire loss in this type of change of section will be controlled by this ratio.

The loss of head due to sudden contraction may be expressed as

where V2 is the mean velocity in the smaller pipe and K c is a dimensionless coefficient dependent
on the ratio D2/D1. See Table 7.6, p. 376.

If the ratio of D2/D1 approaches zero, that is when the flow is from a large tank to a pipe.

(b) Sudden Enlargement

The loss of head due to sudden expansion or enlargement is similarly expressed as a fraction of
the velocity head in the smaller pipe,

In which Ke is a dimensionless coefficient varying with the velocities V 1 and V2 or with the
diameters D1 and D2. For values of Ke, see Table 7.7, p. 379.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

The discharge loss due to a change in flow section for a pipe discharging into a large tank is

(c) Obstruction: Gates or Valves

The loss of head due to obstruction, as in the case of a valve, is

Where V is the mean velocity of flow in the pipe and K o is a constant coefficient. For the values
of Ko, see Table 7.9, p. 384.

(d) Pipe Bend

Head lost due to pipe bend is written in terms of velocity head in the pipe, or

Where Kb is a dimensionless coefficient which varies with the ratio of r/D. For values of K b under
different ratios r/D for a 90° bend, see Table 7.10, p.386.

Sample Problems:

1. A new cast-iron pipe 400m long and 15cm in diameter carries 42liters/s of water.
Determine the frictional loss of head.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

2. A pump 80% efficient delivers heavy oil (𝜌 = 912kg/𝑚3 ; 𝑣 = 2.05𝑥10−4𝑚2/𝑠) through

500m of 5cm diameter pipe to a storage tank whose oil level is 3m higher than that of
the supply tank.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Lesson 15: Pipeline Systems Part 1

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Identify pipes in series connection

• Identify pipes in parallel connection
• Apply concepts of continuity and Bernoulli’s principle in solving pipe connection
problems

Course Materials:

PIPE SYSTEM IN SERIES

Neglecting minor losses and assuming continuous and steady flow conditions in the pipe system
under consideration, the following conditions may be applied:

Q1 = Q 2 = Q3

Total HL = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

PIPE SYSTEM IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Q1 = Q5

Q1 = Q 2 + Q3 + Q4

Total HL = hf1 + hf2 + hf5

hf2 = hf3 = hf4

Sample Problems:

1. Three new cast-iron pipes connected in series are shown in Fig. B. determine the total
frictional losses if the discharge is 200 liters/s. find also the difference between the water
surface in the reservoir and the discharge end of the third pipe.

2. Two pipes with C1 = 120 (Hazen-Williams constant) connected in series, discharge 4.75ft3
/ s. with a loss of head of 27 ft. each pipe has a length of 1000ft . If one has a diameter of
18 in. determine the diameter of the other, neglecting minor losses.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

3. The discharge of the pipe system shown in Fig. E is 440 liters/s. Determine the head
loss from A to D. Use f= 0.020 for all pipes.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

PRACTICE PROBLEMS, PLATES and FINAL EXAM

Instructions:

1. Practice problems, Plates and Final Exam are problem solving.

2. Write your computations on short bond papers/s.
3. Practice problems, Plates and Final Exams are to be submitted at the end of the
semester.

Practice Problems:

PLATES:

Note: x and y are second to the last digit and last digit of the student number respectively.
Example: 2015- 002587-MN-0, x = 8 and y = 7. So, 3.xy is 3.87 meters

1. The pipeline shown in the figure A. takes water from a reservoir and terminates in a nozzle
having a jet diameter of 2 inches. With the pipe losses shown in the figure, and assuming
a nozzle loss of (a) 8.yx %, (b) 10.xy % of the velocity head in the jet. Compute the
discharge and make a table showing the elevation head, pressure head, and total head at
each of the six stations

2. The pump in the figure B. draws water from a reservoir and discharges through 2 V2
inches hose, which terminates in a nozzle having a jet diameter of inch. The head losses
are: I to 2. 5.75 ft: 2 to 3. negligible: 3 to 4. 30.yx ft. 4 to 5. Ix.y ft. Compute the required
horsepower output of the pump and make a table of the heads at the five points. Q is (a)
2yx gpm. (b) 3yx gpm.

3. A 2-1/2 inch fire hose discharges water through a nozzle having a jet diameter of 1 inch.
The lost head in the nozzle is 5.yx percent of the velocity head in the jet. If the gage
pressure at base of nozzle is (a) 8x lb per sq in.: (b) 1xy lb per sq in.: (1.1) compute the
discharge in gallons per minute: (1.2) what is the maximum horizontal range to which the
stream can be thrown, neglecting air resistance?

4. A 12-inch by 6-inch Venturi meter is installed in a vertical pipeline carrying water as shown
in the Figure C. The flow is upward through the meter. A differential manometer containing
fluid, with sp.gr 1.xy, is attached to inlet and throat, the difference z in gage levels being
5.yx ft. Neglecting loss of head, write energy equation from inlet to throat of meter. Also
write step-by step equation of the differential gage between inlet and throat and combine
the two equations to compute the discharge.

5. The liquid in Fig. D has a specific gravity of 3.xy. The gage pressure P a = 10.xy Ib per sq
in. and Pb is atmospheric. The orifice diameter Ds 3 inches and C = Cv = 0.95, With h = 5
ft, determine the discharge and the head lost in the orifice.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

6. In problem 5 maintaining the liquid head h at 5.xy ft, to what pressure P A be raised in order
to double the discharge?

7. The liquid in Fig. D has a specific gravity of 1.50. The gas pressure is P = +5.xy lb per sq
in. and Pb is -2.xy Ib per sq in. The orifice is 4 inches in diameter with C = Cv = 0.95.
Determine the velocity in the jet and the discharge when h = 4.xy ft.

8. In problem 7 maintaining the liquid head h at 4.xy ft, and neglecting vapor pressure, what
is the maximum percentage by which the discharge can be increased by decreasing P b?

Fig. B
Fig. A

Fig. C

Fig. D
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

PRACTICE PROBLEMS, PLATES and FINAL EXAM

Instructions:

4. Practice problems, Plates and Final Exam are problem solving.

5. Write your computations on short bond papers/s.
6. Practice problems, Plates and Final Exams are to be submitted at the end of the
semester.

Practice Problems:

1. A volume of 450 liters of a certain fluids weighs 3.50 KN. Compute the mass density. (1
m3 = 1000 liters).
2. How many meters of water are equivalent to a pressure of 100 KPa? How many cm. of
mercury?
3. If the pressure in a gas tank is 2.50 atmospheres, find the pressure in KPa and the
pressure head in meter of water.
4. Oil of specific gravity 0.80 is being pumped. A pressure gage located downstream of the
pump reads 280 KPa. What is the pressure head in meter of oil?
5. The pressure of air inside a tank containing air and water is 20 KPa absolute. Determine
the gage pressure at point 1.5 m below the water surface. Assume standard atmospheric
pressure.
6. A piece of 3 m long and having a 30 cm by 30 cm is placed in a body of water in a vertical
position. If the timber weights 6.5 12 KN/m3what vertical force is required to hold it to its
upper end flush with the water surface?
7. In fig. fluid A is water, fluid B is oil(s= 0.85). Determine the pressure difference between
points m and n.

8. A triangle of height H and base B is vertically submerged in a liquid. The base B coincides
with the liquid surface. Derive the relation that will give the location of the center of
pressure.
9. The upper edge of a vertical trapezoidal gate is 1.60m long and flush with the water
surface. The two edges are vertical and measure 2m and 3m, respectively. Calculate the
force and location of the center of pressure on one side of the gate.
10. How far below the water surface is it necessary to immerse a vertical plane surface, 1m
square, two edges of which are horizontal, so that the center of pressure will be located
2.50cm below the center of gravity?
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

11. Compute the stress in a 90cm pipe with wall thickness of 9.50mm if water fills under a
head of 70m.
12. A wood stave pipe, 120cm in inside diameter, is to resist a maximum water pressure of
1,200KPa. If the staves are bound by steel flat bands (10cm by 2.50cm), find the spacing
of the bands if its allowable stress is 105MPa.
13. A rectangular solid piece of wood 30 cm square and 5 cm thick floats in water to depth of
3.25 cm. How heavy an object must be placed on the wood (Sp. Gr. 0.50) in such a way
that it will just be submerged?
14. A brass sphere (Sp. Gr. 8.60) is placed in a body of mercury. If the diameter of the sphere
is 30 cm (a) what minimum force would be required to hold it submerged in mercury? (b)
what is the depth of flotation of the sphere when it is floating freely?
15. A cylinder weighing 445 N and having a diameter of 1.0 m floats in salt water (Sp. Gr.
1.03) with its axis vertical as in Fig. BB. The anchor consist 0f 0.0280 cu.m of concrete
weighing 23450 N/cu.m. What rise in the tide r will be required to lift the anchor off the
bottom?
16. A metal block 30 cm square and 25 cm deep is allowed to float on a body of liquid which
consist of 20 cm layer of water above a layer of mercury. The block weighs 18,850 N/cu.m.
What is the position of the upper level of the block? If a downward vertical force of 1110
N is applied to the centroid of the block, what is the new position of the upper level of the
block?
17. A concrete dam is triangular in cross section and 30 m high from the horizontal base. If
water reaches a depth of 27 m on the vertical face, what is the minimum length of the base
of the dam such that the resultant will intersect the base within the middle third? What
minimum coefficient of friction is required to prevent sliding? Determine the pressure
distribution along the base.
18. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross section, with one face vertical has thickness pf 60cm
at the top, 3.70m at the base, and has height of 7.40m. what is the depth of water on the
vertical face if the resultant intersect the base at the downstream edge of the middle third?
Assume that the uplift pressure varies uniformly from full hydrostatic at the heel to zero at
the toe.
19. A masonry dam has trapezoidal section: one face is vertical, width at the top is 60cm and
at the bottom is 3m. The dam is 7m high with the vertical face subjected to water pressure.
If the depth of water is 5m, where will the resultant force intersect the base? Determine
the distribution of pressure along the base, (a) assuming there is no uplift pressure; (b)
assuming that the uplift pressure varies uniformly from full hydrostatic at the heel to zero
at the toe. Specific weight of masonry is 23.54KN/m3. A pipe consists of three length
50cm, 40cm, and 30cm with a continuous discharge of 300liters of oil (sp.gr. 0.75)
compute the mean velocity in each pipe.
20. Compute the velocity head of the jet if the larger diameter is 10cm and the smaller
diameter is 30mm. The pressure head at point 1 is 30m of the flowing water and the head
lost between points 1 and 2 is 5% of the velocity head in jet.
21. A fire pump delivers water through 15cm main pipe to a hydrant to which is connected
an 8cm host, terminating in a nozzle 2cm in diameter. The nozzle trained vertically up, is
1.60m above the hydrant and 12m above the pump. the head losses are pump to hydrant
is 3J/N; Nozzele;6% velocity head inthe nozzle. If the gage pressure at the pump is
550Kpa to what vertical height can the jet bo thrown? Neglect air friction.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

22. The water from reservoir is pumped over a hill through a pipe 90cm in diameter, and a
pressure of 200kpa is maintained at the summit where the pipe is 90m above the reservoir.
The quantity pumped is 1.40m3/s and by reason of friction there is a hed loss of 90%
efficient, determine the input power furnished to the water.
23. A 20cm pipe contains a short section in which the diameter is gradually reduced to 7.5cm
and then gradually enlarged to full size. The pressure of the water at a point where the
reduction starts is 520kpa. If the rate of flow is 35L/s, determine the pressure at 7.5cm
section. Neglect losses.
24. A 20cm pipe contains a short section in which the diameter is gradually reduced to 7.5cm
and then gradually enlarged to full size. The pressure of the water at a point where the
reduction starts is 520kpa. If the rate of flow is 35L/s, determine the pressure at 7.5cm
section. Neglect losses.
25. A pump draws water from a pit through and vertical 30cm pipes w/c extends below the
water surface. It discharges into a 15cm horizontal pipe 4.0m above the water surface.
While pumping the y of flow in L/s, a pressure page on the discharge pipe reads 165kp2
and a page on the suction pipe shows a vacuum of 35kg2. Both pages are close to the
pump and are separated by a vertical dist. Of 90cm. Compute the head lost in the sanction
pipe. Compute the charge in energy per second between the pages. What is the power
output of the pump?
26. A free jet of water 5cm in diameter is discharge from a nozzle at an angle of 60° from the
horizontal. If the pressure at the 10cm base, 30cm from the tip, is the maintained at 465kpa
and cy = 0.97, what is the maximum distance that the nozzle can be placed from a building
and still jet water into a window w/c is 20m above the nozzle?
27. A pilot tube in a pipe in w/c air is flowing is connected to a manometer containing water
as in Fig.L .If the difference of the water level s in the manomeer is 10cm,what is the
velocity of flow in the pipe?Assume a tube coefficient of cp=0.99.Specific weight of air is
12𝑁 𝑚3
28. In Fig. A, P1 = 70KPa, P2 = 5KPa, Cc= 1.00, Cv= 0.95, Do= 6cm, h=1.80m (liquid with
s=2.5). Find the actual flow through the orifice, to double the discharge, what must be P1
assuming P2 is unchanged
29. The horizontal orifice of Fig. B has a diameter of 10cm with Cc=0.60, Cv= 0.97. When
h=2.50m. What pressure, applied on the surface, will cause the jet to rise 20cm higher
than the free surface?
30. A sharp-edged orifice in a 30° plane has its vena contracta at EL 10.7m. If the W.S. in the
tank is at EL 15.25m and the top of the jet is at EL 14m, find the velocity and the coefficient
of velocity
31. In Fig. H is shown a tank 1.5 by 1.5m horizontal section and 3m high with two orifices
(C=0.60) both 10cm in diameter and 60cm apart. (a) How much water must be supplied
to the tank to keep it always full? (b) If this supply is cut off, how long
32. For laminar flow conditions, what minimum size of pipe will deliver 6 liters/s of medium oil
having a kinematic viscosity of 6.10𝑥10−6𝑚2/𝑠 ?
33. Determine the type of flow occurring in a 30cm diameter pipe when: (a) Water at 60°F (
𝑣 = 1.13𝑥10−6𝑚2/ 𝑠 ) flows at a velocity of 1 𝑚/𝑠. (b) Heavy oil at 60℉(𝑣 = 2.05𝑥10−4𝑚2/𝑠
) flows at a velocity of 1 𝑚/𝑠.
34. A tank used to store commercial oil (𝜌 = 950 kg/𝑚3 ;𝑣 = 2𝑥10−3𝑚2/𝑠) is 15m diameter and
contains 1000m3 of oil. A 20cm pipe 50m long connected to the bottom of the tank has its
discharge end 6m below the bottom. A gate valve (Kv = 0.20 when fully opened) is located
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

near the discharge end. Find the laminar flow in the pipe when the valve is fully opened.
Check the Reynolds number Re.
35. What diameter of new cast-iron pipe 1.6km long is required to discharge 0.125𝑚3/𝑠 of
water with a loss of head of 17J/N?
36. Three new cast-iron pipes are connected in series as shown in Fig. D. If the discharge is
230 liters/s determine the head lost: (a) neglecting minor losses (b) considering minor
losses.
37. Fig. E shows a pipe system in parallel with a total flow of 400 liters/s. determine the division
of flow and the loss of head from A to B. Use n = 0.011 for both pipes.
38. A 15cm pipe leaves a straight 10cm pipe at a point A, and later joins it again at point B.
The distance AB on the straight 10cm pipe is 700m. How long will the 15cm pipe have to
be in order that the flow in the two pipes maybe the same? Assume f = 0.020 and neglect
minor losses.

Fig. C
Fig. B
Fig. A

39.

Fig. D Fig. E
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

PLATES
Note: x and y are second to the last digit and last digit of the student number respectively.
Example: 2015- 002587-MN-0, x = 8 and y = 7. So, 3.xy is 3.87 meters

1. Determine the pressure in the container at a point 20.xy below the water surface, in (a)
pounds per square foot gage; (b) pounds per square inch gage; (c) pounds per square
foot absolute; (d) pounds per square inch absolute.
2. Determine the pressure in a vessel of oil (sp gr 0.85) at a point 15.xy feet below the
surface, expressing the answer in the same units as in problem 1.
3. What height of oil column will cause the pressure of 5xy kN/m2? What is the equivalent
height of mercury column? What is the equivalent height of water column? What is the
equivalent height of special gage liquid column with specific gravity of 1.36?
4. What height of a column of special gage liquid (sp gr 1.85) would exert the same pressure
as a column of fluid A 3.xy meters high (sp gr 0.84)
5. If the pressure in a tank of oil (sp gr 0.85) is 3yx kN/m2, what is the equivalent head (a) in
meters of oil; (b) in meters of water; (c) in meters of mercury?
6. In figure 1, what is the pressure in pounds per square inch at A?
6.1 If the pressure at A is reduced 6.xy lb per sq in, what is the new difference in elevation
of the mercury surface?
7. Compute the pressure heat at m, in feet of fluid A, indicated by open manometer in figure
2 below when (a) Fluid A is oil (sp gr 0.8yx), the gage liquid is carbon tetrachloride (sp gr
1.yx), y=30.xy in, z=30yx in. (b) Fluid A is molasses (sp.gr 1.50), gage liquid is water,
y=3.yx ft, z=1.xy ft
8. In figure 3 compute the pressure head difference between m and n, in feet of fluid A, when:
(a) Fluid A is gasoline (sp gr 0.715), the gage liquid is mercury, and z = 4y.xy in
(b) Fluid A is oil (sp gr 0.908), the gage liquid is water, and z = 2y.xy in
(c) Fluid A is sea water (w=64.0), gage liquid has a specific gravity of 2.95, and z = 5y.xy
9. In figure 4, determine the pressure head difference in feet of water between m and n, when
z is (a)6.y in; (b)2y.x in; (c) 3y.x in
9.1 Determine the value of z when the pressure at m is 1y.x lb per sq in greater that at n
9.2 If z=1y.xy in, then the pressure at m is increased by 5.yx lb per sq in, while the pressure
at n remains constant, determine the new value of z.
10. In figure 5, determine the pressure head difference in feet of water between m and n, when
z is: (a) 3.yx in.; (b) 10.xy. ; (c) 15.yx in.
Determine the value of z if the pressure at n is 1.4xy lb per sq. in. greater than at m.
If the pressure at m is 20.yx lb per sq. in., what is the corresponding pressure at n when z
= 8.xy in.?
11. In figure 6, compute the pressure difference between m and n, in pounds per square inch,
when:
(a) Fluid A is brine (sp gr 1.15), the gage fluid is oil (sp gr 0.92), and z = 4y.xy in.
(b) Fluid A is water, the gage fluid is air, and z = 1y.xy in.
12. A vertical, trapezoidal gate in the face of a dike is subjected to sea water pressure (s =
1.3) on one side. The upper edge is in the water surface and is 1.5xy meters long. Two
edges are vertical and measured 2.xy meters and 3.yx meters each. Determine the total
pressure on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

13. The triangular gate shown in the figure below is hinged at the B and rests on a smooth
floor at A, the horizontal component of the reaction at A therefore being zero. The base of
gate is 1.2xy meters and perpendicular to the paper. Determine the vertical component of
the reaction at A and the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction at B for the
following sets of conditions:
13.1 The vertex of the gate is at A, x = 1.xy meters, y = 2.xy meters and z = 3.xy meters.
13.2 The vertex of the gate is at B, x = 2.xy meters, y = 3.xy meters and z = 4.xy meters.

14 The pipeline shown in the figure A. takes water from a reservoir and terminates in a nozzle
having a jet diameter of 2 inches. With the pipe losses shown in the figure, and assuming a
nozzle loss of (a) 8.yx %, (b) 10.xy % of the velocity head in the jet. Compute the discharge
and make a table showing the elevation head, pressure head, and total head at each of the
six stations

15 The pump in the figure B. draws water from a reservoir and discharges through 2 V2 inches
hose, which terminates in a nozzle having a jet diameter of inch. The head losses are: I to 2.
5.75 ft: 2 to 3. negligible: 3 to 4. 30.yx ft. 4 to 5. Ix.y ft. Compute the required horsepower
output of the pump and make a table of the heads at the five points. Q is (a) 2yx gpm. (b) 3yx
gpm.

16 A 2-1/2 inch fire hose discharges water through a nozzle having a jet diameter of 1 inch. The
lost head in the nozzle is 5.yx percent of the velocity head in the jet. If the gage pressure at
base of nozzle is (a) 8x lb per sq in.: (b) 1xy lb per sq in.: (1.1) compute the discharge in
gallons per minute: (1.2) what is the maximum horizontal range to which the stream can be
thrown, neglecting air resistance?

17 A 12-inch by 6-inch Venturi meter is installed in a vertical pipeline carrying water as shown in
the Figure C. The flow is upward through the meter. A differential manometer containing fluid,
with sp.gr 1.xy, is attached to inlet and throat, the difference z in gage levels being 5.yx ft.
Neglecting loss of head, write energy equation from inlet to throat of meter. Also write step-
by step equation of the differential gage between inlet and throat and combine the two
equations to compute the discharge.

18 The liquid in Fig. D has a specific gravity of 3.xy. The gage pressure P a = 10.xy Ib per sq in.
and Pb is atmospheric. The orifice diameter Ds 3 inches and C = Cv = 0.95, With h = 5 ft,
determine the discharge and the head lost in the orifice.

19 In problem 5 maintaining the liquid head h at 5.xy ft, to what pressure P A be raised in order
to double the discharge?

20 The liquid in Fig. D has a specific gravity of 1.50. The gas pressure is P = +5.xy lb per sq in.
and Pb is -2.xy Ib per sq in. The orifice is 4 inches in diameter with C = Cv = 0.95. Determine
the velocity in the jet and the discharge when h = 4.xy ft.

21 In problem 7 maintaining the liquid head h at 4.xy ft, and neglecting vapor pressure, what is
the maximum percentage by which the discharge can be increased by decreasing P b?
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

Fig. B
Fig. A
Fig. C

Fig. D
 PUP Civil Engineering Department
#WeLearnAsOne

FINAL EXAMINATION
HYDRAULICS 1

Name: _________________________________________ Student No: ________________

Section: 1 2 3 4 5

Instructions: Refer to the figure below and answer the following questions completely. Box
your final answer.

1. If the liquid in the dam will be replaced by glycerin (s=1.35), what is the mass density, unit
weight and specific volume of the new liquid? (15pts)
2. What is the difference in pressure at the heel and toe? If the liquid at the dam is replaced
with mercury with the same pressure head, what is the new difference in pressure? (10pts)
3. Refer to the figure below. During a heavy rain, the dam accumulated a total of 31,250m 3
of water in 3 hours. The dam has an average area of 12,500m 2. What is the increase in
height of water surface in the dam? (5pts)
4. What is the hydrostatic force acting on the circular gate with the new height of water
surface? (10pts)
5. What is the required draft in the cubical float tied at the end of the gate to open it with the
new height of water surface? The cube has a side of 2.5m, the gate weighs 3567.79kg.
(10pts)
6. Calculate the resultant force acting heel side of the dam. Assume section is 4m
perpendicular to the paper. Also use the new height of water surface. (15pts)
7. If the dam will be replaced by a rectangular dam with same height and a base of 15m, the
height of water at the heel side of the dam is 20.5m and 7.5m at the toe side. What is the
factor of safety of the dam against overturning? Determine the pressure distribution at the
base of the dam. Neglect the hydrostatic uplift. Unit weight of concrete is 24kN/m 3. (30pts)
8. During the release of water in the dam, a floating scow loses its vertical stability and tilts
15°. The scow has a width of 6m and a draft of 1.8m. Determine the distance between the
metacenter and center of buoyancy (5pts)