©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Learning Objectives
2

 Explain the importance and advantages of databases as well as the

difference between database systems and file-based legacy systems.
 Explain database systems, including logical and physical views, the data
dictionary, and database management system (DBMS) languages.
 Describe what a relational database is, how it organizes data, and how to
DATABASE CONCEPTS & create a set of well-structured relational database tables.

DATA NORMALIZATION  Discuss the problems or anomalies caused by unnormalized databases and
the need for Data Normalization.

COMM 335 Information Systems Technology and Development

What is a Database?
4

 A Database is an organized collection of logically related data.

3 The Database Concept

Basic Elements of Data Hierarchy

COMM 335 1
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

File-Based Systems vs Database Systems Database Component Hierarchy

5 6

All data stored in

Each program has one database,
its own file for independent of
storing data programs

Potential problems:
Data Redundancy Data is shared by
Data Inconsistency various programs
Data Isolation

Byte = 8 Bits
Bit = 0 or 1

Relationships Among Tables Relationships and Keys

7 8

 Values in one table may relate to records in other table(s) Primary Keys
 Primary Key (PK) is an attribute or a collection of attributes whose value(s)
Students Table Courses Table
uniquely and concisely identify each row in a table Student# Name Address Course# Title Credits
 Composite (Concatenated) Key consists of two or more attributes 1234567 John Smith West Mall Comm437 Database 3.0
9385093 Mary Cox Main Mall Comm335 MS Access 1.5
 Candidate Keys are all possible primary keys in one table 2040544 Mike Luck East Mall Comm436 IS Analysis 3.0

 Natural Key used in the real-life and recognized as the identifier 1:N 1:N
Grades Table
 Surrogate (Synthetic) Key generated serial number when there is no suitable Student# Course# Grade
primary key available or preferred (e.g. MS Access “Autonumber”) 1234567 Comm335 88 1:N
1234567 Comm437 85 means one
2040544 Comm335 70 to many
 Foreign Key (FK) is an attribute or a collection of attributes that corresponds
to the primary key(s) of a related table
Foreign Keys

COMM 335 2
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Relational Database in MS Access Types of Databases in an Enterprise

9 10

Data
Enterprise databases include: Warehouses External
Operational Databases
Databases
 Internal Databases
 Operational Databases
 Data Warehouses

 External Databases
 Accessed over the Internet
 Owned by other organizations,
such as SEC database, Gartner
Research database, etc.

Internal Databases Database Design

11 12

 Operational Databases  To design a database, you need to have a conceptual (abstract) view of the
 Databases used in the operations of the business, such as Accounting, HR, entire database
Marketing, Operations, etc.  The conceptual view illustrates the different entities and relationships
 Most are Relational Databases between the entities
 Used for transaction processing  supporting cross-functional systems  Database designers use entity-relationship diagrams to visualize the
(SCM, HRM, CRM, ERP) database elements
 Data Warehouse  The data dictionary is a “blueprint” of the structure of the database and
 Contains data collected from a variety of sources includes data elements, field types, programs that use the data element,
 Data NOT used for routine business activities
outputs, and so on
 Used for data analytics  Business Intelligence (BI) purposes

COMM 335 3
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Database Design Stages Data Dictionary

13 14

 Data Dictionary contains information about the structure of the database

Entity Relationship Model Relational Model Tables (Relations)
 The data dictionary is simply a repository of information about a database,
or metadata

 Data dictionaries are used to centralize, document, control and coordinate

the use of data within an organization

 The data dictionary is defined and controlled by the Database

Conceptual View Logical View Physical View
Administrators (DBA)

 The DBMS maintains the data dictionary

Items in Data Dictionary Example of Data Dictionary

15 16

Data Element Description Records in Source Field Field Programs in Outputs in Authorized
MS Access Name Which Length Type Which Used Which Contained Users
Field Properties Contained
Customer ID Unique Customer Customer 10 Numeric Customer file update, Customer status No restrictions
identifier of record, number listing A/R update, sales report, A/R aging
each customer A/R record, update, credit analysis report, sales report,
sales record credit report

Customer Complete name Customer Initial 20 Alphanumeric Customer file update, Customer status No restrictions
name of customer record customer statement processing report, monthly
order statement
Address Street, city, Customer Credit 30 Alphanumeric Customer file update, Customer status No restrictions

Specifications Characteristics Utilization state, and zip

code
record application statement processing report, monthly
statement

 Name  Field/Data Type  Owner Credit limit Maximum Customer

credit that can record,
Credit
application
8 Numeric Customer file update,
A/R update, credit
Customer status
report, A/R aging
D. Dean
A. Smith
 Definition  Size/Length  Where used be extended to A/R record
customer
analysis report, credit report J. Doe

 Aliases  Range of values  Security code

 Encoding  Last update

COMM 335 4
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Database Users Logical vs Physical View of Data

17 18

 Database Administrators (DBA) are concerned with the physical view

of the database LOGICAL Database A logical grouping of related files
VIEW
 DBAs are responsible for organization, security, and maintenance of a Table (File) A logical grouping of related records
database
Record (Row) A logical grouping of related fields
 DBAs use DBMS to create a database, modify its structure, manage its
security settings, and optimize its performance Field (Column) A single fact or attribute of something
 Users of the database who need information to make decisions have Byte Represents a single character (8 bits)
the logical view of the database
PHYSICAL Bit (Binary Digit) represents the smallest unit
 Logical view does not need to be concerned with how the data is stored in VIEW of data a computer can process
the system

Database Management Systems Database Management System (DBMS)

19 20

 Database Management Systems (DBMS) – system software through which

users and application programs interact with a database  Creates the Database
 Used to create tables, relationships
 DBMS is a program that creates, process, and administers the database and other structures in DB
 e.g. Microsoft (SQL Server & Access), Oracle, MySQL (open-source)
 Process the Database
 Applications use DBMS to read,
insert, modify, or delete data
 Structured Query Language (SQL) -
international standard
 Administers the Database
 Set up security
 Back up data
DBMS and Database are two different things!  Remove data

COMM 335 5
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Database Applications DBMS Languages

21 22

 Structured Query Language (SQL) is a non-procedural language designed to

 Forms (input & user interface) define and manipulate relational database objects
 used to read, insert, modify, and
delete data  SQL can query many records from one or more tables with a single
 Queries (data processing)
statement (command)
 means of getting answers from
database data  DBMS Languages:
 Reports (output of queries)  Data Definition Language (DDL)
 show data in structured context  Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 may compute values  Data Query Language (DQL) – Data Retrieval
 Application Programs
 process logic specific to business need

Data Definition Language (DDL) Data Manipulation Language (DML)

23 24

 DDL builds the data dictionary, creates the structure of the database, and  DML changes database content, including data element creations, updates,
specifies record or field security constraints insertions, and deletions
 Examples:  DML statements are used to manipulate data within a database
 CREATE statement is used to create a database or a table
 Examples:
 ALTER statement is used to change the relational database object, such as add a
 INSERT statement is used to insert data into a table
new field to a specific table
 UPDATE statement is used to update existing data within a table
 DROP statement is used to delete a table or remove an existing field from a
 DELETE statement is used to delete records from a database table
specific table
 DDL should be restricted to authorized administrators and programmers  DML is only given to those who maintain data in the database

COMM 335 6
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Data Query Language (DQL) Database Security

25 26

 DQL contains powerful, easy-to-use commands that enable users to • Identification (user name)
retrieve, sort, order, and display data What you Know • Authentication (password)
 DQL statements are used to create database queries to retrieve the data
• Smart Cards (embedded microchips)
from the database What you Have • Authentication App
 Example:
 SELECT statement is used to retrieve data FROM the database table(s)
 WHERE condition What you Are • Biometrics: fingerprints, facial and retina scans
 GROUP BY (Attributes)
 HAVING condition
• Biometric signature pressure patterns, voiceprint
 ORDER BY (Attributes) What you Do recognition, gait/walking patterns

Database Access
27

 Column access control

right to access certain fields

28 Relational Database
 Row access control
 right to access certain records
 Access type
 Read existing records (most common)
 Create new records
 Modify existing records
 Database Administrators
 change the structure of the database

COMM 335 7
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Relational Database Components Properties of Relations

29 30

 Field: a piece of data Field Requirements for a table to qualify as a relation:

Record
 Record: a collection of  Table must have a unique name (avoid spaces in names)
Table
related fields
Database  All columns in tables must have unique names (no spaces)
 Table: a collection of
 Every row must be unique (no two rows identical)
related records
 Every field value must be single value
 Database: a collection of
related tables (atomic  not multivalued, not composite)
 The order of the columns (left to right) is irrelevant

 The order of the rows (top to bottom) is irrelevant

Representation of Relations (Schema) Relational Database

31 32

Outline Notation is the standard format for expressing database design  A relational database is comprised of a set of tables (relations)
 Relations (tables) = R  A table contains rows (records or tuple) and
 Attributes (columns) = A, B, C, D, … columns (fields or attributes)
R(A,B,C,D)  Primary Keys (PK)
 Repeating group = {X}  Unique identifiers of the table
EMPLOYEE(EmployeeID, Name, Address)
R(A,B,C,{D})
 Primary Key underlined = A  Foreign Keys (FK)
 Identifiers that enable a dependent
 Foreign Key dash underlined (or italic) = B table (many-side) to refer to its
DEPARTMENT(DeptName, Location, Manager) parent table (one-side of relationship)
DEPARTMENT(DeptName, Location, Manager)
EMPLOYEE(EmployeeID, Name, Address, DeptName)
EMPLOYEE(EmployeeID, Name, Address, DeptName)

COMM 335 8
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Example: Relational Database Two Approaches to Relational Database Design

33 34

 Data Normalization
 Designer begins by assuming that everything is initially stored in one large table
 Rules are then followed to decompose that initial table into a set of tables that
are called third normal form (3NF) because they are free of update, insert, and
delete anomalies

 Data Modeling
 Designer uses knowledge of business processes and information needs to
create a diagram (entity-relationship diagram) that shows what to include in
the database
 This diagram is used to create a set of relational tables that are already in 3NF
Invoice Item = Quantity (Sales-Inventory) * Unit Price (Inventory)

Relational Database Design Rules Example: Relational Database Design Rules

35 36

 Following these rules allows databases to be normalized and solves the  Rule 1: Customer table can have only one single value in the State column
update, insert, and delete anomalies  Rule 2: In both Sales and Customer tables, primary key attributes, Sales Invoice #
and Customer # are NOT empty, ensuring entity integrity
1. Every column in a row must be single valued (atomic)
 Rule 3: The foreign key Customer # in Sales table has referential integrity with the
2. The Primary Key cannot be null (empty), also known as entity integrity Customer table (customer must exist before sales)
3. If a Foreign Key is not null, it must have a value that corresponds to the  Rule 4: all other nonkey attributes in Customer table are associated with the
value of a primary key in another table, also known as referential integrity Customer #, such as Customer Name, Street, City, and State

4. All other attributes (non-keys) in the table must describe characteristics of

the object identified by the primary key

COMM 335 9
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Databases: Divide & Conquer Step 1: Identify and Build Database Tables
37 38

 Quick steps to build an accounting database for Cafe Expresso:  Database tables can consists of data about:
 People (Customers)
1. Identify and build database tables
 Things (Inventory Items)
2. Identify and enter fields in each table  Transactions (Sales Orders)

3. Select the primary key for each table

4. Identify and build relationships between tables

Step 2: Identify and Enter Fields in each Table Step 3: Select the Primary Key for each Table
39 40

 Fields for three database tables for Cafe Expresso:  Primary Key is a field that uniquely identifies a record in a table:

Every table must have a primary key!

COMM 335 10
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Step 4: Identify and Build Relationships between Tables Example: Identifying Relationships
41 42

 There are three types of database table relationships: Q: What is the maximum number of orders a customer can place?
 One-to-One Relationship 1:1 A: Many
 One-to-Many Relationship 1:M
 Many-to-Many Relationship M:N Q: What is the maximum number of customers who can place a
specific order?
A: 1

One-to-One Relationships One-to-Many Relationships

43 44

 For each one record in one database table,  For each one record in one database table,
there is one record in the related table there are many records in the related table

1:1 relationship

1:M relationship

COMM 335 11
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Many-to-Many Relationships Many-to-Many Relationships

45 46

 Many-to-many relationships must be removed from a relational database!

 Many-to-many relationships exist
when there may be many records  Associative table, as the intersect between two related tables, is
in one table that relate to many used to remove many-to-many relationships
records in the related table
Associative Table
 Example: M:N relationship
 One sales order can contain
many items
 A specific item can appear on
many sales orders

Associative Tables Database Tables for Recording Sales Transactions

47 48

 The Sales Order Line table (associative table) eliminated the many-to-many
1.Create an associative table at the relationship
Associative
intersection of the many-to-many Table
relationship  The Primary Key (Customer No) of the Customer table is the Foreign Key in
the Sales Order table, connecting the two tables
2.Create two new one-to-many
relationships to connect the Primary Key ? ? ?
associative table
3.Create a Composite Primary Key
for the associative table using 1:M 1:M

the primary keys of the two tables Composite

involved Primary Key
Foreign Key Associative Table

COMM 335 12
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Normalization
50

 Normalization is a process for checking the fields to ensure they

49 Data Normalization are in the right table
 The process of successively decomposing tables with anomalies to
produce smaller, well-structured tables
 Well-structured table contains minimal data redundancy and
allows users to update, insert and delete rows in a table without
causing data inconsistencies

Anomalies Update Anomaly

51 52

 Goal of normalization is to avoid anomalies caused by redundancies EMPLOYEE ASSIGNMENT

 Update Anomaly:
 Changing data in a row forces changes to other rows because of
duplication
 Insertion Anomaly:  ASSIGNMENT table has repeating rows about the project
 Not able to add a row due to missing part(s) of the composite primary key
 Deletion Anomaly:  UPDATE problem: changing the project contact will require updating
multiple rows, this can also lead to inconsistent data
 Deleting rows may cause a loss of data that would be needed for other
future rows

COMM 335 13
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Insertion Anomaly Deletion Anomaly

53 54

EMPLOYEE ASSIGNMENT EMPLOYEE ASSIGNMENT

 ASSIGNMENT table has a composite primary key (emp, project_num)  ASSIGNMENT table contains the information about which employee is
assigned to which project
 INSERTION problem: since primary key fields cannot be null, we cannot add
a new project (project_num) without having employee (emp) assigned to it  DELETION problem: if we remove the row once an employee has finished
the assignment (e.g., Employee 1001 working on Smith&Co project), we will
lose all information about this particular project

Why do These Anomalies Exist? Dealing with Anomalies

55 56

 Database Anomalies are operational problems caused by poor database  General rule of thumb: one table should NOT pertain to more than one
design entity type
 Data redundancy occurs when you replicate the same field in multiple  Solution: Decompose the ASSIGNMENT table and add a second table to
tables, other than to set up foreign keys record information about PROJECTS
 Database includes functional dependencies whose determinants are not
candidate keys, such as partial dependencies and transitive dependencies
EMPLOYEE ASSIGNMENT PROJECT
 This results in data duplication and an unnecessary dependency between
the entities
 possible inconsistent data when repeated information is updated
 problems inserting new records because part of the primary key may be empty
 accidental loss of information as a by-product of a deletion

COMM 335 14
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Normalization Steps Normal Forms

57 58

 Normalization is accomplished in steps, each of which corresponds to a

normal form:
 First Normal Form (1NF)
 Second Normal Form (2NF)
 Third Normal Form (3NF) …
 Normal Form is a structure of a table which requires that certain rules
regarding relationships between attributes (or functional dependencies) are 3rd normal form is generally
satisfied sufficient, although there are
 Functional Dependencies are a way of describing the interdependence of six degrees of normalization
attributes/fields in tables

Source: Hoffer, Topi, Ramesh (2014)

Essentials of Database Management

Functional Dependency Functional Dependency

59 60

 The value of one attribute (the determinant) determines the value  For any relation R, attribute B is functionally dependent on attribute A
of another attribute (the dependent) if, for every valid instance of A, that value of A is uniquely determines
the value of B
 If I know the value for this attribute(s), I can uniquely tell you the value of
some other attribute(s)  R(A,B)

 If I know the value of an employee’s ID number, I can tell you their last name  A  B (B is determined by A = A determines B)
with certainty  A: determinant

 Employee’s ID number functionally determines employee’s last name  B: dependent

 In symbols: empID  last_name  Examples:
 E.g. if I know an employee’s ID is 1001, I can tell you that their last name is Smith
 VIN  Make, Model, Color
 ISBN  Title, Author, Publisher

COMM 335 15
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Functional Dependencies and Keys Example

61 62

 If we know the values of the key fields of a table, we can find a unique row  Movie relation deals with movies and directors
in the table  MOVIE(Title, Year, Genre, Genre-description, Director, Director-home-country)
 Once we have that row, then we know the value of all other non-key fields
 Identify Functional Dependencies
in that row
 Title  Year, Genre, Genre-description, Director, Director-home-country
 empID  last_name, first_name
 Genre  Genre-description
 The key fields functionally determine all other non-key fields in the table  Director  Director-home-country
 Candidate Key is a unique identifier
 Identify the Candidate Key(s)
 One of the Candidate Keys will become the Primary Key
 Title
 Primary Key has no subset of the fields that is also a key

Partial Dependency Transitive Dependency

63 64

 Partial Dependency is a functional dependency within a table whose  Transitive Dependency is a functional dependency between attributes
determinant is part of the primary key but NOT all of it within the same table whose determinant is NOT the primary key or part of
the primary key
 If Members are allowed multiple Activities
 If Members are allowed only one Activity
ACTIVITY(MemberID, Activity, Fee) MemberID Activity Fee
ACTIVITY(MemberID, Activity, Fee) MemberID Activity Fee
Activity  Fee (partial dependency) 121 Ceramics $145 121 Ceramics $145
MemberID  Activity  Fee
Only part of the composite key (MemberID, Activity) 121 Swimming $200 121 Swimming $200
Activity  Free (transitive dependency)
202 Zumba $150 202 Zumba $150
Activity is NOT the primary key (MemberID)
202 Cooking $125 202 Cooking $125
NOTE: Partial Dependency can occur only in tables 199 Zumba $150  Solution: Split data into two tables 199 Zumba $150
with Composite Primary Keys 175 Poetry $100 ACTIVITY(Activity, Fee) 175 Poetry $100
215 Tennis $200 MEMBER(MemberID, Activity) 215 Tennis $200
215 Sculpture $150 215 Sculpture $150

COMM 335 16
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

1NF: First Normal Form 1NF

65 66

 A table is NOT in First Normal Form if it is keeping multiple values for a piece PLANT uses are multivalued
of information UNNORMALIZED

 A table is in first normal form (1NF) if:

 No multivalued attributes (i.e., every attribute has a single value, atomic)
 A primary key is identified uses are now
PLANT PLANT_USE single valued
 All relations are in 1st Normal Form
 Solution: Remove the multivalued information from the table. Create a new
table with that information and the primary key of the original table.

2NF: Second Normal Form 2NF

67 68

 A table is in Second Normal Form if it is in 1NF AND we need ALL the fields in ASSIGNMENT

the key to determine the values of the nonkey fields emp and project_num are
composite primary key
 1NF PLUS every nonkey attribute is fully functionally dependent on the
ENTIRE primary key
 Every nonkey attribute must be defined by the entire primary key,
project_name and contact
not by only part of the primary key depend ONLY on project_num
ASSIGNMENT PROJECT
 No partial dependencies
 Solution: Remove those nonkey fields that are not dependent on the whole
of the primary key. Create another table with these fields and the part of
the primary key on which they do depend.

COMM 335 17
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

3NF: Third Normal Form 3NF

69 70

 A table is in Third Normal Form if it is in 2NF AND no nonkey fields depend EMPLOYEE

on a field(s) that is not the primary key dep_name depends on

nonkey dept_num
 2NF PLUS no transitive dependencies (functional dependencies on non-
primary-key attributes)
 No functional dependency between two (or more) nonkey attributes
 Solution: Remove the nonkey fields that are dependent on a field(s) that is EMPLOYEE DEPARTMENT
not the primary key. Create another table with this field(s) and the field on
which it does depend.

Summary of Normal Forms Data Normalization Example

71 72

 Company that manages building projects

A table is based on  Charges its clients by billing hours spent on each contract
the key,  Hourly billing rate is dependent on employee’s position
the whole key,  Periodically, project report is generated that contains information
and nothing but the key (so help me Codd) displayed in the following table

Source: William Kent, (1983), A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory,
Communications of the ACM 26(2), Feb. 1983, 120-125. Source: Prof Cavusoglu

COMM 335 18
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

Unnormalized Project Table 1NF

73 74

• The existence of sub-table (i.e. EMPLOYEES) within the larger PROJECT table.
• Each record in PROJECT table contains a subsidiary table indicating EMPLOYEES • All attributes are atomic (single value)
who are assigned to that project – but some rows are missing project data! • Selected composite primary key as (Project_Num, Emp_Num)

1NF 2NF: Removed Partial Dependencies

75 76

Created new table

PROJECT

Created new table

ASSIGNMENT(Project_Num, Project_Name, Emp_Num, Emp_Name, Job_Class, Rate, Hours) EMPLOYEE

Project_Num  Project_Name Partial Dependencies

Emp_Num  Emp_Name, Job_Class, Rate
Job_Class  Rate Transitive Dependency
Composite Primary Key
Project_Num, Emp_Num  Hours Full Dependency* consists of Foreign Keys
* For simplicity, only represented for the attribute which
is not part of any partial or transitive dependencies

COMM 335 19
©2021 COMM335 Teaching Team. This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

3NF: Removed Transitive Dependency Accountants and Data Normalization

77 78

Linked to JOB  Update anomalies can generate conflicting and obsolete database values
via Foreign Key
 Insertion anomalies can result in unrecorded transactions and incomplete
audit trails
 Deletion anomalies can cause the loss of accounting records and the
destruction of audit trails

Accountants should understand data normalization and be able

to determine whether a database is properly normalized!

Created new table

JOB

©2021 COMM 335 Teaching Team

79

This content is protected and may not be shared, uploaded, or distributed.

This lecture presentation and the slides that accompany it are the
exclusive copyright of COMM 335 teaching team and may only be
used by students enrolled in COMM 335 course at the University of
British Columbia, Sauder School of Business. Unauthorized or
commercial use of these lectures, including uploading to sites off of
the University of British Columbia servers, is expressly prohibited!

COMM 335 20