DEVBIOL N05A

LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC CONCEPTS, KEY

QUESTIONS, AND ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVBIOL
Gliceria B. Ramos| 1st TERM | A.Y. 2023-2024

OUTLINE FOUNDATIONS
I. A IV. B
II.

INTRODUCTION
● Embryology → Developmental Biology
● Basic and simple: study of embryos
○ Embryo - early stage when the developing
animal does not yet resemble the adult of the
species
● Traditional: descriptive study of structural changes in
embryonic development ONTOGENIC DEVELOPMENT
stages of embryos
COURSE
● Embryology starts with the onset of fertilization

● Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis

○ Generation and maturation of oocytes and
spermatozoa
● Gametogenesis
○ Generation of specialized cells that are
● Contemporary: study of embryonic developmental involved in fertilization - gametes
processes of integrated complex phenomena ● Fertilization ends in:
○ More on processes ○ Birth (mammals)
○ Hatching (avians and reptilians)
○ Metamorphosis (amphibians)
EMBRYOLOGY EVOLVED INTO DEVELOPMENTAL
BIOLOGY ● Development
● More focused on analysis of biological development ○ Ontogenic
○ Simple to complex ■ Development of a new individual
○ Single cell (zygote) → multicellular from fertilized oocyte
embryonic stage (complex) ■ Sexual reproduction
○ Individual cells → specialized cells ○ Phylogenetic
■ Simple to specific in structure and ■ Evolutionary
function ■ Simple to diverse form of life

SIGNIFICANCE OF INCREASING THE KNOWLEDGE

IN EMBRYOLOGY/ANIMAL DEVELOPMENTAL
BIOLOGY MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS
● To understand normal and abnormal development ● Growth
● To understand better the mechanisms of such ○ Generation of cell number
development ● Differentiation
○ Cellular diversity within generation
○ *different cell types
● Morphogenesis
○ Cellular order within generation
○ *general body form of organism specific to
species it belongs to
● Continuity of life

MODES
● Mosaic development
○ Where the fate of a cell depends upon
specific cytoplasmic determinants in the
zygote
○ *asymmetrically distributed to daughter cells
during cleavage division

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 ○ From neurogastrula transitioning to neurula
stage, the body axes of the embryo are
starting to be laid down
■ Gradual formation of the body axes
(anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral,
left, and right axis)
● Morphogenesis
○ Slow blending of body formation into creating
the general body plan of the embryo
■ Characteristics of the species
● Cell differentiation
○ Pattern formation and morphogenesis
happen because of the differentiation in
structure correlated with function of
embryonic cells
○ If a part of the embryo is removed, certain ○ Embryonic cells are already in the
cell types would be lacking in later stage of designated locations of the embryo
development ○ Blending of pattern formation,
○ If a blastomere is isolated, it cannot develop morphogenesis, and differentiation resulting
● Regulative development to growth
the removal of one is ○ Where the fate of a cell depends upon ● Growth
compensated of the other
blastomeres that can still produce
interactions with neighbor cells, not by
a complete normal larvae what piece of cytoplasm it has SCOPE OF EMBRYOLOGY
■ Cell-to-cell interactions involve ● Gametogenesis production of gametes from haploid precursor cells
signaling factors that influence the ○ Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
developmental pathway of the cell ○ Progresses to fertilization
○ Fate of the cell are not limited early ● Fertilization
■ Cells have unlimited potential to ○ When oocyte gets metabolically activated
develop into different or specific cell ○ Fertilized oocyte leads to:
type ● Cleavage
○ Characteristic feature of vertebrates ○ What are the factors influencing the pattern
○ Vertebrates use regulative development in of cleavage? generally determined by the amount of yolk
and its distribution in the egg
combination with mosaic development ○ What is the fuel for the onset of cleavage?
activation of karyokinesis (mitosis) and cytokinesis
○ What controls the series of cell divisions?
protein kinases known as cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
● Blastulation
the zygote becomes a ball of cells with a fluid center
○ Mechanisms of blastulation in animal models
(amphibians, avians, mammalians)
○ Formation of macromeres and blastomeres
● Gastrulation formation of layers: ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
○ What are the developmental guidelines of
gastrulation phase?
● Neurulation
○ Establishment of precursor nervous system
that start organogenesis
○ When a blastomere is isolated early in ○ Gastrulation → neurulation transition: laying
cleavage, it can form a new complete down of embryonic body axes/pattern
individual formation
■ 1 blastomere give rise to a ○ In this stage, organogenesis is already
complete normal larvae taking place
■ Removal of 1 blastomere is ● Organogenesis
compensated by the remaining cells ○ Establishment of body organs
that also give rise to complete ○ Organs are not yet functional
normal larvae or embryo ■ Precursor cells of an organ are
established
COMPARING MOSAIC DEVELOPMENT AND ■ Start out as few cells
REGULATIVE DEVELOPMENT ○ Must increase population by mitotic division
● In a mosaic development, the fate of the cell is ■ Thus, smooth blending of
substances within the marked
and limited early organogenesis and histogenesis
cytoplasm that
determines the ○This mode of development relies primarily on occur
development of cells cytoplasmic determinants that are ● Histogenesis
during early embryonic
stages unequally distributed among embryonic cells ○ “Histo-” means tissues
● In regulative development, the fate of the early ○ Cell multiplication to increase population of
daughter cell is unlimited and give rise to a myriad of cells for a particular organ
types of cells ○ As cells increase in number, they form
○ This development relies primarily on tissues
cell-to-cell interactions involving cell-to-cell ● Differentiation
signals ○ Cells mature and gradually acquire different
specific functions in addition to its basic
predetermined;
functions (which are energy metabolism,
environmental cues and
asymmetric distribution adjust their fate protein synthesis, housekeeping functions)
○ e.g. Ears
■ Composed of different components:
incus, malleus, etc.
■ Smooth blending from
organogenesis to histogenesis
○ Specialization in specific structures and
functions
○ Body plan of the embryo is laid down
● There is a thin line separating the processes between
histogenesis, differentiation, pattern formation, and
morphogenesis
KEY PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT
○ Overlapping processes
● Cleavage division ○ Almost occurring simultaneously
○ Precedes blastula stage → gastrula → ○ All result to fetal growth
neurula ● Fetal Growth
● Pattern formation (body axes formation)

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 FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS ADDRESSED IN
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION
● How does the fertilized egg give rise to an adult? ● How do changes in development create new body
cell division initiating other forms of development
● How does that adult provide yet another body? reproduction forms? And what changes are possible?
genetic mutations; accumulation can result to emergence of entirely new body forms
● Why is the distinction between analogous and
Questions subdivided into general problems of homologous structures important?
Developmental Biology:

PROBLEM OF DIFFERENTIATION Analogous: different

species that have similar
● How does the same genetic information result in function but arise from
different cell types? different cells may express different sets of genes,
even though they contain the same DNA
different ancestors.

● How can the fertilized egg generate different cell Homologous: common
types? evolutionary ancestor but
have different functions
○ All the daughter cells are equal genetically,
have the same genetic component because
of mitotic division
○ What drives differentiation of cell types
changes in gene expression; different
signaling molecules in the
environment

PROBLEM OF ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRATION

● The question of environmental integration
○ Classic example - wing colors of butterfly
being influenced by environment where the
differences have something to do with the
exposure during their caterpillar stage —
exposure to varying temperatures and day
* Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm are Primary Germ
length. The more intense temperature and
Layers from the gastrula stage
longer exposure in day time, the more vivid
wing colors become.
PROBLEM OF MORPHOGENESIS ● How does the organism’s phenotype influenced by the
● How are cells positioned at the right place at the right environment? observable traits
time? genetic instructions/programs; such as migration and adhesion phenotypic plasticity: ability of a single genotype to produce different
phenotypes in response to varying environmental conditions
● How form and pattern emerge from simple beginnings
IMPORTANT BASIC CONCEPTS IN
of a fertilized egg
○ Mechanisms a fertilized egg can have so EMBRYOLOGY/DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
that each body organ is correctly placed ● Concept of Guidelines
● Concept of Fate, Potency, Determination
● Concept of Capacity and competence
● Concept of Embryonic Induction
● Concept of Regulation
● Concept of Inevitability
● Concept of Differentiation
● The Hox Genes transcription factor genes that provide instructions for how an
embryo's body should be organized; ensuring that animals end
up with the right shape and structure

GUIDELINES
● Directive influences on embryonic development
○ Preformed Guidelines
■ Acquired early on even before the
PROBLEM OF GROWTH onset of fertilization
● How cell division and growth are strictly regulated? ■ Present right at the start of
checkpoints by regulatory proteins
○ What regulatory mechanisms are in place so ontogeny
that body parts (e.g. legs and arms) are ■ Maternal genes/maternal effect
proportionate with each other hormones: growth factors (GFs) genes
○ Progressively-formed Guidelines
■ Appear gradually in every step of
ontogeny
■ Zygotic genes - fusion of maternal
and paternal genes that resulted
during nuclear fusion in fertilization
■ Cellular products as the result of
activation of zygotic genes.

they migrate early on from the epiblast to the developing gonads; further PREFORMED GUIDELINES
differentiate to give rise to sperm or egg cells
● Maternal factors - result of the activation of maternal
PROBLEM OF REPRODUCTION
genes/ maternal effect genes and oocyte
● How are reproductive cells separated from the cytoarchitecture.
primary germ layers during embryonic development
● What makes germ cells special?
○ Only germ layers can pass characteristics to
offspring the germ layers differentiate into tissues and
embryonic organs

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 PROGRESSIVELY-FORMED GUIDELINES
● Guidelines that appear gradually in every step of
ontogeny
● Cleavage
○ Pattern is under mother’s control
○ Maternal factors will eventually deplete
■ Leading to the activation of the
zygotic genes
● Blastula
○ Participants of father’s genes, new sets of
genes
○ New protein synthesized
● Gastrula
● Maternal mRNA - maternal factors that are silenced ○ New sets of genes
and waiting for their activation; they are not yet ■ New proteins and signaling factors
actively being translated into proteins. synthesized
● Amphibian and Fish oocyte - they have distinct poles ○ Same can happen for neurula
— animal and vegetal poles.
○ Vegetal pole - have more yolk than animal
pole
● Color-coded maternal factors
○ more of the expression of proteins and
signaling factors. vegetal
○ Proteins - concentrated in animal pole
○ Signaling factors - concentrated in vegetal
pole

MATERNAL EFFECT GENES/ FACTORS IN

AMPHIBIAN AND FISH OOCYTE ● Anterior-Posterior axis is coupled to Gastrulation
● They are not being actively translated ○ Developmental potential and inducing
● Balbiani body membraneless ball of mitochondria properties of cells in the dorsal lip of
○ Occurs at the vegetal pole blastopore (DLB) change with time
○ Also known as mitochondrial cloud ■ Early cells in the DLB → anterior
○ Accumulation of mitochondria and mesoderm → neural tissue
cytoplasmic granules (germ granules) ■ Latter cells of the DLB → posterior
containing silenced mRNAs. → induce posterior neural
○ A vehicle for transporting and localizing structures
maternal factors to the vegetal cortex during
oogenesis by means of microtubule network
and motor proteins (yellow arrow)
○ Fertilization activates egg
■ mRNAs → proteins → for
development
■ Sybu and Wnt8 are translocated
from vegetal pole to the future
dorsal axis (animal pole) through
microtubule-mediated transport

● Opening - blastopore
○ Covered with a yolk plug
● Inducing capacity of DLB
○ Must synthesize signaling factors
○ WnT signal activity: high in posterior, low in
● Maternal mRNAs are organized in cytoplasmic anterior pathway for immune cell maintenance and renewal
granules for their post-transcriptional processing and ○ FGF - fibroblast growth factors produced by macrophages
thus translational regulation. ○ ILGF - interleukin growth factor
○ Are silenced by regulatory proteins ○ BMP - Bone morphogenetic protein
● Regulatory proteins - ready to control for translation of ■ Chordin, noggin, follistatin – gene
mRNAs into proteins by the moment that the oocyte products expressed the DLB
gets activated.
FATE
EGG CYTOARCHITECTURE
● What cells would become
animal pole - proteins concentrate
○ The range of cell types that a particular
embryonic cell can give rise to

vegetal pole - have more yolk; more signaling factors

● Dependent on:
○ Cell asymmetries
● Vertebrates vary in their distribution and concentration ■ Unequal cytoplasmic determinant
of yolk ○ Inductive information
● Yolk has an effect on the cleavage pattern of the ■ Signaling factors
oocyte ○ Morphogens
● Part of the preformed guidelines ■ Chemicals in the developing
○ Are present even before the start of embryo that guide body formation
ontogeny

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 DETERMINATION
● Determination is the gradual commitment of the
embryonic cell to follow a certain developmental
pathway
● Towards the progressive series of development, an
embryonic cell must follow a certain developmental
pathway (this is determination)

*Oct4 - gene required for the maturation of ICM (inner cell

mass) aka embryoblast - contains stem cells giving rise to all other cells through differentiation
*Cdx2 - gene required for the maturation of TE (trophectoderm)
1. Red cells* - divide asymmetrically first cell that emerges during development
○ Express Oct4 at a low level
○ Form the ICM
○ Bigger cells are outside, smaller inside
2. Orange* cells - divide symmetrically
○ Express Oct4 at a high level

POTENCY 1. Path 1: Three primary germ layers are generated

from from the inner cell mass during normal
ability of a single cell to give rise to all differentiated cell types development
○ The primary germ layers: ectoderm,
mesoderm, endoderm (these are generated
from the inner cell mass)
○ The ICM (inner cell mass) is classified as a
pluripotent cell (which means it can give rise
to any cell type of the embryo but not the
extraembryonic membranes); because it is
capable of self renewal, cells from the ICM
(inner cell mass) are embryonic stem cells.
produce several distinct biological responses
2. Path 2: Embryonic stem cells from the inner cell
mass
○ ICM is pluripotent
○ ICM is capable of self-renewal so they are
embryonic stem stem
3. Path 3: Embryonic germ cells from the gonadal
ridge
○ Primordial germs cells are specialized sex
cells; these are the generative cells of the
sex cells
○ PGC are also considered embryonic germ
cells; they are capable of self-renewal
● These three paths can be cultured and manipulated to
generate cells of all three lineages
stem cell that differentiate into all cell types within one particular lineage
● If embryonic stem cells from the primordial germ cells
or the embryonic stem cells from the inner cell mass
are harvested, these are capable of generating the
three embryonic cell lineages (ectoderm, mesoderm
produces only one cell and endoderm)
type; self-renewal

Additional points to remember:

● Totipotent
● Ability of a cell to follow a developmental pathway - they have total potential and can give rise to
● Embryonic Stem cells any cell type of the embryo (be it the inner
○ Unspecialized cells from a fertilized oocyte
○ Can undergo unlimited self-renewal cell mass or the extra embryonic
● Totipotent membranes)
○ Total potential to give rise to any cell type - They have total potential
■ Excised blastomere can become - Examples: the early cleavage cells (2-cell,
any cell type, even a normal 4-cell, 8-cell, 16-cell, etc. — those that come
embryo (regulative mode)
○ At early cleavage first before the formation of the ICM (inner
● Pluripotent cell mass)
○ Inner cell mass (ICM) (e.g. yolk sac, amnion) ● Pluripotent
is pluripotent - it can give rise to any cell type of the
■ Capable of self renewal
embryo, but not the extra embryonic
■ A source of embryonic stem cells
○ Can differentiate → any body tissue membranes
■ Cannot support full development of - It cannot support development of the whole
the entire organism/embryo embryo (the amnion, corion, yolk sac)
● Multipotent - Examples: the cells of the inner cell mass
○ Differentiate → different cell types within
given lineage
○ E.g. hematopoietic stem cells
● Unipotent
○ Fully specialized
○ Can generate its own specific type
○ E.g. gut cells (simple columnar cells of
stomach)
■ Stratum basale of the epidermis
produce new skin cells (only skin)
through active mitosis