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mardhan272

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You are on page 1/ 183

Handbook

for screen printers

Published by:

SEFAR
Printing Division

February 1999
©
Copyright by SEFAR
Foreword

Welcome to this, the first edition of the Sefar Screen Printing

Handbook.
It is intended as a comprehensive, up-to-date reference work for
screen printers. Written by and for screen printers, it aims to cover
all aspects of the screen printing applications.
WE SHARE OUR KNOWLEDGE: This is a cornerstone of the Sefar
Group’s business philosophy. In this book, we offer a comprehensive
body of reference material to screen printers. We have always
considered customer feedback essential to our success as mesh
manufacturers. This handbook is an ideal reference to our screen
printing courses and customer-specific training programs.
We have gathered the knowledge and experience of Sefar’s
application technologists. We would like to thank everyone who
contributed to this book and provided text and illustrations.

Sefar
Printing Division

1. Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.1

1.1 Raw materials 1.1
1.2 Physical mesh properties 1.4
1.3 Elongation characteristics of polyester mesh 1.6
1.4 Geometry of screen printing mesh 1.7
1.5 Colored screen printing mesh 1.16
1.6 Calendered screen printing mesh 1.18
1.7 History and development of screen printing mesh 1.20
1.8 Conveyor belts for textile printing dryers 1.22

2. Screen printing frames 2.1

2.1 Materials used for screen printing frames 2.1
2.2 Sections 2.3
2.3 Frame size 2.5
2.4 Pre-treatment of frames 2.7

3. Stretching 3.1
3.1 Hand stretching 3.1
3.2 Mechanical stretching 3.2
3.3 Pneumatic stretching 3.6
3.4 Stretching at an angle 3.12
3.5 Multiple stretching 3.13
3.6 Correct stretching 3.15
3.7 Recommended tensions 3.17
3.8 Sefar tension measuring instruments 3.21

4. Gluing 4.1
4.1 Preparation 4.1
4.2 Marking stretched frames 4.2
4.3 Adhesives 4.3
4.4 Gluing the mesh to the frame 4.5
4.5 Screen storage 4.6

©
Contents Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
5. Film positive manufacturing 5.1
5.1 Manually made film positives 5.1
5.2 Photographically made film positives 5.1
5.3 CTS (Computer to Screen) 5.2
5.4 Tips for external production of film positives 5.4

6. Stencils 6.1
6.1 Pre-treatment of screen printing mesh 6.1
6.2 Mechanical stencils 6.1
6.3 Photomechanical stencils 6.4
6.4 Direct stencils with emulsion 6.5
6.5 Troubleshooting direct stencils with emulsion 6.6
6.6 Stencils for water-based inks 6.7
6.7 Direct stencils with film and emulsion 6.14
6.8 Direct stencils with film and water 6.15
6.9 Indirect stencils 6.17
6.10 Exposure 6.19
6.11 Step exposures 6.22
6.12 Rinsing 6.25
6.13 Influence of coating thickness on print sharpness 6.25
6.14 Influence of stencil thickness on ink volume 6.26
6.15 Hardening stencils for printing water-based colors 6.28
6.16 Reclaiming 6.29

7. Registration 7.1
7.1 Summary of key recommendations 7.1
7.2 Problems of accurate registration 7.2
7.3 The film positive 7.3
7.4 The stencil 7.4
7.5 The printing substrate 7.14

8. Halftone printing 8.1

8.1 AM halftone (amplitude modulated rastering) 8.1
8.2 FM halftone (frequency-modulated rastering) 8.2
8.3 Types of halftone line rulings 8.4
8.4 Halftone line ruling 8.7
8.5 Tone values of halftone dots 8.10
8.6 Raster printing process line 8.11
8.7 Printing control strip 8.14

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Contents iii
8.8 Types of stencils 8.16
8.9 Limiting of moire effects 8.16
8.10 General recommendations 8.20
8.11 Improved printing stability through achromatic
reproduction 8.23
8.12 Heuristic rastering for textile printing 8.26
8.13 Objectives of heuristic halftone printing 8.31
8.14 Technical considerations 8.32

9. Printing 9.1
9.1 Set up of a flat bed machine 9.2
9.2 The squeegee 9.4
9.3 Flood bar (Doctor blade) 9.10
9.4 Printing speed 9.11
9.5 Object printing 9.12
9.6 Single operation multiple color printing 9.13
9.7 Ink deposit 9.13
9.8 UV inks 9.14
9.9 Printing systems 9.15

10. Measuring instruments 10.1

10.1 Coating thickness 10.1
10.2 Stencil roughness 10.2
10.3 Radiometer (incident radiant energy measurement) 10.3
10.4 Hardness meter (Shore measuring instrument) 10.3
10.5 Viscometer 10.4
10.6 Wet ink film thickness 10.4
10.7 Grindometer for measuring particle size 10.5
10.8 Recording thermometer/hygrometer 10.5

11. Recommended choice of mesh 11.1

©
Contents Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
1. Monofilament screen printing mesh
Standard polyester mesh makes ideal stencil material for screen
printing. Precision weaving techniques, using state-of-the-art
equipment optimized for screen printing applications, results in
excellent mesh quality.
Polyester mesh woven from high-viscosity polyester is a further
development of standard polyester mesh. The material’s reduced
elasticity enhances the already good properties of standard mesh.
These mesh types offer increased process reliability, and significantly
higher tensioning that is retained over large print runs and long
periods of time.
Polyamide mesh (nylon) has exceptional mechanical durability. This
makes polyamide highly suitable for printing abrasive media (ceramic
colors, reflective inks). The mesh’s high elasticity makes it easier to
print uneven surfaces (e.g. shaped objects).
Stencil films and emulsions adhere better to polyamide mesh than
normal polyester mesh.
Note: This book uses the abbreviations PET for polyester, PA for
polyamide.

1.1 Raw materials

Physical properties

The raw materials generally used for screen printing mesh – ”stencil
carriers” according to DIN 16610 – are monofilament chemical
fibers made of synthetic polymers.
The fibers most frequently used are:
– Polyamide, abbreviated to PA 6.6
– Polyester, abbreviated to PET
They both belong to the group of polycondensation or
polymerisation fibers.
The group to which they belong governs the fiber’s physical
properties.

Polyester PET
The main properties of polyester fibers are:
– high resistance to stretching
– good mechanical durability
– good abrasion resistance

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.1
– high resistance to light
– insensitivity to climatic factors
Other properties are listed in the table "Fiber properties” below.

Polyamide PA (Nylon)
Polyamide fibers are excellent in the following respects:
– very good mechanical durability
– high abrasion resistance
– good surface-tension characteristics
– high elasticity
– good dimensional recovery characteristics (100 % following 2 %
elongation)
Other properties are listed in the table ”Fiber properties” below.

Fiber properties
Polyamide PA 6.6 Polyester PET
(nylon) monofilament
monofilament
Specific gravity 1.14 1.38
Tensile strength in
daN/mm2 (dry) 41 - 6 7 45 - 75
Rel. tenacity (wet) % 90 - 95 100
Elongation at break %
- dry 20 - 35 15 - 30
- wet 25 - 4 0 15 - 30
Moisture absorption % at 3.5 - 4 0.4
68°F and 65% rel.
humidity
Melting point °F 477 - 487 464 - 500
Softening point °F 437 - 455 428 - 464
Temperature resistance Colo r change Dry heat up to
°F (approximate limiting from white to 302°F
temperature under dry yellow. The degree Continuous
conditions) of change and exposure
strength reduction
depends on the
temperature and
reaction time.
Resistance to light and Low to average Good to very good
weather
Abrasion resistance Very good Good

1.2 Monofilament screen printing mesh

a) Acids generally Limited —poor good

Sulphuric acid Reduced resistance Unaffected at low
Hydrochloric acid or dissolution, concentrations,
Nitric acid dependent on temperatures and
concentration, reaction times
temperature and
reaction time
Formic acid Soluble Unaffected
Ethanoic acid Good, temperature- Unaffected
dependent
b) Alkalis generally Good, temperature- Limited, poor
dependent
Sodium hydroxide Unaffected at Soluble at higher
Potassium hydroxide normal room temperatures,
temperature, concentrations and
weakening at reaction times
higher
temperatures
c) Solvents generally Good resistance to Good resistance to
common screen common screen
printing solvents printing solvents

Remarks:
Polyamide Sensitive to acids
Fibers are either weakened or destroyed,
depending on concentration, temperature and
reaction time.

Good resistance to alkalis.

Polyester Sensitive to alkalis

Fibers can be weakened to the point of
destruction, depending on concentration,
temperature and reaction time.

Highly resistant to inorganic acids.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.3
1.2 Physical mesh properties
Screen printing mesh with differing properties can be produced from
the same fiber group by modifying the fiber and/or mesh
manufacturing processes.

In any screen printing application, the elongation characteristics of

the screen printing mesh are crucial.
Elongation characteristics govern:
– tensioning procedure
– mesh strength
– mesh stability

Elongation characteristics have a direct influence on usage

characteristics such as:
– register and dimensional precision of the printed image
– snap-off behavior
– conformance with the object to be printed, important when the
substrate has an uneven or irregular surface
– selecting a mesh type appropriate to the requirements of the
printing parameters

Having decided which fiber type to use, printers must then choose
between polyamide or polyester mesh.

Polyamide mesh Nitex

Polymide meshs were the first and most enduring monofilament

chemical fibers to be used in screen printing. Although a relatively
old technology, polyamide meshs still remain viable in certain areas
of today’s screen printing industry, thanks to their desirable
properties:
– good mechanical durability
– good abrasion resistance
– good surface-tension properties
– relatively high elasticity

1.4 Monofilament screen printing mesh

This type of mesh combines the properties of regular polyamide

mesh – good mechanical durability, abrasion resistance, and surface
tension properties – with lower elongation.
The benefits:
Improved snap-off and ink release, with sufficient elasticity to
conform with uneven substrates.

Polyester mesh

The classic stencil substrate for screen and textile printing. Correctly
handled, it can be used in a wide variety of applications.

Property Practical benefits

Low elongation Good

• G ood tensioning
tensioning behavior
behaviour
• Good
Good snap-off
snap-off behavior
behaviour
• Good registration accuracy
High mechanical durability and • Suitable for long print runs
chemical resistance • Good reclaiming and re-use
characteristics
Smooth
Smooth fiber
fibre surface
surface • Very good ink penetration
• Fast ink release ® high
speed printing
• Good reproduction of detail
Resistant to changes in climate • Good dimensional stability
(humidity / temperature) • Rapid drying after cleaning,
coating and developing

Monofilament polyester mesh with reduced elongation, also known

as ”high-modulus mesh”, is distinguished from regular polyester
mesh by its low elongation and mechanical resistance.

Property Practical benefits

Very low elongation • Able to withstand high

tensions
• Good lift-off and ink
release characteristics with
minimal off contact
• Increased registration
accuracy
• Consistent accuracy over
long print runs
• Modest reduction in tension
with use
• Longer production life

1.3 Elongation characteristics of polyester mesh

High-modulus polyester

)
m Standard polyester
/c
N
(
n
io
s
n
e
T

Mesh elongation (%)

Force/Elongation characteristics of screen printing mesh

manufactured by Sefar AG from monofilament synthetic fibers.
The elongation characteristics are vital to the performance of the
stencil system. This is illustrated in the force/elongation diagram
above.
The graph shows the relationship between the tensioning force and
the resulting mesh elongation, including the force and elongation
just before the sample tears. Tensioning tests are an integral part of
SEFAR’s quality control, and are conducted using tension testing
machines under constant controlled conditions.

1.6 Monofilament screen printing mesh

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
1.4 Geometry of screen printing mesh
Mesh geometry describes all two and three-dimensional aspects of
the mesh’s structure.
The basic factors in mesh geometry are mesh count and thread
diameter.
Mesh count is specified as the number of threads per inch
The thread diameter is specified as a nominal value, referring to the
diameter of the unwoven thread.
When selecting mesh for a particular application, mesh geometry is
of greater importance than the elasticity character.
Mesh geometry directly affects:
– printability of fine line and halftone images
– edge definition in the print
– ink release characteristics
– maximum printing speed (in conjunction with ink viscosity)
– thickness of the ink volume
– ink consumption
– ink drying
The following values, listed in technical datasheets, such as
– mesh opening in µm, abbreviated to (w)
– mesh opening in %, abbreviated to (ao)
– mesh thickness in µm, abbreviated to (D)
– theoretical ink volume in cm3/m2, abbreviated to (Vth)
are all derived from the mesh count (Fn) and the thread diameter (d).
The fundamental geometrical unit is the mesh pitch (t).
Pitch (t) is the sum of one mesh opening and thread diameter
(t = w + d). This value is calculated as follows: t = 25,400/Fn.
The flat surface of a mesh is the result of weaving perpendicular
warp and weft threads. A high quality mesh is characterised by
extremely close tolerances for both the overall mesh count (Fn), as
well as mesh counts in the warp and weft directions.
Sefar products guarantee the closest mesh geometry tolerances;
these are published in the technical datasheets.

The terms ”mesh type” or ”mesh specification” are similar

descriptions of the mesh count per inch, together with the thread
diameter.
Example: 305-34 indicates 305 threads per inch, each with a
nominal thread diameter of 34 µm.
The nominal thread diameter refers to the diameter of the unwoven
thread.
”Mesh type” is a relatively new term that replaces the widespread
SL/S/M/T/HD nomenclature.
New nomenclature Old nomenclature

305-31 305 S
305-34 305 T
305-40 305 HD
380-27 380 SL

Mesh type description

W = White
Y = Yellow
CY = spun dyed, yellow
PW = Plain Weave
TW = Twill Weave
UV = One Side Calendered

Example:
Pecap LE 355-34Y PW UV

Calendered
Plain Weave
Yellow
Thread diameter
Mesh-count
Material

1.8 Monofilament screen printing mesh

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
ss
t l e
n a n
u
o
ni cki e
c m
o th m
u
sh n sh
l
e r e vo
Mesh number m g
et ss
M k sh
f n e e f ni e
o i m n l m
n o
e e ai a ck a f
c p d re i ce ci
t o
e n o d a th n e t
v ra a ra r h
a
e
e
l sh re
n
e sh el
o
e
gi
o e h p e h e
W T M T O M oT T W

cm inch +/- n/inch m m % m +/- m cm3 / m2 g / m2

120-31W PW 305-31W PW 1:1 7.6 49 31 35.0 49 3 17.2 26

120-31Y PW 305-31Y PW 1:1 7.6 49 31 35.0 49 3 17.2 26

120-34W PW 305-34W PW 1:1 7.6 45 34 29.6 55 3 16.3 34

120-34Y PW 305-34Y PW 1:1 7.6 45 34 29.6 55 3 16.3 34

120-40W PW 305-40W PW 1:1 7.6 37 40 20.1 65 3 13.0 44

120-40Y PW 305-40Y PW 1:1 7.6 37 40 20.1 65 3 13.0 44

150-27Y PW 380-27Y PW 1:1 10..2 36 27 28.6 41 2 11.7 26

150-31W PW 380-31W PW 1:1 10.2 32 31 23.3 47 2 10.9 32

150-31Y PW 380-31Y PW 1:1 10.2 32 31 23.3 47 2 10.9 32

150-34W PW 380-34W PW 1:1 10.2 23 34 12.1 55 3 6.6 42

150-34Y PW 380-34Y PW 1:1 10.2 23 34 12.1 55 3 6.6 42

150-34W TW 380-34W TW 2:1 10.2 26 34 15.4 62 3 9.6 42

150-34Y TW 380-34Y TW 2:1 10.2 26 34 15.4 62 3 9.6 42

From the Technical data sheet for Pecap LE

The mesh type is specified along with the weave type. This describes
the pattern in which the weft and warp fibers cross over each other,
and is expressed as a weave number.
Screen printing meshs are either plain or twill weave. Plain weave
mesh types are 1:1 weaves.
Various types of twill weaves have differing weave numbers
e.g. 2:1, 2:2 or 3:3.

Plain 1:1 = PW Twill 2:1 = TW

Mesh opening

Mesh opening (w) is the spacing between adjacent warp or weft

threads, and is measured perpendicular to the plane of the mesh.
Mesh opening governs:
– the maximum particle size to be used in a screen printing ink
Mesh opening affects:
– the level of printed detail in line and halftone artwork
– ink release characteristics
– the thickness of the ink volume
Note: For adequate ink penetration, the maximum particle size (p) of
the screen printing ink must be smaller than 1/3 of the mesh
opening.

1.10 Monofilament screen printing mesh

”Resolution” refers to the level of printed detail in line and halftone

artwork that a given mesh is capable of reproducing. It is governed
primarily by the mesh count, and the relationship of thread diameter
to mesh opening.
Examining the relationship of thread diameter to mesh opening (w)
more closely, screen printing mesh fall into the following categories:
a) Mesh opening greater than thread diameter (w > d)
Pecap LE 380-27PW w =36µ
b)Mesh opening comparable to thread diameter (w @ d)
Pecap LE 380-31PW w =32µ
c) Mesh opening less than thread diameter (w < d)
Pecap LE 380-27PW w =23µ
In general, mesh types where the mesh opening is greater than the
thread diameter are capable of higher resolution than mesh types
where the opposite is true.
Next to the relationship of thread diameter to mesh opening, the
thread diameter itself also affects the printable dot/line size.
Secondary factors in the printability of fine line and halftone artwork
are the flow, viscosity, and rheology of the screen printing ink.

Pecap LE 380-27 PW Pecap LE 380-31 PW Pecap LE 380-34 PW

The theoretical resolution capability (Ath) for a given screen printing
mesh can be estimated from the following formula:

Ath = Ã2 * t * d/w
(t = w + d)

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.11
Table: Theoretical resolution (Ath) for a variety of screen printing
mesh types

Mesh type Mesh opening d2 /w Ath

Fn-d1 w in mm mm
255-40 55 0.80 96
280-34 52 0.75 78
280-40 44 1.06 105
305-31 48 0.73 71.6
305-34 43 0.93 84.4
305-40 34 1.44 117.7
355-31 35 1.03 81.6
355-34 28 1.54 100.8
380-27 35 0.91 66.8
380-31 30 1.23 86.3
380-34 25 1.54 119.
420-27 28 1.18 73.7
420-31 23 1.65 103
460-27 23 1.43 85.0

Key:
Ath = Theoretical resolution
Fn = Mesh count
d1 = Nominal thread diameter
d2 = Woven thread diameter
w = Mesh opening

The theoretical resolution value of a mesh should be taken as a

relative guideline for better understanding of geometrical factors on
the relationship between mesh number, thread diameter and mesh
opening.

1.12 Monofilament screen printing mesh

The sum of all the mesh openings over the total area. A mesh with
an ao of 30.5% has an open mesh area of 30.5%, and a closed,
impervious area of 69.5%.
ao % is one of the variables used to calculate the theoretical ink
volume.

Theoretical ink volume Vth cm3/m2

This value is calculated from the open area and mesh thickness. The
volume of the open mesh governs the effective amount of ink that a
screen printing mesh can accept. The calculated effective ink volume
is higher than, but proportional to, the theoretical ink volume.
Under realistic conditions, the degree to which a mesh is filled with
ink depends on the squeegee speed, squeegee blade characteristics
– hardness, angle, and finish – and the consistency of the ink itself.
Given the difficulty of calculating a value based on so many
variables, theoretical ink volume provides a more practical alternative
for determining ink consumption and the thickness of the printed
volume.

Given optimally filled mesh and clean ink release, the thickness of
the wet printing ink deposit can be estimated from the theoretical
ink volume:

Theoretical ink volume cm3/m2 = ao * D

100

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.13
A mesh with a theoretical ink volume of 18 cm3/m2 produces an
estimated printed layer with a thickness (when wet) of 18 µm.
Basic ink consumption (Mf) is then estimated by:

m2/Lt = 1000
Vth

The relative accuracy of the estimated value may be improved by

incorporating factors to compensate for the absorbtion of the
printing stock and the percentage thinning of the screen printing
ink.
Compensation factor S for porosity of the printing stock:
S for highly porous printing stock = 0.5
S for slightly porous printing stock = 0.8
S for non-porous printing stock = 1.0

Compensation factors for ink thinning percentage (V)

V 0% = 1
V 5% = 1.05
V 10% = 1.10
V 15% = 1.15
V 20% = 1.20
etc.
Taking all these factors into account, the approximate ink
consumption (Mf) can be derived from the screen printing mesh’s
theoretical ink volume using the following formula:

M2/Lt = (theoretical coverage) * S * V

= 1000
Vth * S * V

1.14 Monofilament screen printing mesh

n / cm

d / µm

t / µm

w / µm

m
µ
/
k
F
D / µm

d / µm Fs / µm

Key:
D = Mesh thickness
d = Thread diameter
Fk = Warp threads
Fs = Weft threads
n = Mesh count
t = Pitch = w + d
w = Mesh opening

By exposing a direct stencil to light, the illuminated areas become

hardened. Light rays striking the white fibers of the mesh are
reflected, and scatter under the black edges of the film.
Light is also conducted through the fibers themselves, leading to yet
more under cutting.
The results are unsharp printed edges, causing color shifts in
multicolor halftone artwork. There is a reduction of the open
printing areas, particularly in fine detail work. To keep this
phenominon under control, it is necessary to calculate exposure
times leading to proper exposure.

White mesh
Emulsions and films are sensitive in the UV range, from
approximately 350 to 420 nanometers. To be effective, light scatter
protection must absorb UV light over this wavelength range. The
obvious choice in achieving this is to use the complementary color,
which by definition absorbs the desired wavelengths. Absorption
tests show that the most effective absorber in the 350 – 420
nanometer range is a warm yellow color.
When UV light strikes a yellow fiber, only yellow light is reflected –
and this has no effect on the emulsion. This is why it is advisable to
work with emulsion in yellow light. Emulsions are sensitive only to
blue UV light. The results are pin-sharp edges, and open details.
Also, because light scatter is no longer an issue, it is now possible to
give exposure times that thoroughly harden the emulsion. In general,
exposure times on dyed SEFAR mesh are 75% – 125% longer than
on their plain white counterparts due to less light scatter of blue UV
light; this results in tougher, more durable stencils. Generous
overexposure latitude reduces the risk of underexposure.

1.16 Monofilament screen printing mesh

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Dyed mesh
Dyed mesh should always be chosen for printing the finest lines, text
and halftones when maximizing stencil durability.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.17
1.6 Calendered screen printing mesh Pecap UV
Screen printing inks contain solvents that evaporate during the
drying process, thus reducing the thickness of the ink volume.
UV-cured ink, by contrast, contains very little or no solvents. This
means that curing does not significantly reduce the thickness of the
ink volume.
The high ink film left by UV-cured inks often produces problems:
- UV light does not adequately penetrate a thick ink layer, especially
when it is heavily loaded with pigment. The ink is incompletely
cured as a result.
- Multicolor halftone printing:
If the first two colors are too thickly layered, there is barely space
for the third and fourth colors between or on top of the points
left by the first two. This results in color shifts, smeared print, and
moiré effects.
Recent years have seen major progress in weaving technology. This
makes it feasible to produce even the finest meshs in a 1:1 weave.
The resulting trend is towards increased use of finer, uncalendered
meshs that offers increased printing resolution and better ink control
characteristics. For this reason, the range of calendered mesh types
have been reduced.

The current range still includes the following mesh numbers,

available with a maximum width of 81 inches:

Pecap LE 7 - 355-34Y PW UV
Pecap LE 7 - 380-31Y PW UV
Pecap LE 7 - 380-34Y PW UV
Pecap LE 7 - 420-31Y PW UV
Pecap LE 7 - 420-34Y TW UV
Pecap LE 7 - 460-31Y TW UV

These mesh types are suitable for printing with UV inks and lacquers.
Pecap LE UV is calendered on one side of the mesh.
The calendered side is shiny, the other side is dull.

1.18 Monofilament screen printing mesh

1.By stretching the mesh with the shiny surface facing the
squeegee, UV mesh reduces the ink deposit by around
10 – 15% compared to uncalendered mesh.

2.If the shiny surface is stretched facing the substrate, the ink
deposit is reduced by around 15 – 25%.

The degree of ink volume reduction depends on a variety of

additional factors in the printing process, particularly the ink’s
rheological characteristics, which vary depending on the color. It is
therefore impossible to give exact figures.

Mesh cross-sections: Comparative ink deposit:

Regular mesh 100%

Calendered side = squeegee side (RK) approx. 10–15% reduction

Calendered side = substrate side (DK) approx. 15–25% reduction

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.19
1.7 History and development of screen printing mesh
Several hundred years separate the first stencils made from human
hair, and contemporary high-precision screen printing materials
based on modified synthetic fibers. Despite this, screen printing is a
relatively new printing technique, the first documented appearance
being a patent submission from 1907 in which Samuel Simons
recommended silk gauze (used to sieve flour) as a stencil material.
Shortly thereafter, silk weavers began manufacturing plain weave
mesh especially for screen printers, allowing finer printing and
improved ink control.
The rise of synthetic fibers not only improved screen printing quality,
it also increased the range of potential applications. Serigraphy,
originally used by artists, became an industrial printing technique.
Research and development in the weaving industry produced
continual advances: meshs with up to 508 threads per inch, widths
up to 143 inches, and extraordinarily high tensioning capability,
opened radically new vistas for screen printing in all branches of
industrial manufacturing.
The silk gauze recommended by Samuel Simons was woven from
selected multifilament silk yarn. To prevent threads from sliding and
blocking the mesh as the flour was sieved, a special technique called
twill weaving was used:

Silk gauze, multifilament

The first mesh specially developed for screen printing was also made
from multifilament silk yarn, but plain woven. The mesh count could
thus be increased to 230 threads per inches.
The first synthetic yarns were likewise multifilament, plain woven,
but considerably easier to stretch than silk. Furthermore, they were
insensitive to water and resistant to chemical attack. These
properties represented a breakthrough, because they allowed screen
printing technology to be used with every imaginable ink system and
printing stock.

1.20 Monofilament screen printing mesh

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
The spinning industry’s success in manufacturing monofilament yarns
opened the way for a further step in screen printing development.
Monofilament yarns can be manufactured in considerably thinner
and more consistent diameters than their multifilament counterparts.
Thus, mesh with up to 508 threads per inch could be manufactured,
with no loss of mesh opening compared to multifillament mesh. This
opened up entire new markets to screen printing, with applications
in electronics, ceramics, packaging, CD labels, etc.
Despite satisfying growth in the screen printing industry, research
and development continues apace. New materials are being tested,
along with varied mesh treatments and novel weaving techniques.
The screen printing industry can continue to look forward to new
generations of screen printing meshes, able to keep pace with
increasing demands and expectations.

d
c
b
a

Conveyor belt:
a = Printer table
b = Printed stock
c = Conveyor
d = Dryer

PET 1000 HD PET Mono-Multi

PET Mono-Multi PLUS PET Soft

1.22 Monofilament screen printing mesh

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Conveyor belts made of strong polyester monofilament, for example
PET 1000–HD, have the following advantages:
Air-current pervious – fresh air reaches all sides of the conveyed
goods. The benefits:
– lower drying temperatures are possible
– higher running speeds are possible
– energy savings
– permissible temperatures up to 300 ºF
– no squeezing of the conveyed goods
– anti-static treatment possible
– good running characteristics
– minimal soiling, easy to clean.
Belts are available with a variety of closures (mainly of the snap
variety), or stitched together as an endless belt.
Belts are supplied with either a woven or welded edge trim. Both
variants can be hemmed with reinforcing tape to protect against
fraying.
For temperatures above 300 ºF we recommend conveyor belts made
of PTFE coated glass fiber.
Textile endless belts are subject to a certain degree of stretching and
elasticity. They should therefore be tensioned over compensation
rollers.
Please address questions and queries to:
SEFAR AMERICA INC.
Filtration Division
111 Calumet Street
Depew, NY 14043
Tel. 716 683-4050
Fax 716 683-4053

Internet: http://www.sefaramerica.com

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Monofilament screen printing mesh 1.23
1.24 Monofilament screen printing mesh
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
2. Screen printing frames

A screen printing frame is constructed and designed to hold a tightly

stretched piece of mesh. Screen printing frames should be as
resistant as possible to mechanical deformation, both during stencil-
making and during the printing process. The surface should also be
resistant to chemicals used in stencil-making, printing inks, solvents
and cleaning materials.
Metal frame sections must be welded to lie perfectly flat, and
straightened where necessary. Warped frame sections are a
considerable nuisance when printing, and lead to registration errors.

2.1 Materials used for screen printing frames

Wooden frames

Wooden frames are easily handled, especially the small wooden

frames for container printing. They should not be used, however, for
precision register prints. Wood swells and shrinks, often within a few
hours, due to fluctuating humidity and temperature. Wooden frames
have a shorter life than metal frames; they warp in the course of
time and no longer lie flat.
Painting the wood with a two-component lacquer protects it from
water and solvents.

Metal frames

Metal screen printing frames are typically constructed from hollow

sections. Aluminum and steel are the metals most commonly used
to make screen printing frames.

Aluminum is 2.9 times more flexible than steel of similar cross-

section. To give aluminium comparable strength, the cross-sectional
area must be enlarged, the section walls thickened, or an alternative
section profile chosen.

Aluminum’s specific gravity (approximately 2.7) means that even very

large frames may easily be handled. However, larger frames must be
designed with increased cross-sectional area and reinforced walls.
Aluminum frames do not rust, but are less resistant to alkalis and
acids.
Advantages:
– can be used to stretch all kinds of mesh
– light weight
– wide choice of cross sections
– low-cost
– good corrosion resistance
– easily cleaned

Disadvantages:
– less robust than steel

Steel frames

Given the good rigidity of steel frames, the cross-section can be

smaller than a comparable aluminum frame. A major disadvantage,
especially with large frames, is their associated weight (specific
gravity of steel approximately 7.8).
Regular steel frames tend to rust, and require appropriate treatment
(galvanising or painting).
Advantage:
– low-cost

Disadvantages:
– susceptible to corrosion
– heavy
– require repainting before re-use (depending on adhesive).

2.2 Screen printing frames

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
2.2 Sections
Next to the material used, the type of section and the wall thickness
are decisive factors influencing the dimensional stability of screen
printing frames.
We distinguish between rectangular and special sections. All values
are inches.

Rectangular sections

.5 0.125
1

1.5

7
5. 0.118
1

2.36
Sections with 4 identical wall
thicknesses

Special sections
7
6
0.
0

7 0.11
5.
1

1.57

8
9
0.
0

7
5.
0.118
1

2.36

5
2
1.
0

.5 0.312
1

4.0
Sections with reinforced vertical
walls

6 0.
1. 0 0.18 2 0.12
1.
0
0

2.6 3.9

Section with sloping inner edge Section with inner support

8
0.
0

0.16 4.
1 .08
0.
2

3.1 1.5

Section with concave edge Section with concave edge,

tapered to the outside
(for textile printing)

.0
1 6 6
.1 1.
0 1.0
0
1.0

Special-purpose L-section Flat steel strip for CD frames

(e.g. for object printing)

2.4 Screen printing frames

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Fame Profile Dimensions Up To 25N/cm 25N/cm +
Outside Wall Maximum Frame Size Maximum Frame Size
Model
Dimensions Thickness Length (a) Max (a+b) Length (a) Max (a+b)

#79 .79" x .79" .079" 12" 21" 9" 15"

#118 1.18" x .79" .079" 18" 32" 12" 20"

#118/157* 1 .18"1.57"x 1.18" .063" x .118" 24" 43" 21" 39"

.0625" 21" 39" 18" 32"

#150 1.50" x 1.50"

.125"* 31" 57" 27" 49"

#157* 1.57" x 1.57" .067" x .110" 27" 51" 24" 45"

#236* 2.36" x 1.57" .098" x .118" 45" 85" 31" 55"

#300*† 3.00" x 1.50" .125" 60" 113" 45" 83"

#400*† 4.00" x 1.50" .125" 105" 198" 60" 108"

#400 HD*† 4.00" x 1.50" .125" x .312" 125" 233" 105" 193"

b
* Welded and pressed inserts available upon request
† Frame profiles with 3 and 4” widths require special construction.
Allow more than 72 hours for order shipment. a

2.3 Frame size

The choice of frame size depends on the desired printable area and
the type of printing. There should always be an adequate zone
reserved outside the printable area, for use as an ink well.
In machine printing, the squeegee motion is usually in the direction of
the frame width; in other words, contrary to the usual practice in
hand printing. The horizontal and, in particular, the vertical distances
between the frame and printable area (the ink rest) has to be
determined for every type of machine. Too small of an ink well can
lead to registration difficulties and poor print quality. *The image size,
frame size, and the size of equipment must all be compatible and
should be determined through individual trials.
In textile printing, the size of the printable area and the frame must
be adapted to the squeegee system, and set up in accordance with
the machine manufacturer’s instructions.
In contrast to graphic screen printing, textile printing is generally done
in ”contact”, i.e. there is no physical separation between the stencil
and the printing stock. (See the chapter on printing.)

B B
D C A

A B/B1 C/C1 Aluminum

Aluminum sections
sections and with various
Free mesh Frame outside wall wall
Printable area side/top dimensions thickness thicknesses
in inches in inches in inches in inches in inches
8.5 x 11 6.0 / 6.0 15.25 x 18.75 1.50 x 1.50 1.57 / 1.57
11 x 17 6.0 / 6.0 18.75 x 27.25 .0625 - .125 .067 x .110
17 x 22 6.0 / 6.0 28.3 x 31.5
24 x 36 6.5 / 6.5 40.0 x 56.25 1.57 x 2.36
34 x 44 7.25 / 7.25 53.25 x 67.5 .098 x .118

47 x 63 7.75 / 7.75 63 x 79 1.57 x 2.36

.098 x .118
55 x 71 8.5 / 8.5 71 x 87 3.0 x 1.5
0.125
63 x 83 9.8 / 9.8 81 x 101 4.0 x 1.5 4.0 x 1.5
0.125 .125 x .312

Warning: In textile printing applications, follow only the machine

manufacturer’s instructions. In the case of extreme
rectangular dimensions, consult the frame manufacturer
for information.

2.6 Screen printing frames

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
2.4 Pre-treatment of frames
Screen printing frames should not have any sharp edges or pointed corners, since these can
damage the mesh, which might tear when tightly stretched.

Sandblasted frames

Screen printing frames that have been sandblasted must be

thoroughly degreased with a solvent (acetone) immediately prior to
use. Greasy cleaning agents must not be used. After degreasing,
frames that will be used with fine mesh (UV mesh and others with
mesh counts of 255 or more) should be primed using the same
adhesive that will later be used for gluing.

Metal frames that have not been sandblasted

Metal frames with a smooth surface must be roughened prior to

use.

Roughening

The recommended way to roughen adhesive surfaces, as well as

remove stray glue from used frames, is to use a rotary grinder with
an abrasive paper or fiber disc fitted to a rubber backing. The discs
themselves should be around a 24 or 36 grit.
When working on the frame, it is essential to keep the frame surface
truly flat and level, otherwise there could be contact and gluing
problems later.

Rotary grinder with integrated Frame surface after grinding

dust extractor

Grunig G-320 frame stripper

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Screen printing frames 2.7
Belt sander, no. 24–36 grit. This Frame surface after belt
technique gives a flatter frame. sanding. Because the grooves
run parallel to the frame,
solvents cannot penetrate
between the frame and the
mesh.

Ensure that all edges and corners have been de-burred.

Shortly before gluing, frames must be thoroughly degreased with a
solvent (acetone). Greasy cleaning agents must not be used. After
degreasing, frames that will be used with fine mesh (UV mesh and
others with a mesh count of 255 or more) should be primed using
the same adhesive that will later be used for gluing.

Sefar America SBM-400 CD

frame stripper.

2.8 Screen printing frames

Frames that have been used previously must be stripped of leftover

mesh, ink and glue. The edges must be rounded, to avoid the risk of
tearing the mesh. Old glue may be left on the frame surfaces,
providing it is even (no holes or bumps) and the layer is not too
thick.

Poor frame edge must be rounded-off

Frame after rounding-off the glue edges

Frames prepared in this way are now ready for gluing.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Screen printing frames 2.9
2.10 Screen printing frames
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Screen printing frames 2.11
3. Stretching

Stretching systems

There are three basic approaches to stretching mesh, offering various

degrees of precision.
– Hand stretching
– Mechanical stretching
– Pneumatic stretching

3.1 Hand stretching

The traditional method of stretching mesh on wooden frames by
hand (aided by stretching grippers and staples) is still used by some
screen printers.
It is essential that the mesh is also glued to the frame.
This technique does not give uniform, tightly stretched mesh.
Warning: staples tend to tear the mesh.

Hand stretching

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stretching 3.1
Mechanical stretching
A mechanical stretching apparatus produces tensioning forces in the
warp and weft directions. Depending on the equipment dimensions,
several frames can be stretched at once. Also angled positioning of
frames is possible. The ability to stretch several frames at once
increases productivity. However, mechanical apparatus is unable to
pre-stress the frames. This can be achieved using separate
equipment.
Mechanical stretching apparatus may be classified into two groups:
– Self-tensioning frames
– Spindle tensioning machines

-tensioning frames

Roller frame
Mesh is clamped in the frame. Stretching is done by rotating or
adjusting the frame sides.
Self-tensioning frames have the advantage that the mesh does not
need to be glued to the frame.

Caution: Excessive mesh tension with improper mesh loading will

increuse the risk of tearing at the corners.

Spindle tensioning is another mechanical approach. The machine

consists of a sub-frame supporting four guide-rails, which in turn
carry pin rails or carriage clamps that grip the mesh. The grippers
are moved by means of a threaded shaft, which is turned either
by a hand-wheel, a ratchet, a torque wrench, or an electric
motor. Tensioning is achieved by increasing the distance from the
guide rails.

Grunig G-210 stretching machine

During the stretching process, the screen printing frame rests on a

height-adjustable holder, to avoid contact with the mesh. The frame
is raised into the mesh during gluing.
When gluing at an angle, the printing frame is set on the holder at
the desired angle, while the mesh is stretched at right angles in the
normal way.

In this type of machine, the mesh is hung over rigid pin rails
attached to the stretching battens.

Pin rails are dangerous, particularly with fine-mesh counts. These

require particularly careful handling to reduce the risk of tearing.
In stretching machines with rigid, laterally fixed stretching battens,
the corners of the mesh must be handled with special care to avoid
over-stretching. Over-strained corners often cause torn mesh during
and after stretching.

To reduce the possibility of this happening, the corners must be free

and then gradually pinned, so they have the correct tension after
stretching is complete.

This type of machine replaces pin rails with movable clamps. They
run on ball bearings and can follow the mesh as it stretches. This
accommodates length changes during stretching.

Grunig G - 201 Clamp

Grunig G - 210 Stretching machine

Semi-automatic mechanical stretching machines provide

continuously variable tensioning by mechanical means alone. Force is
applied by means of an electromechanical drive mechanism that
pulls the stock clamps outwards on both guide-rails at once, or each
one in turn.
These machines are suited to large-size frames, or for covering
several smaller frames at once.

Grunig G - 280 Semi - automatic mechanical stretching machine

Pneumatic stretching
Pneumatic stretching machines consist of many individual stretching
clamps, linked together and acting independently. The clamps are
operated by compressed air, and the number of clamps used
depends on the frame size.

Sefar - 3 Tabletop pneumatic stretching system.

©
Stretching Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
The clamps are constructed in such a way that they prop themselves
against the printing frame during stretching. The tension applied to
the mesh also comes to bear on the frame edges. The frame is thus
automatically given the necessary pre-bow to avoid excessive loss of
mesh tension after gluing.
Since the clamps are held under steady pre-set air pressure, mesh
tension remains constant right up to the time of gluing.

SEFAR 3

The SEFAR 3 stretching clamp is pneumatically operated, with a

manual closure.
The mesh is clamped between two dissimilar rubber profiles
(round/flat) to prevent slippage. The jaw clamping force may be set
using a torque wrench.
The clamp is designed to be equally suitable for fine or coarse
meshes, and low to extremely high tensions.

SEFAR 3 stretching clamps are available in jaw widths of 6” (150

mm.) and 10” (250 mm.) Both types can be used simultaneously,
one beside the other, since the pulling strength of both clamps is
proportionately the same. Therefore, the clamps can be arranged to
suit any frame size.

Sefar 3 clamps with 6”(150 mm) and 10”(250 mm) jaw widths

Pneumatic unit with distributor mounted on table

AR 4

SEFAR 4 stretching clamps feature a progressive jaw action that

applies a steadily increasing clamping force. The force grows in
proportion to the mesh tension, preventing slippage. The
combination of constantly adjusted clamping force and plastic jaw
inserts allows higher tensions than can be achieved with
conventional clamping systems.

©
Stretching Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
SEFAR 4 clamps are elevated by a short-throw cylinder during the
stretching process. This avoids undesired rubbing of the mesh
against the frame.
The clamps are propped against the frame, flexing it in proportion to
the applied tension. This ensures consistent tension even after the
mesh is glued to the frame.

SEFAR 4 stretching clamps feature automatic closing and locking, as

well as retracting and opening automatically after stretching is
complete. The progressive clamping force means that the clamps
may easily be opened and closed by hand.
SEFAR 4 stretching clamps are available in jaw widths of 6” (150
mm.) and 10” (250 mm.) Both types can be used simultaneously,
one beside the other. Therefore, the clamps can be arranged to suit
any frame size.

Pneumatic circuits

There are two ways to arrange the air supply for pneumatic
stretching machines: the single-circuit system, and the dual-circuit
system. They provide complementary alternatives for optimum, even
tensioning of the mesh over any frame size.

The single-circuit system is recommended for frames with sides

under approximately. 60” long.

With the single-circuit system, clamp positioning must correspond

with the inside edge of the frame.
The single-circuit system uses a single control box, with two air
outlets. One is connected directly to the first clamp, the other to the
clamp diagonally opposite, in order to supply compressed air to both
sets of clamps. They are also linked by a pneumatic coupling in the
other diagonal corner.

0 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Dual-circuit system

Dual-circuit systems allow for optimal tensioning conditions. With

a dual circuit system, the warp and weft mesh directions may be
independently adjusted to achieve even tensions over the entire
surface of the frame.

Dual-circuit systems provide even tensions for large format

rectangular frames (60 inches and larger).The clamps on both short
sides of the frame must be positioned so that the clamp ends
overhang by one frame section width. The clamps on each of the
long sides must be spaced approximately 1.5-2.5 inches away from
the outside edge of the frame.
The dual-circuit system uses two independent control boxes. One
supplies the short side (warp), the other supplies the long side
(weft). This allows pre-tensioning the warp to half its final value,
before clamping the weft and likewise pre-tensioning to half the
final value. Both circuits can now be adjusted in tandem to attain
the final desired tension. This technique improves the evenness of
the mesh tension.

3.4

The Grunig G-215 pneumatic stretching unit utilizes a dual-circuit

air system

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stretching 3.11
Stretching at an angle
Lines running parallel to the screen frame can be accurately printed
when the mesh is stretched at an angle. It is important that the
mesh and the lines to be printed are not parallel to each other.

Mesh stretched parallel to the frame.

Mesh stretched at a 15° angle.

tching methods

With mechanical stretching, the printing frame is placed in the

stretching machine at the desired angle.
With pneumatic stretching, two techniques may be used.
The mesh is cut at the desired angle and placed straight into the
stretching clamps. Stretching difficulties arise when the mesh angle
is greater than 15°, because the mesh is not stretched in the
direction of the threads. This method is only recommended when
the use of a master frame is not practical
There are fewer problems when using a master frame. This is placed
into the stretching apparatus, and the screen frame can now be
positioned at the desired angle. The mesh is stretched straight in the
direction of the threads. There is a loss of tension if the frames are
too weak, because the clamps are propped against the support or
master frame, and not against the stencil frame.

2 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Aluminium profiles should be at least 3.1/1.6/.24 inches for lengths
up to approximately 6.5 feet. In order to quickly adjust the profile to
various formats, bore holes at 1.25 “ intervals along the profile.

4 adjustable prop profiles transfer the tensioning force to the

tensioning frame. This reduces the loss in mesh tension.

3.5 Multiple stretching

Several frames may be tensioned at once, using a master frame and
one stretching machine.
Master frames are especially useful for covering small stencil frames.
The master frame is tensioned, the small stencil frames are placed on
a foam rubber underlay, and the master frame is placed over them.
Small weights can be positioned on top, to improve contact
between the mesh and the frame.

A wooden or metal plate can be placed in the stretching apparatus.

Several identical or different sized frames can be positioned straight,
or at an angle.
It is essential to position weights on the mesh between the individual
frames, to ensure optimal contact with all the frame edges.

4 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
3.6 Correct stretching
After stretching, the screen printing mesh is mounted onto the
frame. The permissible tension depends on the tearing strength of
the particular mesh. The resistance to stretching of a particular mesh
is an important factor in ensuring correct registration, and in
determining the proper distance between the screen and the
substrate.
Tension is measured in Newtons per cm (1 N = 0.102 kp) with
mechanical or electronic equipment placed on the mesh.
See also the section ”Checking mesh tension”.
Optimum tensioning force varies with different mesh types.
The optimum stretching force to be applied in psi of selvedge
depends, as previously mentioned, on the tearing strength and
stretching resistance of the particular mesh.
The tearing strength and stretching resistance of modern synthetic
yarns depends on the material and manufacturing process used.
Polyester and polyamide (nylon) have very similar tearing strengths,
but considerably different stretching characteristics. Polyester is more
stretch-resistant than polyamide, and high-viscosity polyester is more
stretch-resistant than standard polyester.
Apart from this difference between the tearing strength and the
stretching resistance of different yarn materials, for one and the
same material it may be stated, in principle, that both these values
will be roughly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the yarn.
The cross-sectional area of a round yarn thread is obtained by the
familiar expression ( π)r2, (i.e. 3.14 x square of the radius or .785 x
diameter squared). This means that a round thread A that has
double the diameter of another thread B of the same yarn material
will be about four times as strong in tearing and stretching. With
increasing thread diameter, therefore, the strength values increase
according to their squares.
Stencil meshes are made in different degrees of fineness (counts).
The count represents the number of threads per linear inch.
In general, the higher the number, the finer the threads. Coarse
mesh with relatively thick threads can be tensioned to higher tension
than fine mesh, even though they stretch less.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stretching 3.15
195-48 PW 305-40 PW
Moreover, in the same weave counts (same number of threads per
linear inch), mesh can be woven from combinations of thinner and
thicker yarns.

305- 31 PW 305- 34 PW 305- 40 PW

Considering the different mesh grades with the same number, i.e.
the same mesh count, it is obvious that the grade with the thicker
yarn is stronger than the grades with the thinner yarns. This should
be taken into account when stretching on printing frames.

6 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Mesh count with threads of differing thickness used to be specified
as:
SL = thinnest thread
S = thin thread
M = medium thread
T = thick thread
HD = thickest thread
Now, these symbolic terms have been replaced by the nominal
thread diameter. Nominal thread diameter refers to the diameter of
the unwoven fiber.
Mesh count Thread diameter Former identification

305 31 S
305 34 T
305 40 HD
The complete mesh identification is comprised of:
Mesh type + mesh count + thread diameter + color + weave type.
As yet, there are no standardized symbols for special treatments;
mesh manufacturers use their own abbreviations.
Example: Pecap LE 305-34Y PW

3.7 Recommended tensions

The recommended tensions refer to target values for the mesh in the
tensioning apparatus, before it is attached to the printing frame.
These are reliably attainable using correct tensioning methods and
well-maintained tension measuring equipment. Higher than
recommended tensions increase the risk of tearing during handling
and printing. Lower tensions may be necessary for specific
applications (hand printing, printing solid objects).

The tensions listed in the table refer to measurements made using

the SEFAR Newtontester or TETKOMAT.
Preconditions:
– tensioning system with pre-stressed frame
– SEFAR-3/4 stretching clamps or other devices capable of providing
uniform tension
– slip-proof mesh clamping system
– stable frame

Applicability
The specified tensions are valid for frame edge lengths up to approx.
40 inches.
For larger sizes, the specified tensions should be reduced by
15–20% for edge lengths up to approximately 78 inches, and
20–25% for edge lengths up to approx. 118 inches

8 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Standard tensioning procedures

The mesh can be brought to the desired tension within 1 to 3

minutes. Before fastening the mesh to the frame, wait 10 minutes
and again increase the tension to its final value. Repeating this
procedure several times will reduce future loss of tension.
With modern pneumatic equipment or SEFAR clamps, tensioning
time may be reduced to an absolute minimum.
(1 minute)

N/cm

Time →

Rapid tensioning procedure

Within 1 to 3 minutes, the mesh can be brought to a tension some

15% higher than desired, then attached to the printing frame
without delay (no relaxation phase).

N/cm

Time →

Loss of tension

When tensioning procedures are correctly followed, there is a loss of

tension of 15–20% with standard mesh, and 10–12.5% with Pecap
LE. These values do not take the printing frame characteristics into
account. Loss of tension can be reduced by longer relaxation phases.

The following points should be investigated if loss of tension is

problematic:
– weak frame sections
– mesh incorrectly inserted in the stretching clamps
– stretching clamps pull unevenly: one side of the frame is laying too
high
– large temperature changes
– insufficient waiting time before gluing

Extreme climatic or mechanical influences can also affect the mesh

tension.
Because the mesh must have a certain degree of elasticity during the
printing process, undue demands should not be made on the
tension. Differences of 1–2 N/cm are permissible. Multi-color
graphics printing experience has shown that good registration is
achieved at mesh tensions above 12 N/cm. It is important that all
the frames used are tensioned similarly.

asuring tension

There is a relationship between the applied stretching force and the

resulting elongation of the mesh. The relationship (cause and effect)
is, however, not constant for different types of stretching equipment
and mesh.
We recommend using a commercial measuring instrument, e.g. the
SEFAR Newtontester or TETKOMAT, for determining mesh tension.
If specialized measuring equipment is unavailable, mesh tension can
be roughly checked by monitoring elongation during tensioning.
Elongation in percent at 15–20 N/cm:
Mesh count Polyester mesh Polyamide mesh
25 - 54 1 - 1.5 % 2- 3%
54 - 130 1.5 - 2 % 3- 4%
130 - 255 2 - 2.5 % 4- 5%
255 - 480 2.5 - 3 % 5- 6%

0 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
3.8 Sefar tension measuring instruments

Newtontester

Screen printing quality largely depends on perfectly controlled screen

tension. The Sefar Newtontester instantly measures the screen
tension in Newton/cm and displays it on a large, highly legible dial.
Sturdy and precise construction guarantees consistent, reliable and
exact screen tension reading. Tension values from 5–60 Newton/cm
can be checked.

Instructions for use

Calibration
The accuracy of measurement and the indicator dial should be
checked periodically. The Sefar Newtontester is placed on the glass
plate delivered with the instrument for this purpose:
– The needle of the dial must be precisely in the 12 o’clock position.
Any deviation can be corrected by turning the hexagonal set screw
at the bottom of the tester. The appropriate Allen wrench is
packed with the instrument.
– The calibration point on the dial should be made to exactly
coincide with the indicator needle by turning the outside ring of
the dial.
The Sefar-Newtontester is now ready for use.
Measuring
Place the Sefar-Newtontester onto the mesh and read the tension.

5
(There are two points of contact)
TETKOMAT characteristics
The TETKOMAT is suitable for all screen printing mesh. It is a purely
mechanical instrument, needing no battery or other electrical supply.
The Tetkomat allows reliable and simple checking of mesh tension in
warp and weft directions at any time. This makes it possible to
produce uniformly tensioned, reproducible stencil sets.
Measuring mesh tension
Before starting to use the Tetkomat, check that the display is correct,
i.e. the indicator needle must rest exactly over the scale calibration
point as the instrument sits on the glass calibration plates (see
Checks and Adjustments below).
To measure mesh tension, place the instrument on the tensioned
mesh so that the long edge of measuring head (1) is parallel to the
thread direction. If the measuring head is aligned with the warp
mesh, the instrument displays the warp tension. If it is aligned with
the weft threads (across the mesh), it displays the weft tension. This
allows the tension to be balanced in both directions.

2 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Checks and adjustments
To avoid measurement errors, the instrument should be calibrated
regularly, checked, and adjusted if necessary.
– Clean the measuring bar and the supplied glass plate of any dirt.
– Place the instrument on the glass plate.
– The needle should rest exactly over the scale calibration mark (2).
– If the needle shows a deviation, loosen the scale set screw (3).
– Turn the outside ring of the dial (4) so that the needle aligns with
the calibration mark (2).
– Remove and replace the instrument on the glass plate several
times, to verify reproducibility. (The instrument should be cleaned
if reproducibility is poor.)
– Tighten the scale set screw (3); the instrument is now ready for
use.

Important: Minimum distance from frame: 2.5 inches

To avoid er roneous readings, the instrument’s contact
rollers (5) must lie parallel to the direction of the
threads. Follow the mesh tension recommendations in
the technical datasheets published by
SEFAR AMERICA INC.

Loss of tension
A newly stretched screen loses approx. 10–20% of its tension within
the first 24 hours, depending on the type of tensioning device used,
the original mesh tension, the frame stability, and the waiting time
before gluing. For printing jobs with accurate register, therefore, it is
recommended to let the screens rest for 24 hours before coating.
When stretching frames, please take into account this loss of
tension.
We recommend working with N/cm measuring instruments at all
times.
For multi-color work, all screens should have the same tension.
Verification of screen tension with a N/cm measuring instrument is
therefore especially important.
Practical experience has shown that variations in screen tension of
1–2 N/cm on the same or different screens does not have any

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stretching 3.23
noticeable effect on screen printing precision.
During long print runs, or after several screen reclaimings, the loss of
tension can amount to several N/cm.

Caution: Unequal warp and weft tension can result in the

following:

– uncontrollable registration
– deteriorating surface roughness of the ink volume
– higher ink volume (depending on the squeegee
direction)
– increased mechanical abrasion of the mesh and
squeegee
– moire’

4 Stretching
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
4. Gluing

Applying two-component glue through the mesh is the technique

most used at present for adhering mesh to printing frames.
One-component glue, UV or cyanoacrylate adhesives are other
alternatives.
The choice of glue depends largely on the solvents used by the
printing process.

4.1 Preparation
Screen printing frames must be thoroughly cleaned and degreased
prior to gluing. There must be no traces of dust, grease or oxidation.
The tools used are:
– a plastic applicator or brush with hard bristles, optional brush-
holder for storage
– degreasing agent
– adhesive tape
– felt-tip marker
– a knife

Cleaning and degreasing the printing frame

First, the side of the frame to be glued must be cleaned, and ink and
adhesive residue removed. If the old glue coating is non-porous and
flat, it may be left on the frame.
Sharp edges and corners must be rounded off.
It is always advisable to roughen the adhesive surface of metal, in
particular aluminum, using a coarse emery wheel or emery disc.
Sand-blasting the surface to be glued is also a good method.
Printing frames should only be roughened or sand-blasted on the
side to be glued, otherwise it is more difficult to remove ink residue.
Metal frames should be thoroughly degreased shortly before gluing,
using a suitable solvent (cellulose thinner, acetone, refined petrol, or
alcohol). Prepared frames should be glued right away, to avoid the
risk of recontamination.
When gluing mesh with mesh counts of 255 and up, it is beneficial
to pre-coat the frame with the same glue that will be used later. This
improves adhesion.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Gluing 4.1
4.2 Marking stretched frames
Before gluing, it is advisable to mark the tensioned mesh along the
frame edge, using a felt tip marker. The following information
should be recorded:
– mesh brand
– mesh count, including thread diameter and weave
– roll/batch number
– tension in N/cm
– date
– operator’s initials
Example:
Pecap LE , 305-34 PW, 2189203101, 20N/cm, 8APR98/GH

Next, adhesive tape is applied inside of the marked mesh,

approximately 0.5 to 1inch from the frame. This helps to give a
cleaner glue boundary, and protects the transitional area between
the frame and the marked mesh.
To make the frame easier to find in a storage rack, a sticker with the
same information should be applied to the outer edge of the frame.
The sticker can be made of self-adhesive plastic film or paper, and
written with permanent marker. A piece of polyester film glued over
the label protects against solvents.
h
.9 8/g
8 .08
,1
/cm
N.
20
1,
10
03
8 92
21
W
4P
5-3
-30
E7
ca pL
Pe

mesh type: ......................... Date: ......................

Roll/batch number: ............... Angle: ................... .
Tension: .................. ............. Initials: .................. ..

Glued and marked mesh

4.2 Gluing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
4.3 Adhesives
There are various adhesive systems, falling into the following
categories:
– two-component adhesives
– UV adhesives
– cyanoacrylate adhesives

Two-component adhesives

Two-component adhesive is a catalytic mixture consisting of the

adhesive itself, plus hardener. This type of adhesive has generally
good resistance to solvents, although the adhesive should be tested
with the solvent used for ink removal.
Adhesive and hardener must be mixed before use, in the proportions
specified by the manufacturer. It is important to observe the correct
ratio, to avoid impaired adhesion and hardening.
Two-component adhesives harden in two phases. The solvent
evaporates first, then the chemical hardening process begins.
The initial drying (evaporation) time depends on the fineness of the
mesh, tension, thickness of the glue coat, room temperature and
relative air humidity. With so many variables, it is difficult to
recommend precise drying times. It is therefore advisable to follow
the manufacturer’s instructions before removing the frame from the
stretcher.
As a general rule, the higher the tension and the lower the mesh
count, the longer the drying time required.
It should also be noted that two-component adhesives only remain
workable over a limited period, since the reaction between the
adhesive and the hardener begins in the pot. The delay between
mixing and the onset of the chemical reaction is known as the pot
life.

Liquid Staple is a
two-component
adhesive

UV adhesives are one-component glues that cure (harden) through

exposure to ultra-violet light from a special lamp. The hardening
process is faster than with two-component adhesives.
UV adhesives are resistant to most solvents.

Cyanoacrylate adhesives

Cyanoacrylate (CA) adhesives are instant curing adhesives, when

used in conjunction with an activator. A mist of adhesive is
distributed onto the mesh and worked in the mesh over the surface
of the frame profile. An activator is sprayed onto the adhesives,
causing it to cure instantly. CA adhesives require minimal operator
involvement and are available in multiple viscosities. Viscosity is
determined by mesh count.

Frame Fast CA adhesives.

4.4 Gluing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
4.4 Gluing the mesh to the frame
It is important to ensure intimate contact between the mesh and the
frame during gluing. If there are problems, weights may be placed
on the mesh to force it onto the frame surface.
It is important to ensure that the frame edges are thoroughly glued
to the mesh, so there is no possibility of solvent penetrating and
weakening the glue.
If the frame is not flat, it is impossible to establish good contact, and
the mesh bond is correspondingly weaker. There is a risk of the
mesh becoming detached later.

Gluing

Screen storage and transport

4.6 Stretching services

Efficient networks of SEFAR trade supply houses guarantee prompt
and reliable delivery of perfectly stretched screen printing frames.
You can be certain that the mesh has been stretched using state-of-
the-art equipment, and the tension checked with appropriate
measuring instruments.
It should be evident that prefabricated, ready-to-use frames are the
safest and best prerequisite for making perfect stencils. Successful
printing largely depends on this.
A stretching service saves you warehousing costs for various mesh
counts and widths, as well as the investment in a stretching
machine. Put your premises and expensive labor to better use!

4.6 Gluing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
5. Film positive manufacturing

In screen printing, stencil preparation requires a positive transparency

of the artwork to be reproduced.
It is important that the film positives are right reading, with the
emulsion side up. Flim positives can be made manually,
photographically, or digitally.

5.1 Manually made film positives

– Draw with opaque ink on transparent polyester foil. For artistic
prints, a wax pencil can also be used. It is preferable to use one-
sided matt polyester foil.
– Cut-film process. The film positive is prepared on a masking film,
consisting of a polyester backing and an emulsion coating. Cutting
may be done using a special knife, or a computer-controlled
plotter.
Masking films are available in orange and red. Both types are
suitable for screen printing, but for photographic reproduction only
red masking films should be used.

5.2 Photographically made film positives

At present, the conventional technique generally used to make
screen printing film positives requires a positive, reading right film. In
this context, right reading means that the artwork must be able to
read correctly when viewing from emulsion side of the film. This is
the opposite to films intended for offset printing.
If film positives are made externally, it is essential to instruct the film
trade shop to expose the artwork right reading on the emulsion side
of the film.
This is important, during exposure, because it allows the emulsion
side of the film to rest directly on the stencil emulsion. If reversed
films (wrong reading) are used, the film polyester base becomes
interposed between the emulsion and the film layer. This causes
undercutting, producing stencils that lack sharpness and detail.

emulsion

Bass

film

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Film positive manufacturing 5.1
Films are currently produced on laser imagesetters. Computer data
is converted to screens and lines by a PostScript RIP (Raster Image
Processor), and translated into the imagesetter’s machine language.
The result is then output to film.

CPU RIP Imagesetter

5.3 CTS (Computer to Screen)

CTS is a newer process for making positives images. Just like film
production, computer data is converted by a RIP and output on an
inkjet plotter. However, no actual film is involved: instead, the plotter
sprays UV-opaque ink or wax directly onto the coated mesh. The
mesh is then exposed and rinsed in the same way as stencils made
from films. This technique does not require vacuum retention during
exposure, because the ink or wax is deposited directly on the
emulsion surface.

CPU RIP CTS

5.2 Film positive manufacturing

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
This technique has the advantage of eliminating expensive films. For
producing screen printing stencils, inkjet technology has proved a
clear winner over laser techniques (same principle as CTS). Only a
few laser machines are in use world-wide; they are much slower and
require special emulsions and mesh types.

Conventional

Conventional film-based production vs. CTS

Conventional: CTS:

Color separation Color separation

Film production

Film development

Full-sheet production

Mount film
on stencil
Spray and expose
Exposure stencil

Archive film

Develop stencil Develop stencil

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Film positive manufacturing 5.3
5.4 Tips for external production of film positives
If pre-press facilities are not available in-house, it is necessary to
work closely with an expert partner. The best choice is a film trade
shop with an established track record in making screen printing film
positives.
Most repro houses are oriented towards offset printing. It is
absolutely crucial to discuss the specific job requirements
beforehand.
1.Positive films must be made right reading with high density
(Dmin ≥ 3.5) to UV-A illumination.
2.Film positives must not be made using PostScript round dots.
While eminently suitable for offset printing, these are a big
problem in screen printing. This is because dots for 50% tones are
square, and frequently cause moiré.
3.Most film trade shops offer a wide variety of raster techniques
(Eliptical, linked, etc.). Trials with various dot shapes are essential.
4.It is a good idea to make a test film with a variety of raster dot
shapes with different screen rulings (lpi). Proof prints from test
stencils made from various film materials on different mesh counts
provide a basis for establishing subsequent standardized practice.
5.Multi-color halftone prints present a further dimension. Having
established the optimum halftone dot shape, the best halftone
angle must then be found. A proof print with various four-color
halftone angles is made; the print results then determine which
standard raster angle to use.
Once all these parameters have been established, there should be
fewer moiré problems in production runs. Informing customers of
the optimum parameters beforehand can also save much trouble
and expense.
To reiterate, here is a summary of the parameters:
- correct side (i.e. right reading ), with proper Dmin and
Dmax densities
- optimum halftone dot shape
- optimum halftone angle
- optimum halftone ruling

5.4 Film positive manufacturing

6.1 Pre-treatment of screen printing mesh

Degreasing

Special finishing methods means that SEFAR screen printing mesh is

fundamentally very clean. Irrespective of this, all mesh, whether new
or old, must be degreased shortly before use. Mesh can be
contaminated by handling, or airborne dust.
Degreasing is done with the normal screen printing degreasing
products available from dealers. Household detergents must not be
used. They often contain other chemical additives, e.g. lanolin for
skin protection, which can seriously affect the adhesion of
photographic emulsions.
After degreasing, the mesh should not be touched again.
Photographic emulsions must be applied immediately after
degreasing the mesh. If screens are allowed to lie around, the mesh
may again attract grease or dust.
Degrease by spreading a modest quantity of degreasing agent over
the wet mesh, using a soft brush. Leave to stand for a few minutes,
then rinse thoroughly using a high-pressure water jet.

6.2 Mechanical stencils

The hand-cut stencil

This type of stencil has the advantage of producing perfectly sharp

edges. It is mostly used for lettering and large solid objects. The
stencils for the individual colors are easily cut using a special cutting
knife, e.g. a swivel knife.
Suitable cutting tools and masking films can be obtained through
your screen printing dealer.
Plotter techniques have created a resurgence in hand-cut stencils.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.1
Water soluble hand-cut film
This kind of hand-cut film has the following advantages:
– film adheres to the mesh by water surface-tension
– suitable for all solvent-based inks
– easy removal with hot water

Cellulose hand-cut film

The following points should be observed with this film:
– The mesh must be prepared and degreased as with a photo
stencil.
– For perfect adhesion, the solvents recommended by the film
manufacturer must be used.
– Hand-cut films bonded with solvents resist only water-based inks.
– Can be removed using solvents.

Potential Problem
– Hand perspiration, hand cream, or dirt on the film side can create
bonding difficulties.
– When cutting, the hand should rest on a protective sheet of paper
to avoid grease-stains.
– Insufficient pre-treatment and poor adhesion degreasing of the
mesh (see the section on pre-treatment).
– Creased film.
– Poor contact may result while bonding.
– Excess liquid while bonding results in swollen edges.
– Drying at excessive temperature.
– Using an unsuitable instrument to lift off the film.

6.2 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Cutting

Lifting

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6.4 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
6.4 Direct stencils with emulsion
General procedure
Degreasing Before making any stencil, the mesh should be
degreased with a suitable degreasing agent.
Do not use household detergents.

Drying Remove all water by suction. Dry thoroughly at

room temperature or in screen drying cabinet

Coating Uniform coating with photo emulsion (diazo,

photopolymer or dual cure), wet-on-wet.
Use a suitable coating trough.

Drying Dry the stencil in a horizontal position, print side

down. Maximum temperature 105ºF.

Additional coatings Apply additional coatings on the print side, to

smooth out unevenness.

Drying Same drying procedure as after the first coating.

Exposure Use a suitable light source, e.g. a metal halide

lamp. Determine the correct exposure time
using step exposures and a test film.

Developing Develop with a moderate water-jet. Observe

manufacturer’s temperature instructions. After
development, rinse out the printing side
thoroughly with a powerful water-jet.

Drying Remaining moisture can be removed by gentle

application of unprinted newspaper or window
cleaning suede, or using specialized water
suction equipment. Final drying in a drying
chamber.

Retouching Pinholes and film edges can be covered with

screen filler.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.5
6.5 Troubleshooting direct stencils with emulsion
Formation of fish-eyes after coating
– Insufficient degreasing of the mesh.
– Dust particles on screen mesh.
– Poorly mixed photo-initiator (diazo) and emulsion.
(inhomogeneous coating)

Air inclusions during coating

– Coating too fast can trap air in the mesh openings. (Formation of
bubbles leads to premature printing failure.)

Poorly bonded photo emulsion after exposure

– Emulsion insufficiently dried before exposure.
– Exposure time too short. Failure to compensate for a highly light-
absorbent film positive.
– Intensity fall-off in the exposure lamp. (Measure the output using
a light integrator.)
– Insufficiently sensitised emulsion. Incomplete dissolution of the
diazo component in water. Some of the diazo sensitiser remains
undissolved in the bottle.
– Caution at very high humidity. The coated screen may feel
completely dry, but is only superficially dry due to the high air
humidity. Allow for longer exposure times under these
circumstances.
– After coating, leave coarse meshes to dry overnight at room
temperature.

Undercutting (loss of detail)

– This can occur with white mesh. Use a dyed mesh. Compared to
white mesh, dyed screen mesh require a 75–125% exposure
increase.
– Use emulsion up film positive.
– Stencil is over exposed

6.6 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Saw-tooth effect
– Poor coating.
– The coating on the print side is too thin. The coating bridges the
mesh openings, but has sunk into the depressions in the mesh
structure.
– Printing sharp outlines requires multiple wet-on-wet coatings.
The greater part of the photo emulsion must be, in any case, on
the print side.
– After drying, additional coatings can be applied to smooth out
unevenness.

Halftone printing
– Halftone screen printing requires thinly coated mesh. Apply an
additional coat to the print side.

Reclaiming difficulties
– Underexposed emulsion.
– Ink was not immediately washed off after printing.
– Insufficient cleaning after printing. Ink deposits cling to the mesh.
After a certain time, the dried ink particles can no longer be
completely removed.
– The stencil is still greasy from solvent. The reclaiming solution
cannot dissolve the photo emulsion. Additional degreasing is
needed before applying the reclaiming agent.
– Unsuitable reclaiming agent.

6.6 Stencils for water-based inks

Water-proof emulsions must be used with water-based inks, e.g. for
direct printing on textiles or ceramic.
Carefully observe the manufacturer’s instructions.

Sensitizers

DIAZO and/or PHOTOPOLYMERS are used as sensitizers in screen

printing.
Important: For environmental reasons, DICHROMATE should no
longer be used.

Both types are characterised by prolonged storage capability for

coated screens. Neither material represents an environmental hazard.

1. Coating on ,
2. Coating on
,

print side, 1–2x squeegee side, 1–4x

3. Dry, 85–105 °F 4. Additional coatings on

print side down! print side, 1–2x

5. Dry, 85–105 °F 6. Exposure

7. Develop with cold water

,
8. Dry at 85–105 °F

6.8 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
A uniform coating is crucial to a perfect direct stencil. The mesh
should be completely covered by the emulsion, with a slightly thicker
coating on the print side of the stencil.
The screen is coated 1–2 times on the print side, followed
immediately by 1–4 times on the squeegee side, wet-on-wet, then
dried. The drying temperature must not exceed 105º F.
After drying, surface quality can be significantly improved by 1–2
additional coatings that are allowed to dry between coating.
The depth of the surface roughness should be less than 10% of the
mesh thickness.
With very coarse meshes of 13–110 TPI, the screen can, after
intermediate drying, be given 1–2 additional coatings as well on the
squeegee side. This improves the stencil life.
The number of coatings depends on various factors, partly
influenced by the particle content and viscosity of the emulsion, and
also by the fineness of the mesh and the demands of the printing
job.

Coating thickness vs. printing job

Lines: Sharply defined prints are attained with a
coating thickness of 10 –18 µm on mesh with
230 TPI and finer.

Rule-of-thumb: Coating thickness on the printing side approx.

10 - 20% of the mesh thickness. The Rz value is
determined using roughness depth measuring
equipment. This value represents the average of
the highest and lowest points on the surface
(see chapter 10).

Halftones: The thinnest possible coat of 4 – 8 µm results in

the thin ink volume required for half-tone prints.

Rule-of-thumb: Coating thickness on the printing side:

approximately 10% of the mesh thickness.
Roughness depth less than the coating
thickness.

UV inks: When printing with UV inks, the ink volume

should generally be as low as possible. As a
rule, the coating thickness on the print side of
the screen should not exceed 5 µm.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.9
The fineness and quality of the mesh are the determining factors for
the number of stencil coatings.

Mesh fineness
Mesh
Specification Mesh-opening Open area Mesh thickness
305-34 PW 45 µm 29.6 % 55 µm
380-34 PW 23 µm 12.1 % 55 µm

These examples clearly depict the differing open areas in % in mesh

of similar thickness. The larger mesh-opening causes more emulsion
to be pressed through the mesh per coating. Achieving the same
coating thickness on both mesh requires a different number of
coatings.

Mesh quality

Mesh
Specification Mesh-opening Open area Mesh thickness
305-31 PW 51 µm 37.9 % 48 µm
305-34 PW 45 µm 29.6 % 55 µm
305-40 PW 37 µm 20.1 % 65 µm

Various mesh qualities in the same number also influence the

coating thickness, because of differences not only in the mesh
opening but also in the mesh thickness.

Example: number of coats:

Mesh Open area Mesh Coating

Specification thickness wet-on-wet
D/ R
305-31 PW 37 % 53 µm 2+2
305-34 PW 30 % 61 µm 2+3
305-40 PW 22 % 66 µm 2+4

The screen should be coated immediately after degreasing, to avoid

recontaminating the mesh with dust, etc. The mesh must be
perfectly dry before coating.

6.10 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Coating example

Correct coating

Coating too thin

The easiest way to apply the photo emulsion onto the mesh is with a
coating trough. The coating edge must be rounded, and should be
cambered over its entire length. This guarantees an overall uniform
coating, even in the center part of the screen.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.11
Pro-M Coater
Most DIAZO sensitizers and, consequently, the sensitised emulsions,
are strongly acidic. Therefore, photo emulsions should be applied
only with a V2A-stainless steel coating trough.
Warning: Aluminum is very easily damaged.
Galvanised steel troughs oxidize after a short time, which destroys
the photo emulsion. This is accompanied by the formation of fine
bubbles or scum, which also happens after the photo emulsion has
been kept for several hours in an aluminum trough. It indicates that
the emulsion can no longer be used.
Care should be taken that the photo emulsion never stays in the
coating trough for longer than necessary. Covering the trough
merely protects against dust and drying out.
Technical data for coating troughs:
Trough Trough (stainless steel)
length/mm profile/mm
< 50 30/30/1.5
50-150 40/40/1.5
150-1000 50/50/1.5
> 1000 50/50/2.0 - 60/60/2.0
For screen sizes over 1000 mm and a mesh of less than 51 TPI we
recommend a profile depth of 60–80 mm.

6.12 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Grunig G-420 Automatic coating machine for large format screens.

Grunig G-411 Automatic coating machine.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.13
6.7 Direct stencils with film and emulsion
General procedure
Degreasing: Before making any stencil, the mesh should be
degreased with a suitable degreasing agent.
Do not use household detergents.

Drying: The mesh must be completely dry before

transferring the film. To prevent later difficulties,
avoid dust when transferring.

Transfer: Place the film on a glass plate, emulsion side up.

Place the frames mesh stencil, in the printing
position, in contact with the film.
Avoid trapping dust.
Pour the sensitised photo emulsion into the
stencil and sweep the emulsion over the film
using a soft squeegee.

Important: Wait approx. 3 minutes before

putting the stencil into the dryer.

Drying: For accurate register, dry at room temperature

(max. 105 ºF). Remove the plastic backing sheet
after drying, and allow to dry for a few minutes
longer.

Exposure: Determine the correct exposure time through

step exposures.
Underexposure causes poor film adhesion, and
reduced coating durability.

Developing: Rinse with cold water.

Drying: Dry at room temperature or in a screen drying

cabinet (max 105º F). Excess water can be
removed with unprinted newspaper or water
suction equipment.

Retouching: Pinholes and film edges can be covered with a

water-based screen filler.

6.14 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Troubleshooting direct stencils with film and emulsion

Poor film adhesion to the mesh

– Mesh used is too fine
Mesh with low ink penetration prevents sufficient photo emulsion
coming into contact with the film. The results are inadequate
adhesion of the film on the mesh.
– Squeegee is too hard or too soft
Incorrect squeegee hardness results in insufficient emulsion being
pressed onto the film, leading to inadequate film sensitisation. The
ideal squeegee hardness is 60 º - 70 º shore.
– Trapped dust
This results from failure to clean the film with an antistatic cloth
before transfer. Dust can also be a problem when there has been a
delay between degreasing the mesh and applying the film.
– Exposure time too short
This results in poor adhesion of the film on the mesh.
– Insufficient drying before exposure
Also results in poor adhesion of the film on the mesh. Unexposed,
and hence unhardened particles on the emulsion side are washed
out during development.
– Copying error
The film backing sheet was not removed prior to exposure.

6.8 Direct stencils with film and water

General procedure
Degreasing: Before making any stencil, the mesh should be
degreased with a suitable degreasing agent.
Do not use household detergents.

Wetting agent: Wetting agent encourages the formation of a

uniform water film on all mesh types, to
facilitate safe transfer of the capillary film.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.15
Transfer: The capillary film is transferrred onto the wet
stencil mesh.
This procedure has two advantages:
1. No additional drying time.
2. Dust problems are practically eliminated.

The film is placed on a flat surface, emulsion

side up. The wet mesh is carefully brought into
contact with the film. The film is sucked onto
the mesh through capillary action. Sweep off
excess water with a squeegee. With large sizes
in particular, we recommend that the film be
tightly rolled, so that it can be easily unrolled on
the wet upright screen.

Drying: For accurate register, dry at room temperature

or in a screen drying cabinet (max.105 ºF).
Remove the plastic backing sheet after drying,
and allow to dry for a few minutes longer.

Reinforcement: Attention: For large print runs, the capillary film

can be further reinforced after drying by
applying emulsion to the squeegee side.

Exposure: Determine the correct exposure time through

step exposures.

Developing: Wash out with luke warm water, concentrating

on the print side until the image is open.
Thoroughly rinse the squeegee side. Excess
water can be removed with unprinted
newspaper or water suction equipment. Dry
afterwards.

Retouching: Pinholes and film edges can be covered with a

water-soluble screen filler

Troubleshooting direct stencils with film and water

Poor film adhesion to the mesh

– Inadequate water film on the print side of the mesh when
transferring the film. For this reason, it is advantageous to rinse
the wetting agent out of the mesh from the squeegee side, so
that a homogenous film of water is formed on the print side.

6.16 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
– Insufficient exposure time results in poor adhesion of the film on
the mesh.
– Insufficient drying before exposure also results in poor adhesion of
the film on the mesh. Unexposed, and hence unhardened particles
on the emulsion side are washed out during development.
– Copying error
The film backing sheet was not removed prior to exposure.

6.9 Indirect stencils

Indirect stencils are made independently, then attached to the
mesh. Indirect stencils are thin and have little influence on ink
volume.
Since indirect film is exposed separately from the stencil, mesh color
has no effect on exposure time or stencil edge sharpness. However,
there is a uniform amount of light scatter because the exposure is
made through the film substrate.
The disadvantage of indirect stencils is their loose attachment to the
mesh, which makes them insufficiently durable for long print runs.

General procedure for making indirect stencils

Roughening: New mesh should be roughened on the print
side with silicon carbide 500.

Degreasing: Before making any stencil, the mesh should be

degreased with a suitable degreasing agent.
Do not use household detergents.

Exposure: The pre-sensitised indirect film is exposed

through the polyester substrate.

Important: Determine correct exposure time

through step exposures.

Fixing: The exposed film is fixed in a bath of hydrogen

peroxide, or the manufacturer’s proprietary
powder.
Follow the film manufacturer’s instructions.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.17
Developing: Rinse the film in warm water, emulsion side up.
Follow the film manufacturer’s instructions
about water temperature. Rinse cold; thorough
rinsing is absolutely essential.

Transfer: Place the film emulsion side up on a sand-

blasted glass plate. Bring a corner of the wet
stencil in contact with the film, and let the film
draw itself up onto the mesh. Remove excess
water from the squeegee side, using unprinted
newspaper.

Drying: Drying must be at room temperature. When

thoroughly dry, remove the polyester backing
sheet.

Retouching: Pinholes and film edges can be covered with a

water-soluble screen filler.

Troubleshooting indirect stencils

Poor film adhesion to the mesh:

– Insufficient pre-treatment of the mesh
Mesh must always be roughened on the print side with silicon
carbide 500. Household scouring powder is an unsuitable abrasive,
because the particles are of uneven size and can clog the mesh.
– Insufficient mesh degreasing
Having mechanically abraded the mesh, it must be degreased as
well. Roughening and degreasing are not the same thing!
– Excessive exposure time
This is the main cause of poor adhesion of indirect film with the
mesh. Longer exposure tends to make the film harder and more
brittle, so it cannot attach itself to the mesh during transfer.
– Inactive developer
It is best to use the developer recommended by the film
manufacturer. Hydrogen peroxide deteriorates with prolonged
storage.

6.18 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
– Drying the stencil with warm air
Drying an indirect stencil in warm air tends to make the edges curl
up. Therefore, indirect stencils should be dried only at room
temperature.
– The polyester backing sheet should be removed only after
thorough drying.

6.10 Exposure
Exposing the dried photosensitive layer to UV light causes uncovered
areas to harden (polymerisation) and cease to be water-soluble.
Unexposed areas remain water-soluble and can later be washed out
using cold or lukewarm water.
Many UV light sources are suitable for exposing the photo-sensitive
layer. The emission spectrum should peak in the range from approx.
350–420 nm, to coincide with the maximum sensitivity of stencil
films and emulsions.
40

B
10

0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Invisible and visible light spectrum

A = wavelength
B = spectral emission W/5 nm
Suitable UV light sources are:
– metal halogen lamps from 2000 to 6000 watts
– mercury vapor lamps
– high pressure mercury lamps
– mercury halogen lamps
– super-actinic fluorescent lamps
Although xenon lamps are used in offset printing, their spectral
range is not sufficient for screen printing.
We recommend a single point light source for exposure
reproducibility.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.19
Light tubes can also be used if fine line or halftone reproduction is
not required. If several tubes are stacked in parallel, their separation
must be no more than the distance to the stencil.
The larger the area to be exposed, the stronger the light source
needed.
The distance between the exposure lamp and the copy frame should
be at least as great as the diagonal width of the area to be exposed,
multiplied by reflector multiplier. In the below digram, the reflector
multiplier is one. Contact the reflector manufacturer to determine
the proper reflector distance.

Lamp

1mx
reflector
multplier

Increasing the distance between the lamp and the copy reduces the
radiant intensity in proportion to the square of the distance increase.
Therefore, to maintain constant exposure, the exposure time must
also be increased in proportion to the square of the distance
increase.

Lamp

1m
1 Lux
2m

1/4 Lux

6.20 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Formula:
2
new distance
New exposure time = x old exposure time
old distance

Example:
new distance = 60” (150 cm)
old distance = 40” (100 cm)
old exposure time = 1 minute (60 seconds)

2
60"
x 60sec.=1.52 x 60sec.= 2.25 x 60sec.=135sec.=2min.15sec.
40"

The new exposure time is thus 2 minutes 15 seconds.

Bear in mind that colored mesh requires longer exposure times than
white mesh.
Tests with step exposures are therefore vital to determining the
correct exposure time.
We recommend using an integrator for the following reasons:
– to compensate for light intensity at various distances.
– to compensate for reduced light intensity caused by lamp ageing.

Exposure too short Correct exposure

(squeegee side) (squeegee side)

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.21
6.11 Step exposures
Step exposures are a means of determining the optimum exposure
time. Correct exposure time depends on the characteristics of the
photo emulsion or film, the mesh, overall thickness, the light source,
and the distance between the lamp and the material to be exposed.
Underexposed stencils do not harden all the way through; photo
emulsion on the squeegee side is washed away during developing. A
smudged photosensitive layer is a sure sign of underexposure. With
inadequate rinsing, some of the dissolved photo emulsion sticks in
the open parts of the stencil. A barely visible scum is left behind
after drying, which blocks ink flow during printing.
Underexposed stencils also have poor resistance to solvents, printing
inks and mechanical wear. The stencil is also difficult to reclaim
afterwards.
Overexposed stencils may suffer from reduced resolution; this is
especially noticeable with white mesh. The un-dyed threads of the
white mesh reflect light during exposure, which rapidly leads to
undercutting problems.

Underexposed Correctly exposed

Making a step exposure

A step exposure is best made with a test positive containing at least

5 identical images featuring positive and negative fine lines and half-
tones.
5 times are chosen, progressing through 50% – 75% – 100% –
125% – 150% of the nominal exposure. If the nominal exposure
time is unknown, this must be calculated from the emulsion
manufacturer’s data.

6.22 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
The test positive is placed on the stencil, emulsion side down, and
placed in the vacuum frame. Once the vacuum has established firm
contact between film and stencil, all five images are exposed for the
first step (50%). One image is covered up, and the remaining four
given a further 25% exposure. The second image (75%) is then
covered as well, and the remaining three given a further 25%
exposure. The third image (100%) is then covered as well, and the
remaining two given a further 25% exposure. The fourth image
(125%) is now covered, and the last image given a final 25%
exposure. This provides the fifth step (150%).
During development, it becomes apparent that different exposure
times produce a varying degree of stencil discoloration. The
difference between steps is especially visible if the first two steps
(50% and 75%) are underexposed. There should be no color
difference between the remaining steps (100%, 125% and 150%).
We can therefore assume that step three (100%) is the minimum
exposure time. At step three, the stencil should no longer be
smudged on the squeegee side. This indicates a correct stencil
hardening.
Should there be a color difference between the fourth and fifth
steps (not hardened through), make another step exposure based on
a longer exposure time. On the other hand, when there is no color
difference between the first and second steps (already hardened
through), make another step exposure based on a shorter exposure
time.
With diazo coatings, the color difference between individual steps is
highly recognizable. The effect is more subtle with pure
photopolymer coatings, although it is possible to judge exposure
based on the presence of smudging: no smudging = hardened
through.

The ESMA test film is designed for checking the optimum exposure
time for stencil-making.
Discoloration through a step exposure (no halftone factors) is used
to find the best compromise between hardening and optimum
resolution (sharp details).
The test film incorporates the following features:
– five identical images for step exposures
– positive and negative details
– radial lines from 0.5mm to the limiting resolution of the silver film
– circular lines, and straight lines at varying angles
– various line widths (0.025 – 1.00 mm)
– text at various sizes
– raster ruling 60 lpi / 45° / tone values 0% – 100%

6.24 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
6.12 Rinsing
For rinsing an exposed stencil, we recommend using a nozzle where
the water pressure can be regulated.
A water suction unit withdraws excess water from the stencil. This
prevents scum formation (clouding) and considerably shortens the
drying time.

Rinsing trough with water suction equipment

Small screens can be drawn over a stationary water suction nozzle.

6.13 Influence of coating thickness on print sharpness

A B C

Direction of squeegee stroke

A) stencil too thin ® sawtooth effect

B) correct stencil ® sharp print
C) stencil too thick ® unclear print

Stencils using these film systems print the thinnest ink layer (3–5 µm
stencil profile on the print side of the mesh) without a saw-tooth
effect. The film coating bridges the screen mesh evenly. The
problems shown under A, B, and C are therefore less important
(assuming the correct choice of mesh and film thickness).

6.14 Influence of stencil thickness on ink volume

Printing open areas

When printing open areas, and line widths exceeding approximately.

0.06 inches, the squeegee can press quite hard onto the substrate. A
thick stencil will then give an elevated ink volume at the edges of
the area to be printed. (B)

A) correct stencil ® uniform ink volume

B) stencil too thick ® higher ink volume at the edges

6.26 Stencils
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Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Halftones and fine lines

Stencil thickness heavily influences ink volume in halftone printing.

The halftone dots support the mesh over the entire area to be
printed. The greater the stencil thickness, the higher the ink volume.
A stencil that is too thick causes:
– loss of print in the light areas, and smudging of the dense
halftone areas (change of tone values)
– incorrect color reproduction due to the high ink volume.

A) correct stencil ® good ink volume

B) stencil too thick ® ink volume too high

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Stencils 6.27
6.15 Hardening stencils for printing water-based colors
General procedure
– Exposure and development as with graphic stencils
– Retouching with the same emulsion, or a special lacquer
– Dry and re-expose
– Brush hardener onto both sides, allow it to react for 15–20
minutes
– Air blow or vacum the mesh free

Hardening procedure

Textile and ceramic printing generally use water-based inks. Screens

are made using photo lacquer, i.e. emulsions that can be processed
in the normal way and given a final chemical treatment to make
them resistant to water and chemicals.
Hardener may be applied using a wide brush (not a polyamide
brush), a felt squeegee, or a sponge. Hardener is evenly applied to
both sides of the horizontal stencil.
Attention: have as little excess as possible!
It is important for the hardener to penetrate the coating before the
stencil is finally fixed. It should therefore rest for approximately
15–20 minutes at room temperature. Thereafter, it can be finally
hardened by heating at 125 °F for 1 hour, or leaving at room
temperature for 24 hours.
After final hardening, the stencil is practically insoluble and cannot
be removed from the mesh by chemicals generally used in screen
printing.
Be sure to follow the lacquer manufacturer’s instructions.

Attention: Most hardeners are acidic, which makes them

detrimental to nylon mesh. Polyamides are sensitive
even to weak acids.

Note: This kind of stencil hardening process is generally used

for printing water-based inks used in graphic and
ceramic screen printing.

6.28 Stencils
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
6.16 Reclaiming
After printing, ink is washed off the screen with the recommended
cleaning fluid.
Reclaiming is best done immediately after printing, before the
cleaning fluid has a chance to dry with any ink particles left on the
screen.
Reclaiming process:
– Wash the screen until the screen filler is removed.
– Apply reclaiming agent to both sides of the screen, until the
emulsion dissolves.
– Wash clean with a high-pressure water jet
(725-1450psi,1-2” distance)
– Remove any remaining ink deposits with special solvents.
Again, we recommend following the film and emulsion
manufacturer’s instructions.

7.1 Summary of key recommendations

Mesh
– High-modulus POLYESTER
– Dimensionally stable
– Unaffected by heat and humidity
– Optimum handling and treatment using modern equipment

Frames (see also the chapter on frames)

– Do not use wooden frames
– Use steel or aluminum frames
– Use a profile of adequate strength
– Consider side-reinforced profiles
– Check frame flatness
– Select an ideal relationship between the printing area and the size
of the frame

Stretching machine (mechanical)

– Use a stretching machine with movable clamps
– Clamps must hold the mesh without letting it slip
– Clamps must be free of old glue
– Ease the strain on the mesh by corner softening
– If possible, pre-bow the frame using suitable equipment
– Continually check the tension using a measuring device (see
TETKOMAT, NEWTONTESTER)
– Observe the mesh manufacturer’s recommended tension for
frame size using

Stretching machine (pneumatic)

– Use a stretching machine with movable clamps
– Clamps must hold the mesh without letting it slip
– Clamps must be free of old glue
– Continually check the tension using a measuring device (see
TETKOMAT, NEWTONTESTER)
– Observe the mesh manufacturer’s recommended tension
for frame size

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Register 7.1
Gluing
– Use a two-component or CA adhesive to prevent subsequent
mesh slippage caused by temperature and solvents
– Observe the manufacturer’s recommended ratio of adhesive to
hardener
– Observe correct drying times
– Observe the glue’s pot life

Printing
– A perfectly flat printing table is crucial
– Minimum off contact
– Minimum squeegee pressure
– Optimal lift-off conditions (consistent snap-off angle over the
entire printing area)
– Squeegee speed
– Print stencil laterally (shorter squeegee travel)
– In multi-color printing, always use the same length of squeegee
– Ink viscosity

Conditioning of the working area and printing stock

– 55 – 65% RH (Relative Humidity) is considered ideal
– Room temperature 65 – 70°C
– High conveyor drying temperatures can affect the dimensions of
the print stock. It is common practice to send unprinted stock
through the dryer/curing unit before the first printing pass to
pre-shrink the stock.

7.2 Problems of accurate register

We can define accurate register as:
– Exact congruence between an original (e.g. a diapositive) and the
impression on the printing stock; in multi-color printing, exact
congruence between the printed impressions of the various colors
(color register); further, exact agreement of the impressions at the
beginning and at the end of a printing run, or between any
individual, intermediate impressions.
Accurate register further includes constant location of the printed
impression on the successive, individual printed units, i.e. constant
distance and angle between the printed impression and the margin
edges or locating holes in the printing stock.

7.2 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Absolute accuracy is unattainable in practice, and we must
consequently define what we mean by ”accuracy” in screen
printing. This depends firstly on the purpose and intention of the
individual screen print, and secondly on the results attainable in
screen printing generally. Textile screen printers, poster printers and
circuit printers will each have their own ideas on the subject.
Despite this individuality of aims and means, we can and must
consider all the possibilities of faulty register and for each cause
determine the possible order of magnitude. This indicates which
points should receive attention if register is to be improved, and in
what cases it would be pointless to seek higher accuracy, since the
attainable improvement would be insignificant.

7.3 The film positive

The film positive consists of a polyester base and a photographic
emulsion. As temperature and humidity rise, the film spreads,
principally by swelling of the emulsion. The polyester base itself can
be considered unconditionally stable for screen printing purposes.
Cellulose-based layout or mounting foils are not recommended.
The polyester film most commonly used for film is positives is
approximately 4 mils thick. A temperature increase of, say, 5°F
causes it to shrink by approximtely 4-5 mil per yard. However, it
expands by about 7-8 mil per yard in response to a 10% increase in
relative atmospheric humidity (RH). A similar drop in temperature
and humidity causes the polyester film to respond in the opposite
sense. Any hysteresis effect can be disregarded. (Temperature and
RH are considered separately; it should be remembered RH falls with
rising temperature and constant absolute humidity.)
The 7 mil polyester film base frequently used in circuit printing
responds to temperature changes in a similar way to the thinner
film. However, the RH change mentioned above causes the film to
change by only 6 mils.
The comparatively insignificant dimensional changes in film material
are of little importance in screen printing, considering the far greater
dimensional changes in the printing stock, especially paper and
cardboard (see the section on printing substrates, below).

Stencil frames are of considerable importance in securing accurate

register.
a) The linear coefficient of thermal expansion
Given our standard temperature increase of 5°F, which we have
adopted for practical reasons, a steel frame expands by about
2.2-2.5 mils per yard. Aluminum frames expand by about double
this amount.
b) Frame distortion by mesh pull
Screen printing mesh stretched to about 20 N/cm exerts a pull of
around 11 pounds on every inch of the frame (i.e. every inch of the
mesh edge). This works out at around 400 lbs. per yard.
For instance, consider the straight longitudinal section of a DIN A0
steel frame, with a mid-side bow of about 12 mils due to the
tension in the stretched mesh. The polyester mesh, initially strained
to about 2% elongation, will lose 1/4 of its stretch. The bow
increases more than linearly with increasing size, even with the usual
reinforced section (reference recommended frame sizes and profiles).

Concave frame

A permanently bowing frame has less influence on register than a

fluctuating bow. The fluctuations depend on the stability or rigidity
of the frame, the stability of the mesh, and the distance between
the screen and the printing stock. Fluctuations can be minimized in
practice by applying pre-bow to the frames:

7.4 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Mechanical pre-bowing device

Pre-bowed frame with SEFAR clamps

Before gluing the mesh, the frame is given sufficient concave
curvature either by a strap, or the force of the stretching clamps as
they prop themselves against the outside edge of the printing frame.
Mesh pull and frame tension thus balance each other.
It is possible to give the long sides a convex bend of approximately
18 mil. per yard during frame fabrication, then welding them at this
angle which is slightly in excess of 90°.

Convex frame

The mesh exerts a powerful pulling force. Depending on the means

of securing the frame in the printing machine, the danger of frames
becoming warped in use should not be underestimated. Rough
handling of printing frames is another common cause of warping.
Warped or twisted frames always give difficulties with printing, and
in obtaining correct register. The distance between the stencil and
the print substrate becomes non-uniform, which interferes with
squeegee pressure and uniform ink release.
This defect cannot be corrected merely by selecting a frame with a
stable cross section. Levelling frames during manufacture or repair
requires a very expensive levelling plate or slab, which should be part
of every good frame manufacturer’s equipment.

Steel versus aluminum

Steel used for screen printing frames has a specific gravity of about
7.8, light alloys about 2.7, or only about 1/3 the weight. On the
other hand, sections and sides of aluminum frames have to be
somewhat thicker than steel frames.
The high weight of large steel frames is a disadvantage, both for
labor and equipment. There can be especial difficulties when a hinge
of a hand printer is too weak to hold the frame, on one side only.
To achieve satisfactory bonding of adhesive to the frame, aluminum
requires heavier roughening than steel.
Virtually all screen printing frames are now blasted with sand or
steel. Steel frames are protected by galvanizing or two-component
lacquer. New aluminum frames must be cleaned with solvent (e.g.
alcohol-based cleaner) before glue is applied for the first time.

Recommendations for frame size and profile

In machine printing, squeegee motion is usually in the direction of

the frame width, in other words, contrary to the usual practice in
hand printing. The size of the ink rests, along the sides and in
particular at the top and bottom, has to be determined by
experiment for every printing machine. Ink reservoirs that are too
small give rise to a range of problems, including uncertain register
and smeared print. The sizes a machine can use have to be
determined through individual trials.

7.6 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Insufficiently strong frame profiles inevitably lead to problems such
as:
– loss of tension at the center of the printing area
– poor register
– reduced stencil life, etc.
The following table shows the amount of frame flexing (inches) for
a given profile and frame length (inches) under a given tension
(N/cm).
Example:
A frame 40 inches long fabricated from15.7 x 11.8 x 1.0 inhes
profile under a load of 18 N/cm will flex by 0.037 inches or 37mils.

Edge length Edge length Edge length

Profile 40 inches 80 inches 120 inches
(Inches) 18 N 28 N 18 N 28 N 18 N 28 N
1.18 x .79 x .079 0.037 0.057
1.57 x 1.57 x .067/.110 0.030 0.046
2.36 x 1.57 x .098/.118 0.011 0.017 0.17 0.26
3.0 x 1.5 x .125 0.059 0.091 0.30 0.46
4.0 x 1.5 x .125/.312 0.033 0.052 0.17 0.26

Frame flex in inches

B B
D C A

A B / B1 C / C1 Aluminium
Aluminium sections
sections and with various
Free mes Frame outside wall wall
Printable area side/top dimensions thicknesses thicknesses
in inches in inches in inches in inches in inches
8.5x 11 6.0 / 6.0 15.25 x 18.75 1.50 x 1.50 1.57 / 1.57
11 x 17 6.0 / 6.0 18.75 x 27.25 .0625- .125 .067 x .110
17 x 22 6.0 / 6.0 28.3 x 31.5
24 x 36 6.5 / 6.5 40.0 x 56.25 1.57- 2.36
34 x 44 .25 / 7.2 53.25 x 67.5 .098 x .118

1.57 x 2.36
47 x 63 .75 / 7.7 63 x 79
.098 x .118

55 x 71 8.5 / 8.5 71 x 87 3.0 x 1.5

0.125
63 x 83 9.8 / 9.8 81 x 101 4.0 x 1.5 4.0 x 1.5
0.125 .125 x .312

7.8 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Screen printing mesh

Non-contact printing with lift-off necessarily distorts the stencil

carrier, even before consideration of the mesh shift caused by the
squeegee action. The change or distortion of the impression
depends primarily on the distance between the stencil and the
printing substrate (off contact).
Mesh distortion as a function of the off contact distance:
Internal screen dimension: 40”

5" 30" 5"

A
,

Mesh distortion “V“, front view:

A = 0.004” V = 0.0003”
A = 0.008” V = 0.0013”
A = 0.012” V = 0.0028”

20"

A ,

Mesh distortion “V“, side view:

A = .004” V = 0.000008’
A = .008” V = 0.000315”
A = .012” V = 0.000709”

The friction of the squeegee on the stencil leads to a shifting or

distortion of the imprint in the direction of the squeegee motion.
Register inaccuracies are influenced by:
– ink viscosity
– squeegee pressure
– squeegee shape and position
– squeegee hardness
– printing speed
– surface condition of the printing substrate
– screen stability

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Register 7.9
This requires investigation of the qualities of the stencil carrier (mesh)
in regard to elongation resistance.

a) Polyamide
Even with maximum stabilization, nylon mesh (polyamide), cannot
achieve the stretch resistance of polyester mesh. They are primarily
used for printing curved surfaces, where high elasticity is desirable.
b) Polyester / steel
For precision-register prints, especially in larger sizes, the choice is
between polyester and steel (V2A) screen mesh. Steel has even
higher stretch resistance than polyester. Nevertheless, polyester
stencils are often preferred because, correctly tensioned, they
satisfy register requirements and are less sensitive to blows and
shock.
It is impossible to specify reliable coefficients for register
differences and the differences between polyester and steel mesh,
since other factors previously mentioned always interfere.
Numerous comparative tests have been made, particularly by
circuit printers.
Steel’s higher susceptibility to fatigue is well known in practice,
but cannot be quantified.
c) Mesh strength
The strength and stretch resistance of a monofilament thread
increase in proportion to the square of the diameter, while the
strength of the mesh only increases in linear proportion to the
mesh count.
A mesh woven from relatively thick threads is thus more stretch
resistant and prints with better register. The choice of mesh count,
and thread diameter depend on the fineness of the print, the
desired ink volume, and mesh permeability.
d)High-modulus polyester mesh
High-modulus polyester mesh types are characterized by increased
strength and dimensional stability. They find use in virtually all
screen printing applications.
e) UV mesh for printing UV inks
Calendered (i.e. heat-flattened) mesh offers less resistance to
squeegee motion, hardly move, and promote good register.
Calendering inevitably reduces the mesh opening, which can be
desirable for very low-viscosity lacquers and UV inks.

7.10 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
f) Static electricity
Electrostatic charging of polyamide and polyester mesh is
prevented by pre-treating the mesh during manufacturing on the
one hand, as well as by appropriate conditioning of the working
area (RH > 55%). Lonisers and anti-static additives in printing ink
can limit the build-up of electrostatic charge during printing.

Optimal mesh tension

1)Degree of stretch:
See also the chapter on mesh stretching.
The tensioning force is limited by the nature and capacity of the
stretching equipment, but even more so by the strength of the
mesh and the rigidity of the printing frame. Mesh woven from
high-viscosity polyester can be stretched to extraordinary levels.
Very high mesh tension allows a small distance between the
screen and the printing stock, and precise adjustment of the
squeegee pressure.
The degree of tension can be measured in different ways:
a) pressure gauge on pneumatic stretching equipment
b) measuring elongation of a predetermined length of mesh
before and after stretching (2–4% elongation for polyester
mesh, 4–6% for polyimide)
c) using instruments that measure the sag of the mesh under
applied weight, and display the result scaled in mm or N/cm
(NEWTONTESTER, TETKOMAT)
Good quality mesh types have the same stretch resistance in warp
and weft, and do not require different degrees of stretching.
Differing tensions can be useful in very narrow or curved frames,
as used for printing skis, as well as in rotary printing.

2)Choice of stretching machine:

Pneumatic stretching equipment is recommended for best register
precision. Pneumatic stretching equipment requires minimal
adjustment once the mesh is at tension. Mechanical stretching
equipment is more operator intensive, requiring additional labor to
continue to stretch mesh to maintain tension.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Register 7.11
3)Pneumatic tensioning:
The mesh must be clamped parallel to the warp and weft threads.
Take care that the sum total of the clamp lengths does not exceed
the length of the printing frame. The clamps should line up flush
beside each other, and pull uniformly and simultaneously at the
mesh. Unsynchronized clamp movements produce shear forces
that can tear the mesh. The stretching equipment must be
extremely well treated and maintained.

Stretching with pneumatic clamps

4)Stretching with mechanical machines:

The mesh must be clamped parallel to the warp and weft threads.
Mesh is pulled out a little from the corner clamps, to avoid local
over-stretching (see table).
The clamps must hold the mesh gently enough not to cause
damage, but tight enough to avoid slippage. The warp and weft
must be stretched to the same tension.

7.12 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Y1

X1 X1
X2 X2

a a

X2 X2
X1 X1

a = pocket

Corner softening a t positions X1 and X2 for

SEFARÒ P ecap LE
maximum tensioning force of:
Frame length
10 N/cm 20 N/cm 30 N/cm
Y1 or Y2
1 yard .18 inches .36 inches .54 inches
2 yards .36 inches .54 inches .72 inches
3 yards .54 inches .72 inches .90 inches
4 yards .72 inches .90 inches .98 inches

Gluing mesh to the printing frame

1)Frame pre-treatment:
The adhesion surface of new frames must be roughened and
degreased. Old glue should be removed from used frames where
possible. Sharp edges and corners must be smoothed down.
2)Solvent-proof adhesives (two-component glue):
Adhesive Characteristics:
– easily spread, approximately 1 hour pot life
– drying time (depends on mesh count and mesh thickness)
– mechanical tensile strength 175-200 lbs per 4 inches of selvedge
– solvent-proof within less than 24 hours
– hot water proof (max. 70ºC)

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Register 7.13
7.5 The printing substrate
Importance of air and material conditioning to the dimensional
stability of the material to be printed.
Composition
Composite substrates that have been woven, coated or laminated
from several materials should undergo an ink test to determine
dimensional changes brought about by the ink and solvents
(curling/buckling).
Conditioning
Optimum climactic conditions exist for achieving high-quality results
on paper and cardboard.
It is extremely important to allow the substrate to become
acclimatized to the environment in the print room. If possible,
atmospheric conditions should be the same in the print room and in
the warehouse.

Paper and cardboard

1)Effect of temperature:
Normal changes in room temperature have surprisingly little effect
on paper and cardboard characteristics by themselves. (Printers
require a certain temperature level and stability more because of
ink viscosity and drying characteristics.) However, temperature
affects the relative moisture content of the printing substrate,
which is extremely important.
2)Effect of relative humidity:
All vegetable fibers, of which paper and cardboard are made, are
hygroscopic. Water absorption strongly depends on the quality of
the paper.
Rag papers (made from textile waste) absorb the least water,
cellulose (wood pulp) is somewhere in the middle, and mechanical
pulp absorbs the most moisture of all.
Water absorption is increased by heavy milling, and reduced by
high filler content. Paper’s hygroscopic behavior further depends
on its preconditioning. If the paper has been previously dried, it
will absorb less water than if it has been left moist (hysteresis).

7.14 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
The wet elongation curves for the papers mentioned above are all
S-shaped, i.e. they are flattest between 40 – 60% relative
humidity. Moreover, elongation is less along the paper’s
manufacturing length than across its width, because the fibers
tend to orient themselves in the machine direction and fibers swell
many times more diametrically than longitudinally. Papers with
closely compacted fibers spread more.
During manufacture, a paper is exposed to stresses that may
remain largely latent. As soon as the paper becomes softened by
moisture, it tends to contract in the machine direction while
expanding transversely.

Degree of elongation

As a rule of thumb, it can be assumed that under working

conditions of around 50% relative humidity, a change of 10% will
cause the following dimensional changes in the printing stock:
– transverse to the machine direction: 0.028-0.036 inches per yard
– longitudinally to the machine direction: 0.108 inches per yard

The average dimensional changes between 20% and 80% relative

humidity (e.g. for SK* 95 g/m2 offset paper) can be estimated at:
– transverse: 0.045 inches per yard
– longitudinal: 0.017 inches per yard
for a 10% change in relative humidity.

Plastics

Here again, it is first necessary to establish whether the printing base

consists of a single material or a composite: e.g. whether a foil has
been rolled on or affixed to a backing. The foil to be printed may, in
some cases, be so elastic that it will follow all the dimensional
changes of the base or backing to which it is affixed.
The same applies, of course, to self-adhesive foils before being
attached to a base, if the adhesive is covered with a protective
paper.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Register 7.15
Relatively rigid, e.g. polyester-based, foils are an exception, where
fluctuating humidity can lead to bulging as the protective paper
expands and contracts more than the foil itself.
Dimensional changes in plastics, brought about by temperature and
humidity fluctuations, vary widely. Conductivity is generally very low,
and moisture absorption proceeds so slowly that the plastic can take
hours or days to respond to a change in relative humidity. Changes
caused by temperature fluctuations are of more importance than
those due to varying humidity, which are practically insignificant. The
influence of solvents on PVC, however, has to be considered.
Dimensional change in microns/yard for a temperature variation
thickness of 5°F:
– polyester 123
– PVC 320-457
– transparent acrylic 320

Glassine foils

When printing on glassine foils (transparent viscose foils, which are

not counted among the synthetic plastics), considerable dimensional
changes must be expected as a result of their strongly hygroscopic
nature. It depends on whether these foils are unlacquered (PT foils),
or lacquered with cellulose (MSAT foils) or PVDC (MXXT or K foils).

Acetate

Where accurate printing register is important, acetate foils (viscose

treated with ethanoic acid) are preferred, provided no difficulties
arise in regard to inks and printing procedures. The dimensional
change in response to a 41°F temperature change is 640um / yard,
not considering dimensional changes due to moisture.

Summary

The factors discussed affecting accurate register show that the

primary stencil requisites for best printing results are:
– frame stability
– correct mesh stretching
– the stencil making method

7.16 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Factors such as dimensional changes of
– polyester-based film positives
– the frame material itself
– use of polyester or steel as the stencil carrier
are less important.

Register is further influenced by:

– squeegee pressure
– squeegee hardness
– ink viscosity
– off- contact
– type of facility
– printing machine quality
Proper conditioning of the print room and printing stock are crucial
when printing on paper and cardboard.
Below, we again compare the various possible dimensional changes
to compare their importance. This is intended to help pinpoint
sources of error whose elimination would be advantageous.
For dimensional changes caused by temperature and humidity, we
use as standards:
– 5°F temperature variation, or
– 10% change in relative atmospheric humidity
We disregard the inverse relationship between temperature and
relative humidity.
It should further be noted that air conditioning within tolerances of
±5°F and ±5% humidity represents an advanced standard for a
modern screen printing facility, and requires highly accurate
supervision. In general, the following numerical values will have to
be multiplied according to the actual atmospheric fluctuations in
each individual case.
Data are given in terms of microns per yard.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Register 7.17
1)Dimensional changes induced by climactic conditions in microns
5°F 10%
temperature rel. humidity
change change
Film positive, polyester
100 um thick 135 21
Film positive, polyester
180 um thick 135 16
Steel frame 65 0
Aluminum frame 13 0
Printing stock:
Paper, transverse
elongation insignificant approximately 731-914
Longitudinal elongation insignificant approximately 274

2)Mechanically induced dimensional changes:

Fluctuations in frame warping up to approximately 0.08”

Distance between stencil and printing stock:

0.12” lift-off DIN A1 impression length 25 um
impression width 65 um
0.19” lift-off DIN A1 impression length 75 um
impression width 180 um
Distortion by squeegee friction:
Well-stretched steel stencil approximately 20um and over
Well-stretched polyester stencil approximately 30um and over

Indirect stencil:
Film shrinkage through
washing and drying up to approximately 30um

7.18 Register
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
8. Halftone printing

The original artwork to be halftone printed is frequently a

photographic image. Images of this kind cannot generally be raster
printed in their original form: photographs are always continuous-
tone images, where the gradient from light to dark has no
discernible point structure.
The artwork must first be converted into a printable form. This is
done by translating the continuous-tone image into halftone dots,
using an AM or FM raster.

8.1 AM halftone (amplitude modulated rastering)

An area of continuous tone is resolved into a grid, with rows of

larger and smaller dots. Viewed under a microscope, it becomes
clear how the dot size is related to color intensity, while the distance
between the dots is fixed. In other words, we have a fixed dot
spacing with variable dot area. If we draw a plot of dot area on the
vertical axis against dot spacing on the horizontal axis, the result is a
curve whose amplitude changes according to the dot coverage,
while the dot spacing remains fixed. The general shape of the curve
is not unlike an ”amplitude modulated” waveform, with fixed
frequency and changing intensity or amplitude.

Analog raster with variable area (amplitude)

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.1
Although the printing process is inherently digital (1/0, ink/no ink),
the end result is an apparently analogue (smooth tone)
representation of the original image. Applied to color printing, the
very nature of the technique encourages moiré patterns. Counter
measures, such as angling the individual color separations, are
required to minimise the moirés inevitably produced by multi-color
printing.

8.2 FM halftone (frequency-modulated rastering)

The ability to produce laser-generated points smaller than the
smallest practicable analog raster dot opens the possibilities of
emulating analogue rasters, or pursuing a new, digital half-tone
model. The first laser and film recorders were designed merely to
reproduce the well-established analogue raster angles and pitches.
However, the technique’s growing popularity has given rise to new
rendering models that go under the general name of “frequency-
modulated halftones”.
The recording technology allows representing a continuous-tone
image by varying the distribution of uniformly sized, extremely small
dots. Varying coverage is achieved by varying the number of
recorded dots per unit area.

20 % tone 80% tone

value value

Conventional (AM)

Agfa CristalRaster

Heidelberg
Prepress Diamond Raster

UGRA/FOGRA Velvet Raster

Scitex Fulltone

Crosfield

8.2 Halftone printing

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Examining the dots, it is clear how they are much finer distributed
than with an AM raster, as well as being all the same size. If we
draw a plot of dot size as amplitude on the vertical axis against dot
spacing on the horizontal axis, we obtain curves of constant
amplitude, but variable distance between adjacent peaks. The curve’s
general character corresponds to a frequency-modulated waveform
– which is why we speak of a frequency-modulated raster.

Coverage and frequency modulation

Various methods have been devised for positioning the dots in an
optimal manner.
On a practical level, it is clear that an FM raster results in
considerably finer dots on the film, and hence uniform color
coverage. It should also be apparent that this type of halftone
translation virtually eliminates moiré effects. In their place come
other disturbances such as clustering or heaping.
It is important for the halftone printer using FM dots to know and
control the minimum printable and reproducible size. We
recommend a dot diameter corresponding to at least 2 threads plus
1 mesh opening of the halftone printing mesh.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.3
8.3 Types of halftone rulings
For a halftone image to be effective at a given size and viewing
distance, one must determine a number of factors, including the
type and fineness of the raster ruling.
Monochrome halftone images can be achieved using so-called
”effect rasters”. These are:
– Corn raster
– Worm raster
– Line ruling
– Circular ruling

Corn raster example

The uneven structure of corn and worm rasters is less prone to

moiré effects than line, point or bead-string rulings.
For textile printing, there is a long-established type of graining
known as the ”DIRACOP method”. Even now, halftones are often
prepared by hand, using transparent foils with a grained surface to
achieve the halftone structure.

8.4 Halftone printing

1 = Dot raster, dots blend at approximately 70%

2 = Bead ruling, dots blend at a) approx. 40%
b) approx. 60%
3 = Checkerboard ruling, dots blend at 50%
1 = Dot raster, dots blend at approx. 70%
2 = Bead ruling, dots blend at a) approx. 40%
b) approx. 60%
3 = Checkerboard ruling, dots blend at 50%

Dot transition/blending

Dot shape affects the way raster dots transition within total ranges.
Here, we examine each dot shape in turn at 46% and 52%
coverage respectively.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.5
Round dots at 46% and 52% coverage, and at blending
Round dots blend at 65–70%. When this happens, though, it affects
four neighbouring dots simultaneously, and this results in a steep
tone value transition.

Elliptical dots at 46% and 52% coverage

With a beaded raster, the dots blend at two distinct tone values. This
results in a virtually unnoticeable transition. Dot blending is
direction-dependent: two neighbouring dots first chain together,
then the two parallel chains combine.

Square dots at 46% and 52% coverage

Square dots blend with four neighbouring dots simultaneously,
resulting in a steep tone value transition. In halftone printing, the
effect is further emphasised by the high ink deposit.

8.6 Halftone printing

Mesh and halftone fineness

The finest details should properly adhere to the mesh. Areas with the
highest ink coverage, i.e. where the smallest dots of emulsion must
cling to the mesh, are particularly critical. The smallest points should
not be allowed to rest on just one thread, or even fall through the
mesh opening.

Critical dot sizes

Strictly speaking, the diameter of the smallest halftone dot on the
film should be microscopically measured, in order to select a mesh of
the correct fineness.

coverage 5% 10% 15% 20% 30% 70% 80% 85% 90% 95%
lpi
51 126 178 218 252 309 309 252 218 178 126
56 114 162 198 229 280 280 229 198 162 114
64 101 142 175 202 247 247 202 175 142 101
71 90 127 156 180 220 220 180 156 127 90
76 84 119 145 168 206 206 168 145 119 84
81 79 111 136 157 193 193 157 136 111 79
86 74 105 128 148 182 182 148 128 105 74
102 63 89 109 126 154 154 126 109 89 63
122 52 74 90 105 128 128 105 90 74 52
137 46 66 81 93 114 114 93 81 66 46
152 42 59 72 84 103 103 84 72 59 42

Table of dot sizes

From the examples above, it is clear that the diameter of the smallest
dot must correspond to two threads plus one mesh opening, if the
halftone dot is to be adequately supported by the mesh.

Halftone printing is a print-through process and not – as in offset – a

transfer process. The raster printing form (mesh + stencil) produces a
thicker ink deposit than a litho plate. This is the characteristic and
advantage of raster printing, namely, the intense and effective depth
of color. In halftone printing, however, the ink deposit should be
relatively thin, because the finer the line ruling and the higher the
degree of coverage, the more difficult it is to avoid ink running in
the high-coverage, dark print areas (smudging).
The thinner and finer the mesh, the less ink is deposited. Thinner
mesh therefore is better suited for fine halftone printing.
When printing areas with low percentage coverage, the ink should
flow freely through the smallest mesh openings without any
obstruction from threads or stencil thickness. In this respect, a
relatively light mesh is more advantageous than one with thick
threads.

5 % coverage 10 % coverage 95 % coverage 90 % coverage

Fineness and viewing distance

The halftone simulates continuous tone in as much as the eye

cannot distinguish the individual dots anymore.
Under normal conditions, the human eye discerns two adjacent
points or lines as separate when their images do not impinge on two
neighbouring retinal cells (rods or cones). There has to be at least
one intervening retinal cell.

8.8 Halftone printing

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
The dots therefore become indistinguishable when their images fall
on the same or two adjacent retinal cells.
The minimum angular resolution of the human eye is approx. 0.02°.

40 lpi
75 lpi
200 lpi

0.6 mm 0.3 mm 0.1 mm

1foot
3 feet
6 feet

Raster rulings discernable to the eye

Guidelines:

Image Size Viewing distance Halftone dots

(inches) per inch
<8.5 x 11 22 inches 91-122

8.5 x 11 22 inches 61-91

11 x 17 22-44 inches 46-61

17 x 22 3-11 feet 38-51

24 x 36 7-18 feet 30-46

34 x 44 11-36 feet 30-38

>34 x 44 11-72 feet -30

The following factors should be considered when determining

whether a given print job is feasible:

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.9
– Adapt the line ruling to the surface structure of the printing
material.
– Glaring or highly intensive colors require a relatively coarser raster
ruling than pastel colors. The coarser the halftone ruling, the
higher the contrast of the print.
– For finer or softer images, choose a finer line ruling.
From the commercial viewpoint, a halftone printer is advised to first
print with course line counts to gain experience before moving on to
finer halftones. When selecting a halftone line count, the viewing
distance should always be taken into consideration.

8.5 Tone values of halftone dots

Tone value expresses the relative area coverage of the halftone dots
compared to maximum (100%) coverage.
In offset printing, the percentage coverage of the dots can range
from 95% to 5%, whereas the screen printer must be satisfied with
a tone value range from approximately 85% to 10%. This applies to
raster rulings of approximately 12 lpi and finer.
For a perfectly printed 15% dot, the ink must be relatively fluid in
order to keep the dots open in the mesh. However, this leads to
difficulty in obtaining the tonal range because the dots for 85%
coverage tend to smudge if the ink is too thin. On the other hand if
the ink is made more viscous, the smallest dots tend to dry too
quickly and block the mesh openings.
Tone value:
Therefore, ink viscosity is a compromise in order to prevent smudging
in dark areas, while permitting fine dots in the light areas of the
image.
Tone value of the color separation:
For halftone raster printing, the film maker should calculate the
maximum coverage for all four colors together, to reach an optimum
density of 300%. For reproductions with predominantly dark areas,
the color black should not attain more than 75% coverage. Yellow,
however, can show higher coverage in order to produce the correct
tone values for green and red.

8.10 Halftone printing

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Typically, the finer the raster ruling, the greater the difficulties will
experience. This illustrates present-day limits to commercial halftone
printing.
Examples for perfect reproduction of halftone values in raster
printing:
up to 60 lines/inch 5-90 %
up to 100 lines/inch 10-85%
up to 120 lines/inch 15-80%
These examples are based on the following general rules:
The finest printable dot should have a diameter of 80–100 µm (This
corresponds to the sum of 2 thread diameters + 1 mesh opening in
Pecap LE 7-380-31 PW mesh).

8.6 Halftone printing process line

The process line is the characteristic curve describing the relationship
between tone values on the film positive and those of the
corresponding printed image.
The halftone printing process line serves as a correction guideline,
which helps the printer avoid the problems that would otherwise
arise in half-tone printing.
The raster printer therefore needs no measuring instrument. A
halftone step wedge with at least 10 tone values should be printed
alongside the artwork. The printer uses a transmission densitometer
to measure the halftone values on the positive film, and a reflection
densitometer on the print. The results can be compared on a chart.

Example of a printing process line

Film tone Print tone Dot

value value gain / loss
% %
99 100 +1 100
91 98 +7 90
83 94 +11 80
76 89 +13 75
69 84 +15 70
63 76 +13 65
53 59 +8 60
47 53 +6 50
40 44 +4 40
32 35 +3 30
28 28 0 25
22 22 0 20
17 15 -2 15
11 7 -4 10
6 2 -4 5
1 0 -1 0

8.12 Halftone printing

% 16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4

0 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 50 60 65 70 75 80 90 100%

Schematic representation of the printing color scale

Every process line must also specify the following operational
parameters:
– film lines/inch, type
– mesh type, threads/inch, tension N/cm
–type of stencil emulsion, capillary film, indirect film
– stencil thickness specified in µm
– surface roughness Rz value in µm
– ink type, manufacturer, composition, viscosity
– machine type, manufacturer
– squeegee hardness, thickness, clearance, angle,
pressure
–printing stock precise description, e.g. type of paper, etc.
The color scale can be significantly influenced by a change in any
single item in the list above.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.13
8.7 Printing control strip
The FOGRA DKL-S1 control strip has been specially developed for
halftone printing, and may be used for visual and densitometric
monitoring of the following:
– Stencil production
– Changes in tone values
– Color caste
– Color balance
– Dot gain

Halftone field

This area features halftone dots with coverage levels from 5% to

95%. The raster count is 61 dots/inch. This facilitates visual and
(preferably) densitometric checks on tone value transfer during
printing.

Full tone field

A further check, which is of utmost importance in raster printing, is

to measure the intensity of the printed ink.
A reflection densitometer is used to measure the ink intensity of the
four colors in the full tone fields. To achieve a good grey balance, all
three process colors must lie within a close tolerance range.

Raster and full tone

Example full tone measurement:

Color Required density Tolerance
CYAN 1.45 ± 0.10
YELLOW 1.00 ± 0.05
YELLOW 47B 1.40 ± 0.10
MAGENTA 1.40 ± 0.10
BLACK 1.85 ± 0.15

Measuring instrument: Densitometer

Printing stock: Artistic printing papers

8.14 Halftone printing

These areas allow color acceptance to be assessed both visually and

by measurement. It is important to use the same print-color
sequence for proof prints as well as for the production run.
M/Y C/M C/Y C/M/Y

Overlaid print

Ring field

This allows monitoring of transfer errors during printing, which can

be caused by smearing effects.

Ring field

Balance field

The combined three-color print in the balance area should be a

neutral grey, with a tone value approximately equal to the 40% half-
tone field. This is a very sensitive indicator of shifting color balance
during a print run.

Balance field

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.15
8.8 Types of stencils
Generally speaking, one can use any kind of stencil for halftone
printing. However, one should take into consideration a few points
that are typical for this kind of printing.
The difficulty with printing single or multi-colored halftones is that
both light and dark areas must be neatly printed. There should also
be no shifts in tone values. To maintain a perfect tonal range, the
stencil emulsion should be as thin as possible.
The preferred stencils for halftone printing are therefore indirect
stencils, or direct stencils with film and water (capillary film), and
minimal film thickness.
Direct stencils with photo emulsion are also used for long press runs.
However, it is essential that they have a thin coating (5–10% of
mesh thickness) and low Rz value (less than the coating above the
mesh in µm).

Important: Direct stencils should use yellow dyed mesh to avoid

light scatter during exposure.

Only impeccable film positives are suited for halftone work. For
correct reproduction of the complete range of tone values, it is
essential that all the dots are completely opaque right up to their
edges. (See chapter 5.4)

8.9 Avoidance of moiré effects

In film making, suitable angling controls the moiré effect produced
between the halftone lines of the individual component colors.
Halftone angling is often given in two different ways:
– within 90° for rulings with two axes of symmetry (e.g.
checkerboard and dot rulings)
– within 180° for rulings with one axis of symmetry (e.g. bead
ruling)

8.16 Halftone printing

0 Yellow
¡ 0 Yellow
¡

15 Magenta
¡ 15 Magenta
¡

45 Black
¡

75 Cyan
¡ 75 Cyan
¡

135 Black
¡

Within 90 ¡ Within 180 ¡

Strong colors like CYAN, MAGENTA and BLACK must always be at

an angle of 30° from each other. This minimizes visible moiré
patterns due to the interplay of the raster rulings. YELLOW, being a
weaker color, can be set at a 15° angle from a darker color. In raster
printing, yellow should be on the vertical axis of the image, since a
moiré caused by the stencil mesh is barely visiable.

Angling of 4-color halftone rulings

Images with a high black content (deep tones)

Within 90° Within 180°
YELLOW 0° 0°
MAGENTA 15 ° 15 °
CYAN 75 ° 75 °
BLACK 45 ° 135 °

Images where YELLOW + MAGENTA are predominate, e.g. skin

tones, orange tones
Within 90° Within 180°
YELLOW 0° 0°
MAGENTA 45 ° 135 °
CYAN 75 ° 75 °
BLACK 15 ° 15 °

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.17
Images where YELLOW + CYAN predominate, e.g. green and
turquoise tones
Within 90° Within 180°
YELLOW 0° 0°
MAGENTA 15 ° 75 °
CYAN 45 ° 135 °
BLACK 75 ° 15 °

General suggestions:
The strongest, most dominant colors should be at 45° in the 90°
disposition or at 135° in the 180° disposition (45° left).
For five, six or more colors, the angling should be chosen in such a
way that the light colors coincide with their complementary colors,
e.g. dark red and light blue, dark blue and light red. An additional
grey plate should be angled in such a manner that it does not
coincide with colors strongly related to grey.

Angling of 3-color halftone rulings

Within 90° Within 180°
Dark color 45 ° a) 45 ° b) 135 °
Light color 15 ° 105 ° 75 °
Third color 75 ° 165 ° 15 °

Angling of 2-color halftone rulings

Within 90° Within 180°
Dark color 45 ° a) 45 ° b) 135 °
Light color 75 ° 105 ° 75 °

Angling of single color halftone rulings

Within 90° Within 180°
45 ° a) 45 °

8.18 Halftone printing

In raster printing, an additional moiré effect can result from

unsuitable angling of the halftone lines of a particular component
color in relation to the mesh. This effect is most plainly visible in
monochrome prints, whereas multi-color printing tends to conceal it.
The moiré effect is most apparent in the 40–60% range.
The moiré can be wholly or partially eliminated in the following
ways:
1.By the type of stencil:
The moiré effect is less apparent with an indirect stencil, since the
influence of the mesh is less pronounced than in the case of direct
stencils.
2.By the fineness of the mesh:
The finer the mesh in relation to the raster ruling, the less visible is
the moiré effect.
Recommended ratio between mesh count and the fineness of the
halftone ruling:
Mesh count/inch : Halftone L/inch
2.50 : 1.00
3.75 : 1.00
5.00 : 1.00
Examples:
mesh Ratio Halftone L/inch
Pecap LE 7-355-31: 2.50 : 1 142 lines/inch
3.75 : 1 95 lines/inch
5.00 : 1 71 lines/inch
i.e. the mesh number is divided by the ratio.
If these recommendations are followed, there will be hardly any
visible moiré effect at halftone angles of 15°, 45° and 75°. In the
rare event of moiré still appearing, it is advisable to increase or
decrease the number of halftone dots/inch by one or two:
either 0.5-2 halftone dots more
or 0.5-2 halftone dots less.
3.By the mesh angling:
a) An ideal, universal angle for the mesh on the halftone printing
frame lies between 4° and 9°, provided the halftone lines of the
component colors, as in the previous examples, are aligned
with the vertical or horizontal axis.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.19
Angling the mesh, e.g. to 7.5°, has the additional advantage
that the cause of striped print appearance can be traced with
certainty to the mesh, or a poorly ground squeegee blade.
Stretching at a certain angle can be ordered from your
stretching service. A well-equipped stretching service can
provide an evenly straight stretched frame, which is essential
for avoiding moiré.
b) It is difficult to load a frame into an automatic printing machine
at anything other than right angles. Therefore, it is advised not
to angle the image on the stencil, and feed the printing stock
at a corresponding angle.
c) There remains the angling of the whole set of film positives
(e.g. +7.5°) with respect to the image axis.
4.By the type of halftone raster
a) According to current theory, grained raster, line raster and
circular are only suitable for monochrome printing. There is
little danger of moiré with these types of halftones. For a line
raster, the mesh is angled.
b) Halftones with elliptical dots (bead ruling) can, under certain
circumstances, lessen the chance for moiré development. It is
for this reason that they are selected to soften abrupt color-
tone transitions.

8.10 General recommendations

– A basic requirement for perfect image reproduction is the quality
of the film positive, with complete opaque half-tone dots.
– The color separations and the printing inks should follow the same
color scale, e.g. EUROSCALA.
– Place the halftone positive on a glass plate, illuminated from
below. Place the stretched halftone on the positive, parallel to the
image axis. If a moiré appears, turn the film left or right until the
moiré effect disappears (approx. 7° is sufficient in most cases).
– The critical zones for the formation of moiré lie in the direction of
the threads and their cross-overs.
– Dominant or darker colors tend to cause more moiré problems.
– For 4-color prints, stable metal frames of the same dimensions
should be used.

8.20 Halftone printing

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
– All frames are stretched with the same mesh.
– Use a dyed mesh for direct stencils.
– Stretch the mesh tightly along the directions of the threads.
– Stretch all 4 frames with the same tension and procedure.
– A perfectly ground squeegee is crucial to a high quality print.
– The squeegee blade should be of about 70° shore hardness.
– The squeegee should be set at an angle of 75°. If the squeegee is
set at too flat an angle, it tends to smudge. Set it too steep, or
there is a greater risk of mesh distortion.
– The flood bar should not be set too low. The stroke should leave a
thin film of ink on the stencil. If the doctor blade is set too low,
the stencil becomes overfilled with ink and the print is smudged.
– Halftone images are printed with high-viscosity inks.
– Initial halftone printing trials should be carried out with coarse
raster rulings.
– The finest mesh counts require relatively high color pigmentation.
– UV inks tend to smudge, but do not dry in the mesh. For this
reason, the halftone film should have a tone value range of
5–80%.
– In 4-color process printing using UV inks, ensure that the
additional stencil thickness and the Rz value are no higher than 5
µm.
– To control UV ink smearing when overprinting colors, the
following color printing sequence may be used:
CYAN – MAGENTA – YELLOW – BLACK
– For UV inks, the squeegee should have 75° shore hardness, i.e.
generally somewhat harder than with conventional inks.
– The squeegee angle should be approximately 75°.

Recommended halftone line ruling (inches) in relation to mesh count (inch)

The following basic parameters must be established before making

use of the recommendation:
a) Type of printing job
b)Type of ink
c) Fineness of halftone ruling

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.21
Graphical work, CDs:
Ink type Halftone Mesh Thread
lpi threads/inch diameter
Solvent-based inks up to 120 dots/inch 305 - 420 27, 31 and 34 µm
UV inks up to 150 dots/inch 355 - 460 27, 31 and 34 µm
up to 38 dots/inch 230/2 34 µm
Water-based inks up to 120 dots/inch 355 - 460 27 and 31 µm

Direct printing onto ceramics:

Ink type Halftone Mesh Thread
lpi threads/inch diameter
Water-based inks
Floor tiles up to 60 dots/inch 103 - 195 80, 70, 64, 55
and 48 µm
Solvent/water
based inks
Wall tiles up to 90 dots/inch 305 - 355 34 and (31) µm

Ceramic transfers:
Ink type Halftone Mesh Thread
lpi threads/inch diameter
Solvent-based inks up to120 dots/inch 305 - 355 31 and 27 µm

T-Shirt printing:
Ink type Halftone Mesh Thread
lpi threads/inch diameter
Pigment ink up to 60 dots/inch 156 - 195 64, 55 and 48µm
230 40 µm
Plastisol ink up to 90 dots/inch 230 - 355 48, 40, 34
and (31) µm

8.22 Halftone printing

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
8.11 Improved printing stability through achromatic
reproduction
Helmut Acker, Production Manager in an electronic prepress house
Helmut Acker writes about achromatic reproduction from the
repro house’s point of view.
Regardless of the printing process used, multi-color reproductions,
where the various hues are produced by rastering, now tend to
originate on scanning equipment. Specialized raster types, and
rulings, dot shapes and raster angles are either built-in, or are
available from dealers as plug-ins.
Modern, customisable color scanners facilitate color separations
based either on traditional chromatic techniques, or newer
achromatic methods. Given the right software, achromatic films can
be produced which are just as reliable and accurate as traditional
three-color separations.
There are wide differences of professional opinion about the
production of achromatic separations. Some authorities maintain
that grayscales should be achieved using black alone, and all
composite colors obtained from two process colors plus black. This
offers the prospect of saving on expensive process colors, while
improving or even matching the brilliance of deep colors –
a result much sought-after by offset printers.
A technical discussion of achromatic films must distinguish between
achromatic in a narrower sense, and increased UCR (under-color
removal). Practical experience shows that repro specialists must
adopt a very different approach to UCR. For technical illustrations of
objects like radios, televisions, cameras, binoculars etc, UCR together
with a corresponding combination of full black is very successful in
reducing coverage from at least 280% to approximately 200%. This
gives a more brilliant result, while avoiding color interference effects
in areas of dark red or green tones.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.23
On the other hand, illustrations of predominantly full-colored, dark
subjects should be given only minimal UCR, to counter the risk of
being unable to use black to compensate for strong color removal.
This is mainly a problem in gravure and offset printing.

100%

50%

0%
C M Y K

40% C 50% M 60% Y 30% K 180%

Process color buildup with under-color reduction

In our experience of making software-generated achromatic
separations, we generally assemble the separation from cyan, yellow,
magenta, and a skeletal black mainly for enhancing the dark tones.
We also remove any trace of impure composite color and replace it
with black. This results in color separations with much reduced color
saturation and an unusually rich black. For example as a result,
brown tones no longer contain cyan, while green to olive contains
no red. The missing color is always replaced by black. This brings
great advantages during the print run. The image generally gains in
brilliance, and we notice time and time again: achromatic is more
colorful!

8.24 Halftone printing

50%

0%
C M Y K

0% C 10% M 20% Y 70% K 100%

Achromatic buildup
Experience shows that, while technically possible, it is inadvisable to
carry removal of the third process color to extremes. We know that a
grey made up of process colors is more pleasant visually than a half-
tone black. We therefore recommend not completely removing the
third process color in impure colors, in order to retain a harmonious
effect. This technique is known as achromatic buildup with process
addition.

100%

50%

0%
C M Y K

25% C 35% M 45% Y 45% K 150%

Achromatic buildup with process addition

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.25
It is fair to ask the reason for discussing achromatic buildup in a
raster printing context. It is an established fact that achromatic films
offer particular economic and qualitative advantages to offset
printers working with four-color and web offset machines. The same
can be said of gravure, where offset films are used. Initial results
with raster printing indicate that this process stands to gain most of
all from achromatic techniques. The missing process color in the final
result accelerates drying considerably. The reduction in the amount
of ink overprinting virtually eliminates velvet effects. Reduced ink
usage brings its own set of advantages. Register problems are much
less visible, since black is the only detail-printing color.
Given that on-raster assessment of the color separation is not yet
perfect, proof prints remain essential. This inevitably leads to higher
film production costs. Extreme use of achromatic technique exacts a
price in side-effects and artefacts which have to be taken into
consideration. Complete removal the third process color can make
certain tones appear harsh, the absence of certain dots in the color
rosettes may even lead to moiré, and the smallest differences of
register can cause white flashes on some print run specimens. All
these aspects, in particular the degree of color removal, must be
given due attention by the repro specialist making the color
separations.

8.12 Fake color reproduction for textile printing

Heuristic rastering is a digital coloration and design system in which
the desired color tones are produced by overlaping textile printing
inks on the fibers themselves. A precision-calculated raster doses the
individual color elements. A combination of specialised litho work,
precision stencil production, and a fine-tuned printing process
deposits successive individual ink doses on the mesh fibers, where
they subsequently blend together. Four stencils suffice to print a
design with a virtually unlimited range of colors . This technique is
suitable to producing attractive, multi-colored designs at low cost,
with minimal environmental impact.

8.26 Halftone printing

There was a time when the printer, as well as the colorist, were
artisans if not indeed artists. The requirements were primarily
aesthetic, and technical resources were limited.
Times change. It was no longer considered acceptable for the
printing machine to limit the maximum number of colors on a
printed fabric. Various halftone techniques were developed,
including halftone rasters. One well-known example is the
”DIRACOP” process, which uses a kind of corn raster. Even now,
suitable color separations are prepared by hand, using transparent
foils with a grained surface to achieve the half-tone structure.

The corn raster is produced photographically using a magenta

contact raster.
There have been repeated attempts at introducing standardised
4-color halftone techniques to the textile printing industry.

Incentives for developing fake color films

The driving forces behind the development of fake color

techniques are:
– ability to realize attractive designs
– improved economic factors
– reduced environmental impact

Fake color halftone printing can emulate the appearance of the

following techniques:
– halftone
– gradation
– overlay
– multi-color halftone print
– combinations of the above techniques

Principles of various printing techniques

The basic principles of the following printing techniques are

summarized here, to aid understanding:
– traditional stencil printing
– standardized 4-color halftone printing
– heuristic multi-color halftone printing

Traditional stencil printing

In traditional textile printing, the design is separated into its

individual colors. A separation film is used to make a stencil for each
color. Areas of the stencil are either permeable or impermeable to
ink. These areas may also be occupied in whole or part by various
halftone rasters, with due attention to color overlays and underlays.
The choice of mesh depends on the textile material to be printed,
and is a factor in determining the amount of ink-paste to apply. Ink-
paste is pre-mixed to the right color and pressed through the stencil
onto the appropriate places on the textile. The maximum number of
colors allowed in a design is governed by the size of the printing
machine.

Standardized 4-color halftone printing

This technique is similar to graphic raster printing in that the design

is separated into primary colors: cyan, magenta, yellow and black.
The color parameters used in separation originate from a standard
color scale (e.g. EUROSCALA). The color separations are used for
graphic raster printing.
Recreating an original design using textile dyes is very difficult, needs
much experience, and involves a large number of tests and proof
prints. One must be prepared to compromise in matters of color
rendition. A restricted color space and color elements produces dull,
over-saturated designs. Over printing of the basic colors is usually
unavoidable, and the results are unsatisfactory.

8.28 Halftone printing

In this technique, the first step is to digitize the design. The chosen
raster ruling defines the number of lines/inch, as well as the
resolution of the final print. This should take account of the
characteristics of the textile stock to be printed, the expected
viewing distance, and the desired visual effects.
The dot size controls the brightness (ink quantity) for every single
color component. The dots are calculated from tone value scales
specific to a given substrate and set of printing conditions. The fake
color calculated dots are recorded on film (halftone separation)
The films are used to make printing forms, which reintegrate the
individual component dots to reproduce the original design.
Correctly sized dots, correctly located, at a calculated angle, on a
suitable textile substrate and with the correct inks and
concentrations, combine to reproduce the form and color of the
original design.
Let us examine the build-up characteristics of inks used in traditional
textile printing. Ink build-up is responsible for generating a visually
perceptible printed color depth that is related to the ink-paste
concentration. It is also a characteristic of the ink. The way in which
the inks build up is affected by the following factors:
– the substrate
– pre-treatment
– ink- composition
– ink- volume
With *fake* color halftone printing, the tone value behavior of
various raster values is similarly analysed under given production
circumstances. The halftone value describes the proportional size of
a dot relative to 100% (maximum) coverage. The tone value
behavior on the textile substrate describes the color combination
(visual color depth) as a function of percentage coverage (halftone
dot size).
The tone value characteristic is fundamental to fake color halftone
printing, and deserves a corresponding amount of attention.
Unlike traditional printing, the heuristic method varies the ink-paste
concentration. This gives the fully-saturated color at 100% solid

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.29
area, while a 1% tone value gives the smallest possible addition to
the overall color mix.
The tone value characteristic, coupled with a suitable choice of inks,
determines the achievable color space.
In heuristic multi-color halftone printing, the color space is not
bound to a fixed number of inks. The original design may contain
colors that lie outside the space that is printable using 4 colors. To
reproduce a brilliant blue, for example, requires an extra blue ink. It
is the same in the orange area, where an orange ink is necessary.
Taken to the other extreme, there are designs with a color space that
requires just 3 inks.

Yellow Yellow

Orange

Black
Black

Magenta Magenta

Cyan Cyan

Violet

Example of multi-color halftone printing

Color values are first defined, then described in terms of
corresponding raster ruling. Separations are then made, based on
the textile inks specifically chosen for the job. The basis is the
calculated tone value / raster ruling, taking all contributory factors
into account (type, raster, angle, mesh, printing sequence, etc.).
Production factors are recorded during process analysis, and required
degree of reproducibility is achieved through optimisation and
standardisation of the individual steps in the process.
The raster films are adjusted to the entire gravure technique
(specially selected mesh), technical printing data, color influences
and characteristics of the lithographic material. The resulting stencils,
used in correct sequence with the defined ink colors and
concentrations, give accurate color rendition of the original design
on a given textile substrate.

8.30 Halftone printing

More attractive designs

The Ciba multi-color technique with 100 brightness levels allows a

theoretical palette of 4 million reproducible colors.
These can be printed using 4 screen. Textile printers can achieve soft
color gradations, defined half-tone values, calculated overlays and 3-
D effects.

Cost/economic factors

Using this technique, even multi-colored designs require only a

minimum number of stencils. This has a strong influence on the
overall printing cost.
Given that production printing never requires more than a few
stencils, the number of personnel operating the printing machine
can also be reduced. Setup times for printing a new design are
shorter, since there are fewer stencils to change and the printing inks
are the same for all designs, meaning that they do not have to be
changed.
Heuristic halftone printing also reduces the workload in the ink
mixing shop. It is no longer necessary to calculate ink quantities and
mix their individual components. Checks and controls are needed
only for the basic colors, which are produced in large quantities with
associated economies of scale.
The number of expensive proof prints is minimized. Experience has
shown that fake color halftone technique, correctly applied,
eliminates the need for corrections and modifications.

Environmental considerations

The problem of processing and recyling old ink does not arise with
this technique. Where the same ink-pastes are used for all designs,
left-over ink is no longer an issue. Whatever is not consumed one
day can be used the next.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Halftone printing 8.31
Installations like ink scoops, delivery pipework, squeegee systems
and ink cisterns no longer need to be cleaned during every design
change; instead they can be used straight away for the next one.
With traditional methods, clean up wastes approximately 10 kg of
ink per stencil. Eliminating this step reduces the demands on the
wastewater system.
In halftone printing, the ink-paste deposit depends not on coverage,
but the average color density of the design. Lighter shades are
achieved through a lower ink-paste deposit. From the fake color
designs produced to date (approx. 400), the estimated average color
intensity is around 40%. This in turn represents an approximate
60% reduction in liquid effluent from chemicals in the ink-paste
(urea, alginate, additives, etc.).

8.14 Technical considerations

This technique requires cooperation between the end user and Ciba.
Successful results depend on the quality of cooperation. A heuristic
raster based on incorrect data is unusable. It is absolutely essential
that the inks specified in the halftone calculation are also deployed
in production.
The halftoning mechanism (mixing ink-pastes on the fibres
themselves) necessitates transparent pigments. If non-transparent
pigments are used, one can expect reproducibility problems within a
production batch. Where halftone dots overlap, a non-transparent
pigment will obscure the previous ink layer.

8.32 Halftone printing

The following are recommendations for screen printing manually and

on automatic flat bed machines.
Many factors influence the results of the printing process. The most
important variables are:
– design and construction of the printing machine: heavy, light, or
precision construction
– stability of the printing bed, type of register adjustment, squeegee
action, etc.
– type of mesh, especially the quality of printing form / screen
tension
– squeegee set-up, i.e. blade hardness, accuracy of the ground
edge, pressure, speed and angle
– off contact distance (distance between the stencil and the
substrate to be printed)
– peel adjustment (where applicable)
– positional accuracy of the print substrate (register stops, print bed
stability)

In view of the interplay between all the above factors, it is advisable,

where practical, to limit the selection of screen frames to a few
standard sizes.
To gain practical printing experience in a systematic manner, certain
basic rules should be observed, the two most important being:
– Limit the initial job diversity, i.e. restrict the variety of designs
attempted.
– When proofing, alter only one factor at a time – i.e., never
attempt to change two or more settings simultaneously.

a
b
c d

a) frame/screen
b) substrate
c) printing table
d) off contact

”Off contact” is the distance between the screen and the substrate
immediately before printing, when the frame is in the lowered
position.
The ”off contact” distance is necessary to prevent the screen from
touching and possibly smearing the substrate before printing, and
also to allow the tightly stretched screen to rise clear of the print
immediately after the squeegee has passed.
The off contact should be as small as possible, e.g.
– for a DIN A3 screen 1/32 - 1/8 inch
– for a DIN A0 screen 1/2 - 3/16 inch
The off contact is usually slightly greater for manual printing than on
machines with mechanical squeegee action.

SEFAR measuring wedge

With flat bed printing machines, an even off contact distance is very
important for exact register and a perfect print image. If a stencil is
not placed perfectly flat in the machine, squeegee pressure is
unbalanced because the blade presses down harder on the raised
part of the stencil. This results in an uneven, distorted image.

9.2 Printing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
The SEFAR measuring wedge provides a simple means to verify
uniform snap distance. Simply slide the wedge under all four edges
of the stencil frame and the machine bed in turn, and read the off
contact distance in mm. The optimum off contact distance depends
on the dimensions of the frame and the printed image, the tension
of the mesh, the ink composition, and the desired printing job.

Off contact measuring wedge

In order to improve clearance between the screen and the substrate,
many mechanical printing machines incorporate an automatic lift-off
mechanism, which raises the screen progressively higher as the
squeegee moves forward. The off contact angle behind the
squeegee remains constant from start to finish on each print stroke.

e
a
b
c d

a) screen
b) substrate
c) printing table
d) lift-off
e) printing stroke
The quality of stretch, the snap-off and the lift-off all help to raise
the screen mesh from the printing immediately after the squeegee
passage. If the screen were to remain in contact with the freshly
printed substrate, the slightest shift of substrate or screen would
smudge the wet ink.

If any of these is altered, the other two variables must also be

adjusted a little to achieve detailed print results.
Excessive off contact and lift-off are detrimental to accurate register.
Reducing the printing speed also helps to reduce the adverse ”drag”
effect of the screen on the freshly printed substrate.
On cylinder printing machines, no lift-off is necessary as rotation of
the cylinder bed gives the same effect.

9.2 The squeegee

Material

Squeegees for screen printing are made of natural or synthetic

rubber (Neoprene), or of polyurethane (Vulkollan, Ulon, etc.).
Those of natural or synthetic rubber wear out faster, but, on the
other hand, they are much less prone to accumulating electrostatic
charge.
Polyurethane squeegees have better abrasion resistance, but a
greater tendency to accumulate electrostatic charge during printing.
Both materials harden with age, and overlong exposure to solvents
causes the squeegee to swell, leaving the blade wavy and unusable.
Squeegees should therefore be cleaned and dried immediately after
printing. The edges and sides of the squeegee should be free of
blemishes like pock-marks and scratches, as these tend to give
streaky prints. Squeegees should be frequently re-ground: sharp,
clean edges are essential to good quality printing.

Hardness

Squeegee hardness is expressed in degrees shore, the generally

recommended region being 60° – 75° off contact hardness.
Harder squeegees (70° – 75°off contact) are suitable for large
formats and halftone printing.

9.4 Printing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Softer squeegees (60°– 65° shore) are preferable for solid overall
patterns and substrates with an uneven surface.
Excessive squeegee hardness can cause difficulty in maintaining
register, due to the high frictional drag with subsequent distortion of
the screen mesh. This also tends to reduce the stencil life.
Excessive softness combined with high pressure can cause the
squeegee to flex backwards. The resulting squeegee angle becomes
too shallow, allowing ink, to be swept over the mesh, is pressed
onto an elongated section of the printing substrate. Ink then runs
under the stencil.

Dimensions

e a) Squeegee hardness
b) Squeegee thickness
c) Squeegee (free) height
d) Squeegee angle
e) Squeegee pressure
h
f) Squeegee speed
c
in
/4 f g) Squeegee grinding
-3
/8
(profile / surface)
3

c
a
d

b g

Squeegee profile

1" image area 1"

6" 6"

Squeegee front view

The dimensions of the printing frame should be such as to leave a
clearance of at least 4.5 inches between the inside edge of the
frame and each end of the squeegee. Insufficient clearance can
result in visible distortion of the printed image.

The condition of the squeegee blade is important to the production

of sharp, clear prints.
A sharp-edged squeegee will precisely control the amount of ink
passing through the screen. This is an important factor in the
production of fine detailed work and halftones.
A blunted or intentionally rounded squeegee edge fails to skim the
ink off the screen in a precisely metered fashion. Instead, it forces an
excessive amount through to the substrate, smudging details.
However, ink application at such high levels may be desirable to give
good coverage, especially in solid areas.
A poorly ground squeegee blade will produce streaky prints;
however, this effect can sometimes also be caused by irregularly
woven screen mesh. It is often extremely difficult to determine
whether the squeegee or the mesh is causing streaky prints. The
only certain way is to stretch the screen mesh on the bias (i.e. at an
angle to the frame) so that the threads run at an angle to the frame
and the printing stroke.
Squeegee streaks are cured by carefully rubbing the cleanly-ground
squeegee edge with a polishing cloth.
The squeegee sharpening machine must have a firm clamping device
for the squeegee. The blade should be ground parallel to the length,
so as to allow accurate sharpening.
Avoid overheating the squeegee during the sharpening process.
Round-off the squeegee ends to prevent a potential sharp corner
that may puncture mesh.
Emery belts are used for squeegee sharpening. Belts may be fitted
over single or multiple rollers, as shown in the diagrams below.

Squeegee sections

Squeegee types

Squeegee edge profiles

5° – 30° angle-grind at the squeegee edge.

Proof prints are essential. The viscosity of the ink paste has a
considerable effect on the result.

0
3
-
5
2 75
¡

min. 1.5mm

5-30¡

Special angle-grinding at the squeegee edge

Squeegee angle

75
¡

b c d

Squeegee angle: a) printing stroke

b) steep angle c) normal angle d) low angle
The optimum squeegee printing angle is 75° from the screen. Large
deviations from this angle can adversely affect ink control and
accuracy of register.

9.8 Printing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
Steep angle: In this position, the flexibility of the squeegee blade is
impaired, increasing friction with the screen mesh. The blade’s
increased cutting action reduces the ink deposit, while dragging and
stretching the mesh, which causes loss of registration.
Low angle: The squeegee blade flexes too far backwards, pressing
more ink through the stencil mesh. Ink tends to run under the
stencil.
Notes for textile printing:
Rounded squeegee profiles are most commonly used in this
application. Depending on the ink absorbency of the printing
substrate, squeegee profiles with a suitable radius and corresponding
hardness are used.

Squeegee pressure

As already stated, excessive pressure adversely affects the accuracy

of register, since the squeegee drags the screen mesh in the
direction of the stroke. Therefore, pressure should be kept to the
minimum necessary for good print results. Pressure adjustments can
be made as follows:
– Adjust the squeegee so that it is clear of the screen while in the
normal printing position.
– Place the squeegee in the center of the image area, i.e. the center
of the print stroke.
– Lower the squeegee until it is just clear of the screen, parallel to
the mesh.
– Adjust both set screws to bring the squeegee into contact with
the printing substrate.
– Make final adjustments to the squeegee setting during the first
trial pulls on setup sheets.
Squeegee pressure must not be altered during the print run, as this
can cause color and register changes. In multi-color printing,
squeegee pressure should be identical for all screens. Raising the
pressure lengthens the printed image, leading to register problems.
The squeegee should be cleaned immediately after printing.
Prolonged exposure to solvents impregnates the blade, making it
soft and subsequently useless.

Squeegee profiles
Advantages of the RKS system are:
– quick fitting and removal
– constant blade angle
– easy control of squeegee pressure
– low wear
RKS squeegees can also be fitted to conventional squeegee holders.

9.3 Flood bar (Doctor blade)

The flood bar is attached parallel to the print squeegee, but with a
lighter pressure. It spreads a thin film of ink on the screen image
area which prevents the ink from drying.
It is important that the flood bar or scraper edge is not damaged in
any way, with no sharp corners or edges, burrs, etc.
Periodic grinding of the flood bar gives a uniform ink lay on the
screen, especially with large formats applications.

9.10 Printing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
9.4 Printing speed
The ink flow or ink transfer through the screen depends on several
factors, such as printing speed, ink viscosity, type of squeegee, etc.
When the printing speed is too high in comparison to the other
conditions, the mesh openings are not completely loaded with ink.
This results in poor prints. Printing speed should always be set in
conjunction with other determining factors, for example:
– ink viscosity
– stencil coating thickness.
– mesh with fine mesh openings
– squeegee angle
– large areas requiring good ink coverage.
The above variables are not the only relevant factors affecting print
quality, but any of the above will necessitate a reduction in print
speed.
Changing speed during the print run will result in a corresponding
change in the print quality. If printing results are unsatisfactory
(smearing, poor register, etc.), one or more of the preceding factors
are generally responsible. Keep in mind that when trying to correct
any misprints, only one factor at a time should be checked and if
necessary, altered. The prime condition for success is a well made
screen equal to the requirements of the printing task. (See also other
chapters of this handbook.)

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Printing 9.11
9.5 Object printing
This section deals with the printing of shaped objects such as
bottles, glassware, crockery, jars, tools, instruments, boxes, sporting
goods, machine parts, etc.

a) stationary squeegee
b) movement of screen
c) direction of rotation
Basic concept for printing round objects:
Printing shaped objects needs a more flexible screen to make full
contact with the curved surfaces. Polyamide meshes (PA) have the
ideal elasticity to allow a perfect fit to various shaped objects and
surfaces.
Direct stencils are most frequently used for printing shaped objects,
since indirect stencil films are not elastic enough to follow the mesh
as it adapts to the shape of the substrate.
It is usually uneconomic to reclaim screens used on long print runs
with difficult or abrasive printing substrates. Mounting new mesh is
often faster, cheaper and more reliable.
Squeegees for printing round objects are normally cut with an equal
bevel, often referred to as ”V” cut or ”double cut” squeegees.
Rectangular squeegee profiles are generally chosen for UV inks, and
angled at approximately 75° to the mesh plain.
Recommendations laid down by the manufacturer of the printing
machine should be noted.

9.12 Printing
©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999
9.6 Single operation multiple color printing
Partitioning the squeegee and the stencil allows two colors to be
printed in the same pass. This is only possible when the respective
colors are separated by 1/2 inch or more.

Split stencil for two-color printing

The stencil is partitioned by inserting a divider (cardboard, plastic,
or a thin wooden batten), secured and sealed with an adhesive.

9.7 Ink deposit

The theoretical ink volume of the mesh can be used as a guide for
wet ink deposit, as well as being used to calculate ink consumption.
Example:
An ink or paste with 60% solid content, printed with Pecap LE
7-195-48 PW results in a wet ink deposit of 28 cm 3/m2, which
corresponds to a thickness of 28 µm.
During the drying process, the 40% solvent content evaporates.
The remaining dry ink deposit is only 17 µm.

©
Copyright by SEFAR, 2/1999 Printing 9.13
Theoretical ink volume in cm 3 per m2
100.0
84.4
80.0
57.3
60.0
40.2
40.0 30.5 28.0
21.1 16.3 10.9
20.0
6.5
0.0
0 0 0 4 8 0 4 1 7
2 8 7 6 4 4 3 3 2
1 - - - - - - - -
- 3 1 6 5 5 5 0 0
6 0 3 5 4 5 0 8 6
7 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4

Mesh number

Refer to the technical information in the mesh datasheets.

9.8 UV inks
UV inks have a very high solid content, approaching 100%. Extra
thin and fine meshs (305-31 – 460-27) are necessary to reduce ink
consumption and ink deposit. For extreme ink deposit reduction (UV
varnish) we recommend a one side calendered mesh such as SEFAR®
Pecap LE UV.
In 4-color halftone printing, care should be taken that the stencil
thickness on the mesh does not exceed 3–5 µm.

Flat bed screen printing is used for printing both flexible and rigid
stock, e.g. paper, cardboard, plastic foils, wooden, plastic or ceramic
tiles, textiles, and flat objects.

c b
a

a = printing direction
b = squeegee
c = printing frame
d = substrate

Special technique for industrial textile printing

In this application the squeegee is a circular steel rod. Ink quantity is

controlled by the squeegee diameter and the magnetic force exerted
from below the printing machine bed. The stencil is in contact with
the substrate.

c b
a

e
f g
d

a = printing direction
b = squeegee
c = printing frame
d = magnet
e = magnet carriage
f = rubber mat
g = substrate

Cylinder bed machines are suitable only for flexible print stock like
paper, plastic foils, etc.

c b

a
,

e
d

a = printing direction
b = squeegee
c = printing frame
d = back pressure cylinder
e = substrate

Printing on cylindrical objects

These machines use the substrate itself as the back pressure cylinder,
e.g. bottles, tubes, jars, etc.

a
,

a = substrate

Example: Ceramic tile printing

Rotary printing (reel to reel)

Printing occurs continuously, either from a feed to a take-up reel, or

on a flat substrate fed by conveyor belt under the rotating cylinder
(paper, foils, textiles, ceramic tiles, etc.).

c
b

a = print direction
b = squeegee
c = cylindrical stencil
d = substrate (on reels or conveyor belt)

Consistently high printing quality can only be achieved and

maintained through the use of internal standards. These in turn
demand reproducible data and tolerances, which can only be
gathered using suitable measuring instruments.

10.1 Coating thickness

This instrument measures the stencil coating thickness on the mesh.

The thickness on the mesh determines edge sharpness, resolution,
and the wet thickness of the ink deposit on the printing substrate.

This instrument is used to check the stencil surface. The measuring

probe is simply placed on the surface to be measured at an angle of
22.5° to the mesh threads. During the measuring sequence, the
probe moves a few millimetres in order to take a predetermined
number of measurement samples at the highest and lowest points
on the surface. The measured average in µm appears on the
instrument’s digital display. A perfectly flat surface would show a
value of 0.
The Rz value (DIN nomenclature for average roughness) for screen
printing stencils should typically be less than the measured coating
thickness. Proper Rz is dependent on the requirements of the
individual print job. A relatively smooth stencil surface is essential to
printing sharp edges and avoiding saw-tooth effects.

Poor: Rz > coating thickness

12µ 20µ

coating thickness roughness (Rz)

Good: Rz < coating thickness

12µ 8µ

coating thickness roughness (Rz)

10.2 Measuring instruments

Stencils cure and harden best when exposed to a good light source.
The source should radiate predominantly in the UV range between
350 – 420 nm. Lamps have a limited life and the radiant energy falls
off as the lamp ages, typically requiring longer exposure. A
radiometer provides the simplest means for measuring lamp
efficiency.

10.4 Hardness meter (Shore measuring instrument)

This instrument is used to check the hardness of the squeegee

rubber. The rubber is affected by various solvents and is also subject
to a natural ageing process that causes the hardness to change over
time. Every color pass in a printing job should use the same
squeegee size and hardness. Different squeegees lead to register
problems and color shifts.

The viscosity of the printing medium (ink, lacquer, paste, etc.) has a
strong influence on the attainable printing speed, amount of ink
passing through the stencil, wet film thickness, edge sharpness, etc.
For consistently reproducible printing results, the viscosity of the
printing medium must be as constant as possible.
A viscosimeter is used either to measure printing medium viscosity,
or adjust the viscosity to a predetermined value. Printing medium
viscosity is usually measured in Pascal or Poises.

10.6 Wet coat thickness

Certain screen printing applications require carefully controlled and

reproducible coating thickness. The solution is this simple device for
measuring the thickness of the wet ink deposit.
The instrument is rolled carefully over the freshly printed surface. The
coat thickness in µm is then read off the scale at the point where
the ink deposit ceases.

10.4 Measuring instruments

The particle size of the printing medium must be at least 3x less than
the mesh opening of the screen printing mesh. A test sample is
simply smeared over the grindometer. The particle size in µm is read
off the scale at the point where the smear ends.

10.8 Recording thermometer/hygrometer

Printing media, printing stock and printing frames are all strongly
affected by temperature and atmospheric humidity. Monitoring air
quality in the screen, draft print press room can avoid many
problems, or help pinpoint their cause.

Application, sector Polyester mesh Polyester mesh Polyamide mesh

Pecap LE Pecap LE PA 1000**

Conventional inks UV inks *** Conventional inks

from to from to from to
Graphical printing
Line artwork 230-40* 305-34* 355-34* 420-31*
Lacquer overprinting 230-40 305-34 355-34 460-31
Half tone screens up to 70 lpi 305-34* 380-34* 355-34* 460-27*
305-31* 380-31*
Half tone screens from 380-34* 380-34* 380-31*
70 lpi to 133 lpi 355-31* 420-31* 420-31* 460-27*
380-27* 420-27*
Printed circuit boards
Overlay solder mask 30-140 45-250
Photosensitive solder mask 60-120 175-55
SMT solder paste 83-70
2-component solder mask:
Conductor thickness 35 m 175-55* 195-48*
70 m 110-80* 137-64*
UV solder mask 175-55* 195-48*
Carbon conductive lacquer 92-90 175-55
Etch resist 230-48* 305-34* 305-34* 355-34*
Plating resist 230-48* 305-34* 305-34*
Marking print 305-34* 355-31* 355-34* 380-31*
Membrane keyboards
Insulation lacquer 92-100 175-55
Silver conductive paste 123-70* 175-55*
Adhesive 123-70 195-48
UV structural lacquer 195-48 420-31
Decor foil 230-48* 305-34*
Transparent windows 305-34

*) for fine lines and halftone rulings: dyed mesh

**) for large print runs: PA 2000 (range is being expanded)
***) for minimal ink deposit: calendered mesh Pecap LE UV

Continued

Application, sector Polyester mesh Polyester mesh Polyamide mesh

Pecap LE Pecap LE PA 1000**

Conventional inks UV inks *** Conventional inks

from to from to from to
Designs, T-shirts
Glitter 25-260 60-120
Flock adhesive 45-180 123 -70
Puff-up colors 54-140 123 -70
Overprint 83-100 103 -80
Pigment ink printing, 103 -80 175-64
areas/lines
Plastisol transfer 123 -80 305-34*
Universal fabric 123 -55
Plastisol direct 137-64* 305-34*
Pigment inks, half-tone 156 -64* 255-40*
Sublimation transfer 195 -48* 305-34*
Textiles, flat films
Heavy décor fabrics 45-180 123-70
(terry cloth, denim)
Smooth, dense fabrics (table 110 -80 137-64
cloths, heavy curtain material)
Smooth, light fabrics (scarves, 137 -64 195 -48
light curtain material)
Light, porous material 195 -48 305-34
(especially detailed effects)
Ceramics
Glaze printing, coarse, 13 -450 54-140 25-350 60-160
embossed effect
Covercoat 30-140 83-100
Glaze printing, medium to fine 54-140 156 -64 60-160 156-60
In and under-glaze (direct 110 -80 255-40* 110 -90 255-38*
printing)
Superimposed / decals:
Areas/lines 195 -48* 380-31* 195 -50* 380-30*
Fine lines / half-tone 255-40* 420-27* 255-35* 420-30*
Gold and lustre inks 305-34* 420-31* 305-35* 460-30*

*) for fine lines and halftone rulings: dyed mesh

**) for large print runs: PA 2000 (range is being expanded)
***) for minimal ink deposit: calendered mesh Pecap LE UV
Continued

Application, sector Polyester mesh Polyester mesh Polyamide mesh

Pecap LE Pecap LE PA 1000**

Conventional inks UV inks *** Conventional inks

from to from to from to
Glass
Automotive glass:
Black surrounds for wind-
screens, rear and side windows 137-64* 195-48*
Antennas 195-48* 255-40*
Silver paste (heated windows) 195-48* 255-40*
Sun-roofs 255-40* 305-34*
Constructional glass:
Curtain windows, doors,
windows, shower-cabins, 76-120 195-48*
Mirrors 195-48* 305-34*
Cosmetic bottles:
Inks 195-50* 305-35*
Precious metals 305-35* 380-30*
Pharmaceuticals:
Laboratory glassware, bottles 195-50* 305-35*
Ampoules 305-35* 355-30*
Beverages:
Bottles, glasses 137-60 305-35*
Household durables: .
Fascias for washing
machines and ovens
(Masks) 110-80 175-55
(Lines and half tones) 195-48* 255-40*
Lampshades, table tops,
furniture 137-64 255-40*
Amusement machines:
Front and side panels 195-48* 305-34*
Souvenirs:
Herald pictures 137-64 255-40*
Advertising:
Hotel, restaurant and
s h o p s i gn s 110-80 195-48*
Objects (plastics, etc.)
Opaque areas 255-40* 305-34* 355-34* 380-31* 255-38* 380-35*•
Half tone and fine lines 305-34* 420-27* 380-31* 460-27* 305-35* 460-30*•
•) UV inks: PW = 1:1 only

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