energies

Review
Fault Ride-Through Operation Analysis of Doubly Fed
Induction Generator-Based Wind Energy Conversion Systems:
A Comparative Review
Aftab Ahmed Ansari * and Giribabu Dyanamina

Department of Electrical Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal 462003, India
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: In present electrical power systems, wind energy conversion systems based on doubly fed
induction generators represent one of the most commonly accepted systems in the global market
due to their excellent performance under different power system operations. The high wind energy
penetration rate makes it challenging for these wind turbines to follow grid code requirements. All
operations of a wind energy system during a dip in voltage require special attention; these operations
are critically known as fault ride-through and low voltage ride-through. In this paper, various fault
ride-through techniques of doubly fed induction generator-based wind energy conversion systems,
such as protective circuitry, reactive power injection, and control methods for transient and steady
state operations, have been presented to improve the performance. During system disturbances,
protective circuitry or control mechanisms are typically used to limit the over-current of the rotor
and the generated inappropriate DC link over-voltage. Simultaneously, the reactive power injection
system overcomes the reactive power scarcity and enhances the transient response, further limiting
the DC bus voltage and rotor current. This review paper compares and suggests appropriate FRT
methods that are driven by external modifications and internal system improvements. Furthermore,
Citation: Ansari, A.A.; Dyanamina, typical case studies are discussed to illustrate and support the FRT system. The impact of each
G. Fault Ride-Through Operation
case study was evaluated and analyzed using the results obtained from the MATLAB/Simulink
Analysis of Doubly Fed Induction
application and the OPAL-RT (OP4500) real time simulator (RTS).
Generator-Based Wind Energy
Conversion Systems: A Comparative
Keywords: doubly fed induction generator (DFIG); fault ride-through; renewable energy system;
Review. Energies 2022, 15, 8026.
wind energy conversion (WEC) system
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218026

Academic Editor: Surender

Reddy Salkuti

Received: 17 September 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 13 October 2022 Electricity production from wind is quickly becoming a prominent resource of energy
Published: 28 October 2022 for industrial and residential loads due to its excellent qualities compared to both fossil fuel
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
substitutes and renewable alternatives. Wind energy is on the rise, and it has even been
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
observed during the coronavirus pandemic. 2020 was the best year in the history of the
published maps and institutional affil- global wind industry, with a year-on-year (YoY) growth of 53%. In a challenging pandemic
iations. year marked by global market and construction project disruptions, more than 93 GW of
wind energy conversion (WEC) systems were installed, demonstrating the wind industry’s
incredible resilience and increasing the total capacity to 743 GW, up 14% from the previous
year [1].
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Wind energy conversion technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, as more
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. wind energy has been integrated into the existing power system. Modern wind energy
This article is an open access article systems-based power plants are better, more reliable, consistent, efficient, and smarter
distributed under the terms and than before. The wind energy generation mechanism extracts the kinetic energy from
conditions of the Creative Commons wind flows, converts it to electrical energy, and then feeds it to the grid. As shown in
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Figure 1, a WEC system consists of a wind turbine, gearbox/drivetrain, power converter,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and generator or transformer [2].
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 8026. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218026 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 Energy Wind Turbine Gearbox Generator Power Converter Transformer Pow
(Optional) (Optional)
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 34
Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy

Energies 2022, 15, 8026 Figure 1. The fundamental structure of a wind power generation network. 2 of 33
Figure 1, a WEC system consists of a wind turbine, gearbox/drivetrain, power converter,
and generator or transformer [2].
For windfarms, there are two different operating technologies: one th
speed wind farms and another that uses variable-speed wind farms. Previo
farm could only generate at a fixed rotational speed; thisGridwas called a fixe
Kinetic
Energy Wind Turbine system.
Gearbox
After some time, variable-speed
Generator Power Converter
WEC systems emerged,
Transformer Power Grid
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over fixed-speed WEC systems,
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network.
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crease energy productivity, lowering power variations input to the grid [3].
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these systems PES
increase [4,5].
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productivity, components and also increases the efficiency.
two most well-known generators used in variable-speed configur
lowering power variations input to the grid [3]. In addition,
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they
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may incur additional costs and losses in the PES [4,5].
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synchronous generatorscoupled (SG). to th
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With two most
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whereas the rotor-windings have two partially rated back-to-back
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WEC wind e
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system developed by DFIG has gained widespread acceptance and is now the most widely(SG).
are doubly fed induction generators (DFIG) and synchronous generators
verters (PEC) known as the rotor-side PEC (RSPEC) and the grid-side PEC
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employs systems dominate
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known
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wind energy PEC (RSPEC) and the grid-side PEC (GSPEC). The frequency and
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DFIG are straightforwardly DFIG’stopower the power output,
grid, rot
magnitude of current in the rotor windings can be easily controlled using this configuration,
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of changes in rotorspeeds speed and byincreased
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such canas harmonic [5,6].
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at synchronous and networkbyDFIG WECthe
instability
managing systems
[5,6].
rotor Many to countries
currentbe ablewith tothewith
expect
RSPEC. DFIG
fluctuations, WEC
The converter’s systems
which rated to
has be able
resulted
power to withstand
in a only
is usually voltage
systematic fluctuations,
30% of the plan which
for dealing
generator’s has resulted
power, with DFIG
so this
in a systematic plan for dealing with DFIG disturbances.
method is advantageous from a cost perspective. The main disadvantage is its vulnerabil-
ity to grid voltage disturbances such as harmonic distortions, grid faults, and network
instability [5,6]. Many countries expect DFIG WEC systems to be able to withstand voltage
fluctuations, which has resulted in a systematic plan for dealing with DFIG disturbances.
DFIG Grid

Transformer
Gearbox

DFIG RSPEC GSPEC Grid

Transformer
Gearbox

RSPEC GSPEC

Figure
Figure 2. WEC System
2. WEC with a partial-scale
System converter andconverter
with a partial-scale DFIG. and DFIG.

Figure 2. WEC System with a partial-scale converter and DFIG.

Energies 2022, 15, 8026 3 of 33

The critical issue of the DFIG-based WEC systems is the inefficiency when grid voltage
drops due to external short-circuit failures and active power generation decreases, resulting
in a rapid rise in rotor current to compensate for the reduced active power of the RSPEC. As
a result, the PEC boosts the voltage in the rotor windings, which raises the voltage above
its level, causing internal magnetization to decrease according to the voltage reduction.
Demagnetization results in higher output currents on both the rotor and stator circuits,
which exceed the converter ratings. This contributes to the tripping of a WEC system from
the grid. This unexpected change in wind generation units indicates the instability of the
utility system. Some specific criteria have been dictated by the grid code for overcoming the
above scenario, known as FRT systems. These include high-voltage ride-through (HVRT),
low-voltage ride-through (LVRT), and zero-voltage ride-through (ZVRT). The specifications
in the LVRT and ZVRT are generally similar, with grid faults resulting in the voltage of the
grid being zero in the ZVRT profile and the voltage of the grid in the LVRT profile being
15–25% of the nominal value [6]. Grid codes need to address FRT issues to make sure that
turbines and PECs can work safely.
Several nations have conducted research on the FRT of the WEC systems. These
systems are required to sustain grid connectivity and inject reactive power during outages.
WEC system voltage terminals are frequently vulnerable to voltage sag as a result of a grid
fault. Since the WEC system has been completely disconnected from the grid through the
PEC, the generator will not “see” the voltage drop but will have an indirect effect on it.
As a consequence, the converter tests the system’s FRT functionality. This paper explores
how the DFIG WEC system operates during fault-riding tactics, which includes better
control mechanisms as well as modified hardware solutions. To incorporate the DFIG FRT
techniques, improved control schemes are often implemented using software modifications,
while specialized hardware devices employ additional circuits to support the DFIG WEC
system for tolerating voltages. A basic review of the different methodologies for dealing
with the FRT specifications is illustrated in Section 4. While two kinds of control solutions
for FRT systems are possible, one is an external control solution and the other is an internal
control solution. External solutions are viewed as the implementation of modules that have
been modified to alter the converter’s design. For the latest WEC system implementation,
internal control modification-based FRT options have been selected. They are less costly
and do not require any additional hardware parts, but they add complexity to the system.
One of the most widely used external-based methods for enabling FRT functionality
is the crowbar [7]. It is used to shield the RSPEC from damage by shorting the terminals
of the rotor. This technique, however, converts the DFIG to a Self-Excited Induction
Generator (SEIG), requiring reactive-power support from the grid network and thereby
causing grid voltage stability to suffer. In [8,9], chopper topology and capacitors are used
to stabilize the DC connection voltage. This approach dissipates excess power through
the DC connection, resulting in a smoother voltage profile. A bridge type l fault-current
limiter [10] and dynamic brake resistor [11] are two other strategies suggested for limiting
stator- and rotor-side overcurrent. References [11,12] showed a dynamic voltage restorer
(DVR) and a PEC connected in series as ways to limit the voltage level of the stator
when there is a grid fault. It is also recommended to use FACTS devices as a means to
improve DFIG LVRT capabilities [13]. During grid disturbances, these systems provide
additional reactive power to the power network (grid) and support the restoration of grid
voltage. Ref. [14] addresses the effects of wind energy’s uniqueness by relating to traditional
power generation effectiveness and the reliability of the power grid and suggests simple
strategies for enhancing large-scale wind energy penetration into the electrical system.
In [15], a series grid-side converter handles the voltage output efficiently, allowing it to
successfully cope with distinct conditions of deep voltage drop by discarding DC-transients
and negative magnetic flux elements. A superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL) is a
self-healing mechanism, as no controlling intervention is required in order to move from
super-conducting to non-superconducting states. Internal controls are standard control
systems because they are less expensive and do not need any extra hardware, but they add
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 4 of 33

complexity to DFIG. Pitch control, hysteresis control, modified vector control, and feed
transient control (FTC) are examples of internal controls. Other control approaches that
have been implemented recently include sliding mode control, fuzzy dependent control,
and model predictive control (MPC). In pursuit of the above facts stated, the following are
some notable and contributing features of this paper:
• The technical specifications and restrictions in various nations’ international grid-code
requirements for the WEC system are summarized.
• The present study also includes a precise mathematical model of the DFIG-based
WEC system.
• Different FRT strategies with detailed illustrations and explanations at different op-
erations are noted, presenting the benefits and drawbacks of implementing them to
improve the transient response of wind turbines based on DFIG.
• The paper also presents a comparative study of different FRT schemes and validates
their ability during transient operation.
• Real-time simulator (RTS) and MATLAB/Simulink application results are also used to
assess and investigate a case study.
Furthermore, this article is arranged into the following sections: Section 2 defines the
need for a grid code, while Section 3 discusses the mathematical modelling of DFIG. Section 4
addresses a review of the FRT schemes. Section 5 discusses the simulation study. Section 6
discusses the RTS results. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations are outlined.

2. Grid Code Requirements for WEC Systems

A series of basic technical specifications called “grid codes” (GC) are being formulated
for the WEC system, which are updated regularly to ensure grid stability and power
quality. GC is usually set by the transmission system operator or the distribution system
operator based on their work experience in the power system. This is done to smooth
out and adjust the effect of wind power on the reliability and power quality of the power
system. The key elements for the GC are active power control, reactive power control,
grid efficiency, flickers, FRT operation, harmonic oscillation, and system protection. For
turbine manufacturers and utility operators, the correct interpretation of these grid codes is
indeed crucial. The regulation introduced in early 2003 by the German Transmission and
Distribution Utility (E. ON) will probably establish a benchmark for all FRT profiles [6].
The profiles of the HVRT and ZVRT, in compliance with the E. ON Regulations, are shown
in Figure 3, which represents that the wind farms have to “ride through” rather than “trip
out” during transmission faults [16]. The WEC system is required to upgrade grid codes
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in order to provide a higher consistency and reliability of power, 5even
of 34
when the system is
functioning abnormally.
Grid Voltage (p.u)

1.2
HVRT Limit
Line
1.1
Normal Operation

0.9

Must May Disconnect

Remain Upon Agreement
Connected
ZVRT Limit
Line
Fault
Instant
0
0 1500
100
150

Time(ms)

Figure 3. Requirements
Figure for voltage
3. Requirements forride-through in accordance with
voltage ride-through the E. ON regulation.
in accordance with the E. ON regulation.

The specifications of the grid code vary by country/region and system. The level of
penetration of wind energy and the grid’s durability are both affected by these variations
in requirements [17]. Table 1 lists the aforementioned technical specifications and re-
strictions in the International Grid Codes (GCs) of different nations. Table 1 lists the fre-
quency, LVRT, HVRT, and power factor limits of several international nations under the
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 5 of 33

The specifications of the grid code vary by country/region and system. The level of
penetration of wind energy and the grid’s durability are both affected by these variations in
requirements [17]. Table 1 lists the aforementioned technical specifications and restrictions
in the International Grid Codes (GCs) of different nations. Table 1 lists the frequency, LVRT,
HVRT, and power factor limits of several international nations under the fault and after the
fault conditions [18].

Table 1. Comprehensive analysis of GCs in several nations.

LVRT HVRT
Country F (hz) Frequency Limits Max. Time Duration Power Factor
During Fault/Post-Fault During Fault
Vmin. Tmax. Vmin. Tmax. Vmax. Tmax.
Lag Lead
(p.u) (s) (p.u) (s) (p.u) (s)
47.5 < flim < 52.048 Continuous
49.0 < flim < 51.0 10 min
Australia 50 0 0.10 0.7 2.0 1.3 0.06 0.95 0.95
48.0 < flim < 51.0 2 min
47.5 < flim < 52.0 9s
49.0 < flim < 50.5 Continuous
48.5 < flim < 51.5 30 min
Germany 50 0 0.15 0.85 1.0 - - 0.9 0.95
47.5 < flim < 51.5 10 min
46.5 < flim < 53.5 10 s
48.5 < flim < 51.0 Continuous
48.0 < flim < 51.0 25 min
Denmark 50 0.20 0.50 0.90 1.5 1.2 0.1 0.95 0.95
47.5 < flim < 52.0 5 min
47.0 < flim < 52.0 10 s
49.5< flim < 50.5 Continuous
India 50 0.15 0.30 0.85 3.0 1.3 0.2 - -
47.5 < flim < 51.5 WEC system remains connected
59.4 < flim < 60.6 Continuous
58.5 < flim < 61.5 11 min
Canada 60 57.5 < flim < 61.7 1.5 min 0.0 0.15 0.85 1.0 - - 0.90 0.95
56.5 < flim < 61.7 2s
55.5 < flim < 61.7 0.35 s
60.0 < flim < 59.5 Continuous
USA 60 59.5 < flim < 59.3 10 min 0.0 0.15 0.90 1.75 1.20 1 0.95 0.95
59.3 < flim < 58.7 10 s
50 47.5 < flim < 52.0 Continuous
UK 0.15 0.14 0.80 1.21 - - 0.95 0.95
47.0 < flim < 52.0 20 s
49.5 < flim < 50.2 Continuous
China 50 0.2 0.625 0.9 2.0 1.3 0.5 0.95 0.95
47.15 < flim < 51.5 10 min

3. Modeling of DFIG-Based WEC Systems

Models for DFIG WEC systems, comprising the steady-state and dynamic models
of both DFIG and power converters, are required to design the controls of wind power
systems. These models are the foundation for creating controls for the DFIG power system
because they represent the operating relationship of the variables. This section includes a
basic overview of DFIG-WT modelling [19,20].

3.1. Aerodynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines

The aerodynamic model estimates mechanical torque as a mechanism for air flow
on the turbine, which is utilized to account for the rotor’s output power. Wind velocity
can be thought of as the average amount of wind that is caught on the rotating blade area
of the turbine. This can be used to figure out how much torque the speed driveshaft can
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 6 of 33

handle at an average speed. The wind farm’s mechanical energy and the rotor’s torque are
represented by the following expressions [19].

1
Tm = þCt (λ)πVw2 R3 ( Nm) (1)
2
1
Pm = þC p (λ, β)πR2 Vw3 (W ) (2)
2
where R is the radius of the wind turbine rotor, þ is the density of air, and Vw is the wind
velocity. Cp is the power coefficient determined by the wind turbine’s parameters, and it is
provided by Equation (3). It is determined by the tip speed ratio (λ), the pitch angle (β) of
the turbine, and the gamma function (Γ).

1 
C p (λ, β) = Γ − 0.02β2 − 5.6 e−0.17Γ (3)
2
2πRnr
λ= (4)
60VW
where nr is the speed at which the turbine rotor is rotating. The relationship between Cp
and Ct is
C (λ, β)
Ct (λ) = P (5)
λ
R(3600)
Γ= (6)
λ(1609)
where Ct is the torque coefficient.

3.2. DFIG Modelling

In a synchronous d-q (direct quadrature) frame, the three-phase dynamic equations of
DFIG are stated as follows:
d∅ds
vds = Rs ids + − ωs ∅qs (7)
dt
d∅qs
vqs = Rs iqs + + ωs ∅ds (8)
dt
d∅dr
vdr = Rr idr + − ωre ∅qr (9)
dt
d∅qr
vqr = Rr iqr + + ωre ∅dr (10)
dt
where idr and iqr are the rotor’s d axis and q axis orientation currents, ids and iqs are the
stator’s d axis and q axis orientation currents, ω s is the sync electrical speed, ω re is the rotor’s
electrical speed, and Rs and Rr are the static and rotational motor winding resistances.
The stator and rotor fluxes are reported to be:

∅ds = Ls ids + Midr (11)

∅qs = Ls iqs + Miqr (12)

∅dr = Lr idr + Mids (13)
∅qr = Lr idr + Mids (14)
where the stator flux is ∅ds in the direction of the d axis and ∅qs in the direction of the q
axis, respectively. ∅dr and ∅qr are rotor fluxes in the direction of the axes d and q. The rotor
and stator leakage inductances are Lr and Ls , respectively, and the mutual inductance is M.
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 7 of 33

The following is a formulation of the real and reactive power of the stator:

Ps = vds ids + vqs iqs (15)

Qs = vqs ids + vds rmiqs (16)

The torque formula for DFIG can be written as follows:

pM
Tem = (i ∅qs − iqr ∅ds ) (17)
Ls dr

4. FRT Techniques for Improving DFIG-WEC System Transient Stability

Distinct FRT techniques, involving improved control schemes and hardware strategies,
are covered in this section. Enhanced control techniques often involve technological
modifications to improve the performance of achieving the DFIG’s FRT, while hardware
options that employ additional circuits aid the DFIG WEC system’s ability to endure voltage
drops. Appropriate action needs to be taken to (i) protect the semiconductor-switches of
the power converter from the overcurrent of the rotor; (ii) shield the DC link capacitor
from over-voltage; and (iii) connect wind turbines to the grid for reliable operation [21,22].
The following initiatives are required to improve the transient response of the DFIG-based
WEC system.
• Protection devices during transient conditions.
• Injection of reactive power in transient conditions.
• Suitable control system for transient and steady state conditions.

4.1. FRT Schemes Overview

The symmetric low-voltage faults must be distinguished from the asymmetric low-
voltage faults before they are intact with the grid. Symmetrical faults are more severe, but
they may occur less frequently, leading to significantly high inrush currents in the rotor,
whereas asymmetrical faults add a reverse sequence to the generator. Asymmetrical fault
surges are not as severe as symmetrical fault surges, but they are more likely to occur. From
the above discussion, this article summarizes the various FRT strategies for improving
the transient response of the DFIG-based wind energy system. FRT techniques for the
DFIG WEC system can be divided into two components, as shown in Figure 4: external
retrofit-based FRT techniques and internal control modification-based control techniques.

4.2. External Retrofit-Based FRT Techniques for DFIG

External retrofit-based FRT techniques are modules that have been modified to alter
the converter’s design, and they can be categorized into two sections: protection circuit-
oriented FRT techniques and reactive power injection-oriented FRT techniques.

Protection Circuit-Oriented FRT Techniques

The protection circuit-oriented FRT techniques are presented as
(a) Crowbar Circuit
The Crowbar Circuit is one of the most extensively utilized methods of resolving the
FRT problem [23,24]. As can be seen in Figure 5. It involves a set of resistances installed on
the slip-ring of the rotor-side with the help of semiconductor switches to bypass the RSPEC.
Its general basic operation is explained as follows: RSPEC gate signals are switched off at
the voltage dip (for example, three-phase faults), and the rotor rings are shortened by the
crowbar resistor, or, in other words, the rotor current is then diverted to the crowbar, which
is shown by point F; throughout this instance, the rotor’s transient current Irotor becomes
If rotor (fault current), and it will dissipate in the resistance Rcrw .
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34

From the above discussion, this article summarizes the various FRT strategies for improv-
ing the transient response of the DFIG-based wind energy system. FRT techniques for the
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 8 of 33
DFIG WEC system can be divided into two components, as shown in Figure 4: external
retrofit-based FRT techniques and internal control modification-based control techniques.

DFIG Based WEC System

FRT Techniques

External retrofit Internal control

based FRT modification based
techniques for control technique for
DFIG DFIG

Protection circuits- Reactive power injecting Feed-forward and

oriented FRT devices oriented FRT transient current control
techniques techniques

Model predictive control

Equipped with Crowbar Dynamic Voltage

Circuit Restorer

Fuzzy logic-based control

Equipped with Crowbar
Static VAR Compensator
Circuit with Series RL

DC-link chopper Static synchronous

method compensator Sliding mode control

SDBR Control Magnetic Energy

Recovery Switch

Modulated series DBR

(MSDBR) Hybrid compensation

Fault CLs

Energy Storage System

(ESS)

Series Grid-Side
Converter

Figure
Figure 4.
4. FRT
FRT Techniques of DFIG-based
Techniques of DFIG-based WEC
WEC systems.
systems.

4.2. External
Crowbar Retrofit-Based FRT Techniques
activation causes the RSPECfor andDFIG
wind turbine (WT) to lose control over their
ability to control
External active, reactive
retrofit-based FRTpowers
techniquesover are
a period of time.
modules thatThe
haveissue with
been this technique
modified to alter
is that the DFIG-WEC system begins to operate as a reactive power consumption
the converter’s design, and they can be categorized into two sections: protection circuit- unit, such
as an induction motor, resulting in a loss of grid voltage. So,
oriented FRT techniques and reactive power injection-oriented FRT techniques.to overcome the limitations
imposed by the crowbar installation, an improved model of the crowbar arrangement is
proposed, which
Protection will be presented
Circuit-Oriented in the next section, which can ensure the concern of real
FRT Techniques
and reactive
The protection circuit-oriented FRT the
power control. In addition, crowbarare
techniques circuit incorporated
presented as some active and
passive compensators, a crowbar coordination concept with series dynamic resistance, and
(a) Crowbar
a crowbar with Circuit
a DC link chopper. These newer crowbar techniques attempt to reduce
The Crowbar
operating time and Circuit
try toisprevent
one of theDFIG most extensively
from acting asutilized methods
SEIG [25]. The of resolving
research the
in [26]
FRT problemadvancements
investigates [23,24]. As caninbe theseen
LVRT in Figure 5. It involves
effectiveness of DFIGa architecture,
set of resistances
with installed
the rotor
on the slip-ring
crowbar of the
taking grid rotor-sideinto
impedance with the help
account. of semiconductor
In addition to this, theswitches to bypass
mathematical the
concept
RSPEC. Its general basic operation is explained as follows: RSPEC
for the crowbar resistance, taking into account the grid impedance, is also determined. gate signals are
switched
Furthermore,off atTable
the voltage
2 gives adip (for example,
comparative three-phase
analysis faults),
of different and the
crowbar rotor rings
circuitries for are
the
LVRT enhancement of DFIG.
 dynamic resistance, and a crowbar with a DC link chopper. These newer crowbar tech-
niques attempt to reduce operating time and try to prevent DFIG from acting as SEIG [25].
The research in [26] investigates advancements in the LVRT effectiveness of DFIG archi-
tecture, with the rotor crowbar taking grid impedance into account. In addition to this,
the mathematical concept for the crowbar resistance, taking into account the grid imped-
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 9 of 33
ance, is also determined. Furthermore, Table 2 gives a comparative analysis of different
crowbar circuitries for the LVRT enhancement of DFIG.

To
The Grid
Rotor
DFIG

Shaft
Ifrotor
X
Ifrotor
Irotor
s RSPEC DC- Link
F +

S2 S1 Cdc To The
Irspec GSPEC
-

Icrw Rcrw

Crowbar Protection Scheme

Figure 5. Crowbar protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.

Figure 5. Crowbar protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.
(b) Crowbar series RL-equipped circuit
(b) Crowbar series RL-equipped circuit
The crowbar connects the resistance in the shunt with the DFIG’s rotor field winding
The crowbar connects the resistance in the shunt with the DFIG’s rotor field winding
to restrict the rotor current. An alternative to this is to install reactance in series with
to restrict the rotor current. An alternative to this is to install reactance in series with the
rotor windings of DFIGofinDFIG
the rotor windings order in order to
to restrict bothrestrict bothand
the stator therotor
stator and rotor
currents. currents. The
The new
new scheme’s circuit is shown in Figure 6 to improve
scheme’s circuit is shown in Figure 6 to improve the DFIG LVRT capability during grid the DFIG LVRT capability during
grid disruptions. It is a hybrid model of an R-L circuit
disruptions. It is a hybrid model of an R-L circuit and a crowbar. At point C, the new and a crowbar. At point C, the
new crowbar series R-L circuit is attached to the rotor’s
crowbar series R-L circuit is attached to the rotor’s winding. Whenever the rotor current winding. Whenever the rotor
currenta reaches
reaches threshold, a threshold,
the RSPEC the RSPEC is
connection connection
diverted tois point
diverted to point S.this
S. Throughout Throughout
in- this
stance, the rotor’s transient current (I ) is split in the two parts: the first
instance, the rotor’s transient current (Ifr ) is split in the two parts: the first is the current
fr is the current of
theofcrowbar (Icrw), which
the crowbar (Icrw ),iswhich
definedisby the resistance
defined by theofresistance
the crowbar ofRthe crowbar Rnps crw , and the
npscrw, and the second

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

one is the RSPEC current (I rspec), which is determined by the R-L series circuit impedance 10 of 34
second one is the RSPEC current (Irspec ), which is determined by the R-L series circuit
(Zimpedance
seies). In the event of failure and clearance, the RSPEC is always linked to the rotor-wind-
(Zseies ). In the event of failure and clearance, the RSPEC is always linked to
ings. When the control strategy is initiated, it implies that the crowbar series-equipped R-
the rotor-windings. When the control strategy is initiated, it implies that the crowbar
Lseries-equipped
circuit is triggered; R-L further,
circuit isa portion
triggered; of the generator
further, rotorof
a portion winding is shortened
the generator rotor by the is
winding
crowbar,
shortenedand by atheportion
crowbar, of theandgenerator
a portionrotor of thewinding
generatoris connected
rotor winding to the
is RSPEC.
connected Theto the
RSPEC
RSPEC.controller
The RSPEC controls the generator’s
controller controls the dynamic power,dynamic
generator’s which would power,be which
a majorwould
bene- be a
fit over conventional crowbars
major benefit over conventional crowbars [27]. [27].

To
The Grid
Rotor
DFIG

Shaft
Ifr X
Icrw Irotor
N
RSPEC DC- Link
C
+

Zseries s
S2 S1 Cdc To The
GSPEC
Irsc -

Icrw Rnpscrw

Crowbar Protection Scheme

Figure 6. Crowbar series RL protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.

Figure 6. Crowbar series RL protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.

(c) Chopper technique for DC links

The chopper circuit is the same as the rotor-side crowbar in minimizing the overvolt-
age of the DC link. It is indeed a connection of the resistor to the DC link in the shunt, as
 Figure 6. Crowbar series RL protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.

(c) Chopper technique for DC links

Energies 2022, 15, 8026 10 of 33
The chopper circuit is the same as the rotor-side crowbar in minimizing
age of the DC link. It is indeed a connection of the resistor to the DC link in
shown in Figure
(c) Chopper technique7. The chopper
for DC links circuit discharges surplus energy to obtain a
DC link voltage.
The chopper In is[8],
circuit the the
sameuse
as theofrotor-side
a choppercrowbarasinaminimizing
single protection device is
the overvoltage
of the DC link. It is indeed a connection of the resistor to
can also be combined with other tools such as a super-conducting magnet,the DC link in the shunt, as S
shown in Figure 7. The chopper circuit discharges surplus energy to obtain an acceptable
SFCL [29]. In [30], an improved DC chopper topology that is competent in co
DC link voltage. In [8], the use of a chopper as a single protection device is discussed. It
excessive
can also be transient
combined with rotor over-current
other tools such as aand stator current
super-conducting in conjunction
magnet, SBR [28], and with
voltage of Inthe
SFCL [29]. DC
[30], an link
improvedduring a faulttopology
DC chopper state without introducing
that is competent any additio
in controlling
the excessive transient rotor over-current and stator current in conjunction with handling
rent-limiting technique was proposed. The improved DC chopper incorpora
the voltage of the DC link during a fault state without introducing any additional fault
ditional switching
current-limiting devices
technique that allow
was proposed. it to connect
The improved the DC
DC chopper chopper
incorporates resistanc
three
in parallel with the DC link, depending on the DC link cutoff voltageorand cu
additional switching devices that allow it to connect the DC chopper resistance in series
in parallel with the DC link, depending on the DC link cutoff voltage and current.

Stator
Rotor Generator Bus Coupling Transformer

DFIG
RSPEC Vdc GSPEC PCC Grid
Shaft DC
AC
DC AC Grid filter
Rotor filter

Figure
Figure 7.7.Conventional
Conventional DC chopper
DC chopper protectionprotection circuit for
circuit for DFIG-based WECDFIG-based
systems. WEC systems.
(d) Series dynamic braking resistor (SDBR) control scheme
(d) Series dynamic braking resistor (SDBR) control scheme
A series connection of power electronic switches and series dynamic resistors con-
nergies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
A toseries
nected connection
the stator of power
or rotor terminal electronic
forms SDBR. SDBR is switches and series
a series topology dynamic r
that is asso-
ciated with the stator terminal. The circuit depicted in Figure 8 is ideal for extreme fault
nected to the stator or rotor terminal forms SDBR. SDBR is a series topology
situations due to its high-power output and low residual voltage.
ciated with the stator terminal. The circuit depicted in Figure 8 is ideal for e
situations Bypass Switch
Stator dueGenerator
to its high-power
Bus
output andCoupling
low residual voltage.
Transformer
Rotor
DFIG
SDBR
PCC
Shaft RSPEC Vdc GSPEC
AC
DC
DC AC
Grid filter

8.SDBR
Figure 8.
Figure SDBRProtection CircuitCircuit
Protection for DFIG-based WEC systems.WEC systems.
for DFIG-based
SDBR is distinguished from the crowbar by its circuitry structure. Although SDBR
SDBR
has the is distinguished
advantage from magnitude,
of regulating current the crowbar by its circuitry
the DCLINK structure.
chopper/crowbar is Alth
shunt-connected and controls voltage. Furthermore, the high
has the advantage of regulating current magnitude, the DCLINK choppe voltage in the SDBR method
is shared by resistance due to its structure of the series. As a result, the induced overvoltage
shunt-connected
cannot result in a loss andof controls
control over voltage. Furthermore,
the converter. The SDBR the highregulates
not only voltagethein the S
isovervoltage
shared by resistance
of the rotor, whichdue to result
might its structure
in the RSPECof losing
the series.
control, As a also
but it result, the induc
strongly
restricts the high current of the rotor. Additionally, by restricting
age cannot result in a loss of control over the converter. The SDBR not only the rotor current, the
charging current of the DC bus capacitor can also be brought down. Furthermore, the
overvoltage
SBDR could manage of thetherotor,
DFIG’swhich might
real power, resultthe
improving inwind
the generator’s
RSPEC losing stabilitycontro
strongly restricts
in the event theAdditionally,
of a fault. high current of the
during rotor.drop,
a voltage Additionally, by restricting
the SDBR improves the t
generator output, decreasing its increased speed. This impact will
rent, the charging current of the DC bus capacitor can also be brought down. F enhance the DFIG
system’s and wind farm’s post-fault recovery, as the SDBR regulates and improves the
the SBDR could manage the DFIG’s real power, improving the wind generat
in the event of a fault. Additionally, during a voltage drop, the SDBR impro
erator output, decreasing its increased speed. This impact will enhance the D
and wind farm’s post-fault recovery, as the SDBR regulates and improves the
 in the event of a fault. Additionally, during a voltage drop, the SDBR improves th
erator output, decreasing its increased speed. This impact will enhance the DFIG sy
and wind farm’s post-fault recovery, as the SDBR regulates and improves the accele
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 speed of the rotor during grid disturbance [31]. The mathematical formulation 11 of 33 of th
current is developed in [32] using the SDBR and constant converter current regulati
analytical analysis of the LVRT transient is conducted in order to characterize the
effect. Focusing
acceleration speedon anrotor
of the index integrating
during the DFIG’s
grid disturbance capacities
[31]. The to offer
mathematical active power
formulation
of the fault current is developed in [32] using the SDBR and constant converter current
tance and reduce electromagnetic torque oscillation, the resistance of the SDBR is opti
regulation. An analytical analysis of the LVRT transient is conducted in order to characterize
(e) Modulated
the LVRT series DBR
effect. Focusing (MSDBR)
on an index integrating the DFIG’s capacities to offer active
powerInassistance and reduce
[33], a braking electromagnetic
resistor torque oscillation,
that is comparable the resistance
to both single- of the multi-step
and SDBR b
is optimized.
resistors is described. It is based on modulated series DBR (MSDBR) technology. Th
(e) Modulated series DBR (MSDBR)
trol scheme is applied to maintain the desired terminal voltage to be consistent
presenceIn [33],
ofaboth
braking resistor that
balanced andis unbalanced
comparable to voltage
both single- and multi-step
drops. Restoring braking
the stator v
resistors is described. It is based on modulated series DBR (MSDBR) technology. This
helps GSPEC and RSPEC maintain controllability to avoid DC bus overvoltage, rot
control scheme is applied to maintain the desired terminal voltage to be consistent in the
tor short-circuit
presence current,
of both balanced andand DC busvoltage
unbalanced capacitor
drops.overload.
Restoring theAsstator
a result,
voltageno extra pro
helps
devices,
GSPEC and such as a maintain
RSPEC DC-chopper, crowbar,
controllability or rotor
to avoid DC busbraking resistance,
overvoltage, are require
rotor/stator
short-circuit operation
continuous current, and ofDC bus capacitor
a generator overload.
facility As a result,
improves no extraresponse
the voltage protectiveduring
devices,period.
covery such asThe
a DC-chopper,
MSDBR module, crowbar, asor rotor
shown braking resistance,
in Figure are required.
9, is made The antise
up of two
continuous operation of a generator facility improves the voltage response during the
sulated
recoverybipolar
period. gate transistors
The MSDBR module,thatasare
shownconnected
in Figure in each
9, is madephase
up of parallel to the brak
two antiseries
sistor. Thebipolar
insulated statorgate
voltage controller’s
transistors that are PWM
connectedsignals independently
in each phase parallel toregulate the voltage
the braking-
stator. Restoring
resistor. The statorthe stator’s
voltage voltage
controller’s causes
PWM theindependently
signals GSPEC and regulate
RSPECthe components
voltage of of the
the stator. Restoring the stator’s voltage causes the GSPEC and
to compensate for the voltage and current overload caused by the direct RSPEC components of current
the lin
circuit to compensate for the voltage and current overload caused by the direct current link.

MSDBR
Stator Generator Bus Coupling Transformer
Rotor
DFIG
RSPEC Vdc GSPEC PCC
AC DC
DC AC Grid filter
Rotor filter

9. MSDBR
Figure 9.
Figure MSDBRprotection circuit
protection for DFIG-based
circuit WEC systems.
for DFIG-based WEC systems.
(f) Fault CLs
Another type of protective approach employed for boosting the FRT capabilities of
DFIG-oriented WEC systems is the use of Fault Current Limiters (FCLs). The fault current
level is limited by a three-phase FCL, which includes an isolation transformer and a high-
DC inductance with bypass-resistance situated on the DFIG stator-side [34]. To improve
the transient stability of the DFIG, a number of fault current limiter variations have been
developed, and future research is ongoing on these limiters. However, FCLs are superior
to the crowbar and dynamic braking resistor concept in terms of performance. Figure 10
illustrates all of the FCLs that were used to improve the FRT capacity of the DFIG.
FCL arrangements can be classified into two groups based on their impedance type and
component arrangement. There are four types of FCLs based on their impedance: resistive,
inductive, resistive-inductive, and resonance. Another classification exists depending on
whether a superconductor is employed or not. The FCLs can be classified as either solid-
state or saturated core transformers based on their component type. The FCL is located in
different positions of the DFIG to increase the FRT capacity of the DFIG. In each position,
the impact on the key-parameters of the DFIG is related to the FCL impedance type. From
the perspective of positioning, the FCL is mainly located at the terminal and stator ends of
the DFIG. There are some FCLs on the end of the rotor and some other configurations on
the DC link. Further, from the perspective of impedance, the FCL is mainly resistive, as
seen in Figure 10 [35].
 either solid-state or saturated core transformers based on their component type. The FCL
is located in different positions of the DFIG to increase the FRT capacity of the DFIG. In
each position, the impact on the key-parameters of the DFIG is related to the FCL imped-
ance type. From the perspective of positioning, the FCL is mainly located at the terminal
and stator ends of the DFIG. There are some FCLs on the end of the rotor and some other
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 12 of 33
configurations on the DC link. Further, from the perspective of impedance, the FCL is
mainly resistive, as seen in Figure 10 [35].

Fault Current
Limiting Device

Non Superconducting
Superconducting FCL
FCL

Inductive Type FCL:

Inductive Type FCL: Non-
Superconducting Fault Current
Controlled
Limiter–Magnetic Energy Storage
System (SFCL-MES)

Inductive-Resistive Type
FCL: Optimized Located Inductive Type FCL: Active SFCL
with Reactive Power Injection

Resistive Type FCL:

Thyristor Bridge Type Resistive Type FCL: DC Resistive
SFCL

Resistive Type FCL:

Switch Type FCL (STFCL) Resistive Type FCL: Resistive-
Flux Coupling Type SFCL

Resistive Type FCL: Resistive Type FCL: Resistive

Variable Resistive Type Type SFCL with Transient
Voltage Control (TVC)

Resonance Type FCL:

Parallel Resonance Type Resistive Type FCL:
Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage (SMES) with the SFCL

Resistive Type FCL: Resistive

Type SFCL in the Rotor Side

Figure 10.10.
Figure FCL classification
FCL forfor
classification DFIG-based WEC
DFIG-based systems.
WEC systems.

(g)(g) Energy Storage

Energy Strategies
Storage (ESS)
Strategies (ESS)
AnAnESS
ESS improves
improves the
theperformance
performance ofof
a DFIG-based
a DFIG-based WEC
WEC system
system byby
regulating
regulating thethe
rotor current
rotor current and
andpower
power system
system transient
transientstability (defined
stability (defined byby
the fault’s
the critical
fault’s clearing
critical clearing
time)
time)bybyproviding
providing reactive
reactivepower
power assistance
assistancetoto
the grid
the gridand
andprotecting
protectingthe DC
the DClink from
link from
overvoltage. In the steady state, an
overvoltage. In the steady state, an ESS ESS also controls the DFIG’s active power output. It It
controls the DFIG’s active power output. can
can easily
easily be be incorporated
incorporated intointo
thethe
DFIGDFIG configuration
configuration via avia a two-way
two-way DC/DCDC/DC converter
converter and a
and
DCa bus.
DC bus.
FigureFigure 11 illustrates
11 illustrates the physical
the physical structure
structure of a DFIG
of a DFIG equipped
equipped with energy
with energy storage.
It has several advantages: it can be accessed anywhere under any operating conditions, the
machine’s operation does not need to be reconfigured, and it strengthens the LVRT and
effectively improves transient state stability. The only limitation is that DFIGs with energy
storage are more expensive [36].
Wind energy implementation can utilize a range of different types of energy storage,
including batteries, superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), supercapacitors
(SC), and flywheels. When there is a fault, these batteries will assist in absorbing additional
energy from the DC link capacitor. After a fault has been cleared, the ESS not only eliminates
overvoltage difficulties in the DC link capacitor but also supplies stored energy to the
DFIG-WT. Several researchers have presented research on the operation of batteries and
supercapacitors in conjunction with turbines [37]. Supercapacitors have benefits over the
other energy storage systems, including high-energy density, longer lifetimes, and lesser
capital expense. As a result, the supercapacitor is taken into consideration as the most
appropriate energy storage system for maintaining a constant power output and mitigating
wind turbine generator fluctuations [38]. A DFIG integrated with an electric double-layer
capacitors-based energy storage system, which can improve LVRT capacity and ability, and
a transitory reactive power control strategy for the DFIG is suggested in [39]. An innovative
DFIG-based WEC system is presented in [40], which incorporates the benefits of DVRs and
ESSs, using a DVR in series on the end terminal of the generator and also throughout the
system using the ESS.
 mitigating wind turbine generator fluctuations [38]. A DFIG integrated with an e
[39]. An innovative
double-layer DFIG-based
capacitors-based WEC storage
energy system is presented
system, in can
which [40],improve
which incorpora
LVRT ca
benefits
and ability, and a transitory reactive power control strategy for the DFIG isgenerat
of DVRs and ESSs, using a DVR in series on the end terminal of the sugge
also throughout the system using the ESS.
[39]. An innovative DFIG-based WEC system is presented in [40], which incorpora
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 benefits of DVRs and ESSs, using a DVR in series on the end terminal of13the
of 33generat
Stator Generator Bus Coupling Transformer
also throughout the system using the ESS.
Rotor
DFIG
Stator Generator Bus Coupling Transformer
Rotor RSPEC GSPEC PCC Grid
Shaft Vdc
DFIG
AC DC
DC AC Grid filter PCC Grid
Shaft Rotor filter RSPEC Vdc GSPEC
AC DC
DC AC Grid filter
Rotor filter

ESS
Figure 11. ESS protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.

ESS
(h) Series Grid-Side Converter
Figure 11. ESS protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.
Figure 11. ESS protection circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.
The Series Grid-Side Converter (SGSC), seen in Figure 12, is a two-way power
(h) Series Grid-Side Converter
conductor
(h) Seriesconverter
Grid-Sidelinked across the DC link. The SGSC controls the voltage by d
Converter
ing or The Series
consuming Grid-Side Converter
real power in(SGSC), seento
an effort in manage
Figure 12,the
is a two-way
DC12, link power semi-
The
conductor Series Grid-Side
converter Converter
linked across (SGSC),
the DC link. The SGSCseen in Figure
controls the voltage avoltage.
isby two-way The
delivering
SGS
power
another
conductor function
or consuming
that compensates
converter
real powerlinked across
in an effort
stator
the
to manageDC harmonic
thelink.
voltages
Thevoltage.
DC link SGSC by harvesting
controls
The SGSC has theanother
voltagethebyhar
d
voltage
function content.
that SGSC
compensates injects
stator series
harmoniccompensation
voltages by voltage
harvesting to
the
ing or consuming real power in an effort to manage the DC link voltage. The SGS compensate
harmonic for
voltage the inf
of negative
content.
another sequence
SGSC
function thatgrid
injects series voltage bystator
compensation
compensates balancing
voltage tothe
harmonicvoltage
compensate for
voltages of by
the
the stator.
influence
harvestingAdditional
of
the har
negative
flux of sequence
the stator grid
can voltage
also beby balancing
regulated the
or voltage of
controlled the stator.
by SGSCAdditionally, the
serial-voltage flux injectio
voltage content. SGSC injects series compensation voltage to compensate for the inf
of the stator can also be regulated or controlled by SGSC serial-voltage injection [41].
of negative sequence grid voltage by balancing the voltage of the stator. Additiona
Stator Generator Bus be regulated or controlled
flux of the stator
Rotor can also by SGSC serial-voltage injectio
Coupling Transformer

DFIG
Stator Generator Bus
Pstator
Rotor SGSC Coupling Transformer
PCC
Shaft
DFIG
Protor

Pstator SGSC Ptotal

PCC
Shaft
Protor

RSPEC GSPEC
Vdc Ptotal
DC PGSC
AC
DC AC
Rotor filter RSPEC Vdc GSPEC
DC PGSC
AC
Figure 12. SGSC Protection Circuit for DFIG-based WEC
AC systems.
DC
Rotor filter
To improve the utilization of SGSC, [41] proposes a resonant adaptive controller.
Even in the presence of voltage imbalances throughout the switch network grid, hybrid
controllers maintain a constant voltage on the stator. The DFIG-single WT’s parallel-group-
side corrector (PGSR) and SGSC architectural features are demonstrated in [42]. These
technologies have been integrated and are attempting to share the same DC bus. PGSR
supplies power to the circuit of the rotor during synchronous operation. To ensure the
generator voltage never exceeds the nominal value, the SGSC maintains the optimal range
of the stator flux. Table 2 concludes with a comparative analysis of FRT techniques based
on protection circuits.
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 14 of 33

Table 2. Comparative analysis of protection circuits-based FRT strategies.

S. No Technique Utilized Benefits Limitations

• It activates throughout the faults and helps to reduce

a. Crowbar Technique [23–26] • When the crowbar is activated, RSPEC loses control.
overcurrent and prevent RSPEC.

• Whenever a low series impedance is employed with

• The dynamic control of the active or reactive power the large resistance of the crowbar, the inrush current
b. Crowbar with Series R–L [27] of the stator is not lost. of the rotor may move through the converter through
the R-L, resulting in abnormalities.

• Eliminates distortions and variations in the voltage

• The time required to disengage and restore the
c. DC Link Chopper [8,30] of the DC link and increases the normal levels of
converter will be longer than that of a crowbar.
DFIG operation.

• The quality of voltage is insufficient, depending on

• Avoids using a crowbar regularly. Maximizes RSPEC
the SBR switching scheme.
operating time.
d. SDBR [31,32] • Active power support is not required.
• Offers low reactive current injection
• Additional equipment is required. Voltage oscillation
• Eliminates variations in torque.
in the DC link

• This structure prohibits the use of both crowbars and

• Behaviour of the scheme during the injection of
DC choppers.
e. MSDBR [33] reactive power is not studied.
• Compensation system sequence and power
• Higher cost compared to the other schemes.
evacuation system.

• Restricts fault current, strengthens RSPEC, and

improves its controllability. • The price of STFCL is relatively high.
f. FCL SFCL [34,35] • Offers rapid action against fault current and • There is not any support for reactive power.
automatic recovery • Incapable of functioning at room temperature
• Quick quenching

• Enhances the transitional dynamics and transient • Battery system performance and
power network stability of the generator maintenance challenges
g. ESS [37–40] • Controls the active output power at the • Self-discharge is a waste of stored energy, as it is
steady-state mode. inactive during operation.

• Dampens the oscillations of the stator flux

h. SGSC [41,42] synchronous frame and allows it to be • Fails to maintain the power balance of the DC link.
directly control.

4.3. Reactive Power-Injecting Devices-Oriented FRT Strategies

This section explains FRT strategies based on reactive power injection capacity.
(a) Dynamic Voltage Restorer
A Dynamic Voltage Restorer is a series-circuit system that recovers the voltage level
to normal in the event of a voltage drop. DVR is used to minimize drops and swelling
while also assisting in the improvement of power efficiency [43]. DVR is a FACTS unit
connected in series and has the capability of protecting sensitive loads from abnormal and
transient electric grid disturbances. The DVR circuit arrangement is indicated in Figure 13.
In general, the DVR is made up of two kinds of circuits: one for power injection and the
other for control. The control circuitry is utilized to determine the magnitude, frequency,
phase shift, and other parameters of the control signal that the DVR must inject. The
injected voltage is produced by switching in the power-circuit in response to the control
signal. An injection transformer, a high-speed PWM inverter, an AC harmonic filter, a DC
power storage unit, and a control unit comprise the Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR)
power circuit.
When the voltage at the source end is interrupted, DVR is one of the most reliable
methods for “restoring” the voltage quality at the load end. DVRs are performed in three
distinct modes, which are briefly described below:
• Bypass mode: This mode enables the DVR to be bypassed mechanically or electroni-
cally in the case of severe load currents or down-stream short circuits, while the DVR
does not inject voltage to achieve better voltage efficiency.
 methods for “restoring” the voltage quality at the load end. DVRs are performed i
distinct modes, which are briefly described below:
• Bypass mode: This mode enables the DVR to be bypassed mechanically or ele
Energies 2022, 15, 8026
cally in the case of severe load currents or down-stream short circuits, while th
15 of 33
does not inject voltage to achieve better voltage efficiency.
• Standby mode: This mode has a rated voltage, and the DVR is ready to ha
• voltage mode:
Standby drop. This
Throughout
mode hasthe standby
a rated mode,
voltage, theDVR
and the DVRismayreadyperform
to handlesecondary
a
• voltage
Activedrop.
mode:Throughout the standby
After detecting mode, thefall,
a voltage DVRthe
mayDVR
perform secondary
injects tasks.voltage
the lost
• Active mode: After detecting a voltage fall, the DVR injects the lost voltage in
mode.
this mode.

Stator Generator Coupling

Bus Transformer Vdvr Pg ,Qg
Rotor

DFIG
Shaft Pstator Grid

RSPEC GSPEC
Vdc
AC DC Vdc
DC AC
Rotor Grid filter Vdc
filter

DVR

Figure 13.DVR
Figure 13. DVR circuit
circuit for DFIG-based
for DFIG-based WEC systems.
WEC systems.

In [44], distinct DVR configurations are evaluated in terms of voltage and power
In [44],
ratings. distinct
The control DVRcentered
systems configurations arecontrollers
on resonant evaluated areinaddressed
terms ofinvoltage
[45,46] inand pow
ings.
order The control systems
to compensate centeredvoltages.
for non-symmetric on resonant
Ref. [47]controllers areuse
investigates the addressed
of a DVR to in [45,46
der to compensate for non-symmetric voltages. Ref. [47] investigates the use of a D
enable the uninterrupted fault ride-through of voltage sags that meet GC requirements. [40]
describes
enable theuninterrupted
the development of afaultbuilt-in DVR with an energy
ride-through storagesags
of voltage system (ESS)
that meetfor wind
GC require
farms based on DFIG. A Vanadium Redox Flow battery (VRF) is integrated into the DFIG
[40] describes the development of a built-in DVR with an energy storage system (E
back-to-back PWM converter in parallel with the DC connection capacitor. Through the
wind farms DC-DC
bidirectional based converter,
on DFIG.the A ESS
Vanadium Redox
output charges theFlow battery
DC link (VRF)
capacitor. is integrated i
In addition,
DFIG
the DVRback-to-back
receives powerPWM fromconverter in parallel
the same capacitor. Thewith the DCconverter
DC-TO-DC connection capacitor. Th
maintains
a constant voltage on the DC link. A further solution for optimizing
the bidirectional DC-DC converter, the ESS output charges the DC link capacitor. the efficiency and I
performance of the DVR is explored in [48]. It uses a new asymmetrical multilevel inverter
tion, the DVR receives power from the same capacitor. The DC-TO-DC converter
(MLI) centered on a Level Creator and an H-bridge inverter: an improved configuration
tains
of theaFCL
constant
DVR forvoltage
grid andon DFIGthesupport
DC link. A further
during solution
fault currents for by
induced optimizing
significant the eff
and performance of the DVR is explored in [48]. It uses a new
voltage sags. The appropriate parameters for the construction of a fault current-limitingasymmetrical mu
inverter
dynamic (MLI)
voltage centered
restorer foron
DFIGa Level
systemsCreator and an examined
are thoroughly H-bridgeininverter:
[49]. an improved
(b) Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
Since the early 1970s, the SVC has been the most important component of FACTS
devices. It is made up of traditional thyristors, which operate at a faster rate than me-
chanically switched conventional devices and necessitate more sophisticated controllers.
Shunt-connected SVC stands for reactive power generators or absorbers. By providing a
controlled capacitive current or inductive current output, it can ensure the voltage level
stability of the associated bus. The SVC DFIG is shown in Figure 14. SVC is a combination
of a Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) and a Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC). The TCR
uses the control of the firing angle to continually decrease or increase inductive-current,
although, in TSR, the attached inductors can be cut in and out step-by-step, eliminating the
need to continuously control the firing angle [50]. Improving dynamic voltage manage-
ment, thereby improving system load capacity and dampening system oscillations, may
be one of the key reasons for installing SVC [51]. SVC will also be able to increase power
transfer in the event of faults by holding the generator acceleration down and vice versa.
This decreases the effect of the operational failure on the capacity of the generator to remain
synchronous. The current SVCs are of varying susceptibility characteristics [52]. The
traditional technology of SVCs is losing its effectiveness because of a low surge capability,
a poor dynamic efficiency, poor response speeds, etc.
 crease power transfer in the event of faults by holding the generator
and vice versa. This decreases the effect of the operational failure on
generator to remain synchronous. The current SVCs are of varying sus
teristics [52]. The traditional technology of SVCs is losing its effectivene
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 16 of 33
surge capability, a poor dynamic efficiency, poor response speeds, etc.

Stator Generator Coupling

Bus Transformer Pg ,Qg
Rotor
DFIG

Pstator PCC Grid

Shaft
RSPEC GSPEC
Vdc Qc
AC DC
DC AC
Rotor Grid filter
filter
L C

TCR TSC

Figure 14.
Figure 14. SVC
SVC circuit
circuit for DFIG-based
for DFIG-based WEC systems.WEC systems.

(c) Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

(c) Static smart
Another synchronous compensator
method to strengthen (STATCOM)
a wind energy system that can generate or con-
sume Another
reactive power smart method to strengthen a wind energycompensator
from the electric grid is to employ a static-synchronous system that ca
(STATCOM). A STATCOM should be inserted in the shunt as a synchronous solid-state
sume reactive
condenser connected power from the
to an alternating electric
current grid
unit. The is to employ
controller’s a static-synchro
power output is set up
(STATCOM). A STATCOM should be inserted in the shunt as a synch
to control the voltage at each node or the reactive power sent to the bus.
STATCOM involves absorbing/injecting reactive power during the steady state to
condenser
maintain the bus connected
voltage andto an alternating
prevent variation. STATCOMcurrent unit.
injects The controller’s
the highest possible p
up to control
reactive currents the voltage
to assist at each
the electrical gridnode
during or the reactive
transients, speed uppower sent
the voltage re- to the
covery, and restore the reliability of the voltage. It has a similar quality compared to the
STATCOM involves absorbing/injecting reactive power during t
synchronous condenser, but because it is an electrical appliance, there is no inertia, so
maintain
it is superiorthe bus
to the voltagecondenser.
synchronous and prevent variation.
The significant STATCOM
advantages injects th
of this system
include thecurrents
reactive relatively lowto capital
assistcosts,
thelower operational
electrical grid and service costs,
during and improved
transients, speed up
dynamics. Most VSCs are constructed with turn-off function thyristors, such as integrated
ery, and restore
gate commutated the reliability
thyristors (IGCT) or gateof the voltage.
turn-off It has gate
(GTO) or insulated a similar quality com
bipolar transis-
chronous condenser,
tors (IGBT) [50]. STATCOM isbut because
capable it is greater
of delivering an electrical appliance,
transient margins compared there is
to SVC. In addition, overloading capability can be enhanced. The geometry and control
superior
mechanisms toofthe synchronous
STATCOM condenser.
differ in DFIGs, The
as illustrated significant
in Figure 15. When advantages
the RSPEC of t
the relatively
is deactivated by low capital
a crowbar, DFIG costs,
GSPEC lower operational
supplies reactive power and service
to operate costs, and
through
faults, similar to STATCOM. STATCOM provides superior voltage characteristics, and it
ics. Most VSCs are constructed with turn-off function thyristors, such
can provide greater reactive power adjustment when there are severe faults [52,53]. In [54],
commutated thyristors
a combination strategy (IGCT)
of low SDBR andor gate turn-off
STATCOM is suggested,(GTO)with or
the insulated
capacity to gate
control both real and reactive power. This setup can
(IGBT) [50]. STATCOM is capable of delivering greater transient improve FRT performance and meet mar
grid code requirements when the terminal voltage drops below the cutoff level.
 deactivated by a crowbar, DFIG GSPEC supplies reactive power to operate through
similar to STATCOM. STATCOM provides superior voltage characteristics, and
provide greater reactive power adjustment when there are severe faults [52,53]. In
combination strategy of low SDBR and STATCOM is suggested, with the capacity
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 trol both real and reactive power. This setup can improve FRT performance
17 of 33 and me
code requirements when the terminal voltage drops below the cutoff level.

Stator Generator Coupling

Bus Transformer Pg ,Qg
Rotor

DFIG

Pstator PCC Grid

Shaft
RSPEC GSPEC
Vdc Qc
AC DC
DC AC
Rotor Grid filter
filter
STATCOM

Vdc

VSI

Figure 15. STATCOM circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.

Figure 15. STATCOM circuit for DFIG-based WEC systems.
(d) Magnetic Energy Recovery Switch (MERS)
(d) The
Magnetic Energy Recovery Switch (MERS)
Tokushima Institute of Technology’s Shimada Laboratory was the first to create
MERS The Tokushima
[55]. MERS comprises Institute
four of Technology’s
diodes, Shimada
a DC capacitor, and fourLaboratory was the first to
forced commutated
switches (such as GTOs). The MERS specification is similar
MERS [55]. MERS comprises four diodes, a DC capacitor, and four forced to that of a complete one- comm
phase full-bridge inverter; however, the operating principle and application differ. The
switches (such as GTOs). The MERS specification is similar to that of a complete one
DC-capacitor capacitance is several times smaller compared to the standard one-phase
full-bridge
full bridge and inverter; however,
line frequency the operating
switching principle
[56]. The device andcertain
produces application
harmonicsdiffer.
in The
pacitor capacitance
line-strengths which doisnot several timesconsequences
have extreme smaller compared to with
but interfere the standard
the system’sone-pha
resonance
bridge and frequency.
line frequency switching [56]. The device produces certain harmonics
By controlling the flow of current through the circuit, it is achievable to inject voltage
strengths which do not have extreme consequences but interfere with the system
for any current within the device’s rating, converting the MERS into a series compensator.
nance frequency.
Additionally, the MERS is a reactive power compensation device that functions similarly to
SVC byByproviding
controlling the flow
continuous of current
controlled through
capacitive powerthe circuit, it is
compensation viaachievable
an easy-to-useto inject v
interface. The findings suggest that, compared to other shunt compensator
for any current within the device’s rating, converting the MERS into a series compe options, this
model offers an the
Additionally, enticing
MERS alternative. So, more
is a reactive research
power needs to be carried
compensation out to
device seefunctions
that if the si
MERS approach can help the DFIG’s FRT capabilities.
to SVC by providing continuous controlled capacitive power compensation via a
(e) Hybrid compensation
to-use interface. The findings suggest that, compared to other shunt compensator o
This
this model utilizes
offersboth
anseries and shunt
enticing components.
alternative. In a DFIG
So, more WEC system,
research needs the unified
to be carried ou
power flow controller (UPFC) and a Unified Compensation System (UCS) are used as hybrid
if the MERS approach can help the DFIG’s FRT capabilities.
compensation devices. The DFIG WEC system utilizes a hybrid of shunt and series compen-
(e)
satorsHybrid compensation
to minimize voltage disturbances, harmonics, and flickers. It is a hybrid of a STATCOM
and Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) linked via the DC link. Both the real and
This utilizes both series and shunt components. In a DFIG WEC system, the
reactive power of the DFIG system can be controlled using UPFC [57]. Table 3 concludes with
power flow controller
a comparative (UPFC)
analysis of FRT and based
techniques a Unified Compensation
on reactive System
power-injecting (UCS) are used
devices.
brid compensation devices. The DFIG WEC system utilizes a hybrid of shunt and
compensators to minimize voltage disturbances, harmonics, and flickers. It is a hy
a STATCOM and Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) linked via the D
Both the real and reactive power of the DFIG system can be controlled using UPF
Table 3 concludes with a comparative analysis of FRT techniques based on reactive
injecting devices.
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 18 of 33

Table 3. Comparative analysis of reactive power-injecting devices-based FRT strategies.

S. No Method Utilized Advantages Disadvantages

• Perfectly capable of eliminating

• DVR needs additional active power.
transients in generator currents.
a. Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) [43,44] • Needs adequate power storage to
• Quick voltage retrieval and
minimize voltage drops.
controllable supply of reactive power.

• Reactive power compensation.

• Voltage-dependent reactive control.
• Continuous voltage regulator.
b. Static VAR Compensator (SVC) [51,52] • Faster response results in unstable
• Construction is uncomplicated,
voltage oscillations.
featuring reactive power injection.

• Increased transient range and

short-term overload potential during
extreme voltage drops. • Increased running costs
c. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) [53,54] • Reactive current control faster than and expenditures.
the SVC. • Cannot provide active power.
• Rapid response and adverse sequence
voltage and current compensation.

• Eliminates reverse blocking. Efficient

• Has less stable control and a by-pass
d. Magnetic Energy Recovery Switch (MERS) [55,56] for deployment on a wide scale.
mechanical transition.
• Low losses for switching

• Useful for both real and reactive

power control.
• Consumes active power.
e. Hybrid Compensation (UPQC) [57] • Quick compensation for
• A high DC link capacitor was required.
reactive power.
• Long time for critical clearing.

4.4. Future Research Ideas on WEC System Transient Stability Employing External Retrofitting
The aforementioned protection-based strategies focus on either LVRT enhancement
or reactive power adjustment. The employment of PECs in WEC systems leads to the
decoupling of sources from loads, which exacerbates inertia issues in the power system. It
is the imbalance in power that occurs as a result of grid disturbances that is responsible for
the quickening or slowing of the rotor speed. Most of the studies that have been conducted
in this field have followed one of two main lines of thought: the first line of thought
concentrates on improving the LVRT in order to prevent the destruction or disconnection
of the WEC system by limiting the amount of inrush current that occurs during a fault,
and the second line of thought is predicated on the idea that frequency stability can be
improved either during or after a fault. Virtual Synchronous Generator (VSG) and virtual
impedance approaches are utilized to ensure the system’s stability [58]. These two strategies
need to be developed collaboratively. Consequently, the increase in FRT capabilities by
the introduction of virtual inertia is an exciting research topic. As a result, an emerging
research approach in the field of DFIG WEC systems is an improved inertia control strategy
with external retrofits for LVRT improvement. This combinational strategy can meet the
kinetic energy needs in inadequate conditions. In a similar way, FACTS devices can also
effectively enhance LVRT by introducing or absorbing reactive power into the network. At
the same time, this should also be about improving frequency stability during emergencies
and frequency management when things are running normally.

4.5. Internal Retrofit-Based FRT Techniques for DFIGs

This section explains FRT strategies based on internal retrofitting.
(a) Feed-forward and transient current control (FFTC)
The insertion of a feed-forward concept into the traditional current regulator results in
the FFTC control system in the DFIG RSPEC. The output voltage of the RSPEC aligns with
the induced transient voltage, decreases the current in the rotor, and significantly minimizes
the interruption of the crowbar. With the assistance of an FFTC PI resonant controller,
the capability of the generator during LVRT is increased [59]. Transient feed-forward
compensation terms are introduced both in the power-control loop and in the current-
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 19 of 33

control loop, thus improving the ability to control the transient current and minimize the
ripple in torque caused by faults at the grid. The DQ transformation angle is given by a
three-phase phase lock loop (PLL) based on a synchronous reference frame with the q-axis
tied to the positive sequence stator voltage. Two FFTC functional blocks are added to the
traditional vector control technique to improve it.
(b) Model predictive control
Model predictive control (MPC) has grown in popularity as a potential alternative
to modern control technology because it is centered on a system model to forecast the
controlled variables’ future behavior, follows optimization standards and implementation
plans at each sampling moment, and achieves the optimal control response. There are two
main factors that classify the prediction algorithms of all AC drives: the pre-calculated
duration (called the prediction range) and the method used to generate the reference signal.
Some controllers take the inverter’s discrete function, which is considered to compute the
switching states directly without employing pulse width modulation (PWM); this is known
as a finite control set (FCS). Other schemes route control signals through some modulator,
such as PWM, and are referred to as continuous control set topologies (CCS). The FCS MPC
selects switching states by considering the discrete operation of the inverters and thus does
not employ any modulation scheme. This control analyzes all possible switching scenarios
and chooses the first one that meets the specified convergence criterion. As a result, the
optimization approach is significantly easier than the one used in the CCS-MPC. The CCS-
MPC optimizes the inverter by considering its average model, with the goal of reducing
the error between the predicted signal and the reference signal. The controller’s output in
this case is the reference duty cycles, which are fed to the modulation technique [60,61].
In [62], the FCS-MPC algorithm used to increase the potential of DFIG LVRT in variable
speed WEC systems is discussed. This algorithm uses the inertia of the doubly fed induction
generator’s rotor to maintain the excess energy during a sag in the grid’s voltage. The
simulation results show that the operational control scheme is suitable for ensuring the safe
LVRT of the DFIG-based WEC system and an active and reactive power generation unit
while also meeting grid code standards. Because of the simplicity of the suggested control
scheme, which requires no additional hardware, it outperforms traditional approaches in
terms of performance and grid reliability enhancements, such as typical crowbar protection.
In [63], a time-effective FCS-MPC strategy for DFIG systems has been presented. The
switching state of the RSPEC is used directly as a control input in this strategy. This enables
the converter to carry out optimized control actions directly. Additionally, MPC-based
studies for LVRT potential in DFIGs have not yet been explored.
(c) Sliding mode control
Sliding mode control (SMC) is a powerful, stable, and highly nonlinear system control
mechanism. SMC is characterized by its robust performance, quick convergence speed, and
easy implementation characteristics [64]. The SMC design concepts and their applications
for drive systems were first suggested in [65]. It offers quick implementation, the rejection
of disruption, robustness, and a quick response, but the controlled condition may exhibit
undesired chattering. Due to their robust external disturbances and non-linear dynamics
of WEC systems and generators, several second-order SMC methods in aerodynamic
control and power converter control in renewable energy applications have been proposed
in [66,67]. In [66], a robust control sliding mode was proposed in order to regulate power
generation in wind generators at variable speeds. This can ensure the consistency and
stability of the two operating areas, including high-speed and low-speed areas. The sliding
mode control algorithms proposed in [68] for converters on the rotor end and on the grid
end can let the WT run and operate effectively during uneven grid voltage conditions. They
are also easy to use and do not require positive and negative voltage or current sequences
for decomposition. Weakening high frequency chattering has always been a key problem
in conventional sliding mode monitoring which needs to be studied and resolved. By
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 20 of 33

using this method, the efficiency of the control strategy has been established. However, the
scenario with an unknown control direction remains unexplored.
(d) Fuzzy logic controller
The wind turbine converter topologies are conventionally controlled by PI controllers.
PI controllers, however, provide less robustness and require precise knowledge of the
dynamic model parameters for tuning. To tackle this limitation, a Fuzzy Logic Controller
(FLC) is introduced. In a variety of ways, fuzzy logic is being used effectively to control
DFIGs-based WTs. Fuzzy logic is used in [69] to manage both active and reactive energy
production. A fuzzy-logic gain modulator was employed in [70] to properly regulate
the speed of the generator in order to maximize the overall power production while also
controlling real and reactive power generation via rotor side control schemes. In [71],
a neuro fuzzy PI-gain scheduler with a VC technique is introduced to make the system
respond faster, settle down faster, and not make steady-state errors. Furthermore, it
compares the efficiency and effectiveness of the DFIG system to that of a traditional PI
controller. In [72], the introduction of an effective control scheme for the grid-connected
DFIG with interval type-2 fuzzy sets (DFIG) with a vector control technique is presented;
the DFIG is suitable for dealing with irregularities in the operating conditions of distributed
systems, such as the fault, load variations, and wind velocity. The controller’s output
is evaluated by integrating it to an IEEE 34-bus test sample and accounting for multiple
uncertainties. While the type-1 FLC can handle nonlinearity in the system, the type-2 FLC is
far more efficient at dealing with system uncertainties. As a conclusion, these concepts open
up a new field of application for the use of fuzzy control to enhance the FRT capabilities of
DFIG using both active and passive techniques.
(e) Other advanced control
Numerous new advanced techniques and modelling methodologies have been sug-
gested to investigate and address DFIG’s LVRT capacity. Newly proposed approaches
include the SMES based on FLC in [73] and the series-linked current source converter-
dependent SMES in [74], which enhances the DFIG’s LVRT performance. An adaptive
learning control approach for WEC systems with DFIGs is presented in [75]. The DFIG-
LVRT WT’s performance will also be improved with heightened state-feedback predictive
control, as presented in [76]. In [77], a novel controlled DFIG-WT crowbar is presented for
fault-level mitigation using an adaptive neurofuzzy inference system. The study in [78]
introduces a fuzzy-based technique for wind velocity prediction in Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) configurations within normal circumstances and a coordinated Genetic
Algorithm-based Active-Reactive (GA-PQ) controller incorporating a DC chopper in the
FRT technique during grid failures. A transient reconfiguring approach for the DFIG
is presented and studied in [79] in order to improve its LVRT capacity. It is based on a
modified rotor-voltage-reference technique. Ref. [80] provides an enhanced FRT system
for a WEC system equipped with a DFIG that is based on proper stator voltage regulation
and is capable of addressing symmetrical, unsymmetrical, and unbalanced grid voltage
drops. This is achieved by using a correctly adapted topology of the standard WEC system
with the DFIG, which allows the stator voltage to be regulated through the rotor power
converters system.
A new robust fractional-order supertwisting sliding mode control was developed and
suggested in [81] for supercapacitor-based power supplies in order to maintain a constant
and smooth DC voltage and to rapidly improve the FRT and PQ capabilities of DFIG-based
wind turbines. The frequency variation induced by the voltage dip is addressed in [82]
using a P-Q coordination-based LVRT control technique for wind farms. By using an offline
look-up table technique, the suggested strategy may adaptively deliver the active and
reactive reference currents, thereby reducing the absence of active power generation and
speeding up active power recovery during the LVRT interval. The study in [83] proposes a
cooperative strategy using Virtual Inertia Control (VIC) and a redesigned GSPEC for Low-
Voltage Ride-Through (LVRT) in order to meet Grid Code Requirements while also offering
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 21 of 33

frequency support to the grid via synthetic inertia. Table 4 concludes with a comparative
analysis of FRT techniques based on internal control modification-based control techniques
for DFIGs.

Table 4. Comparative analysis of internal control modification-based control techniques for DFIGs.

S.No Control Advantages Disadvantages

• Complex control.
• The torque pulsation produced by the negative sequence current
a. FFTCC [59] • Input voltage sensor is required.
is reduced by the effective control of the transient current.
• Sluggish response.

• Includes the nonlinearities and constraints of the system. • Costly.

b. MPC [60,61] • Fast dynamic response. • Experimental validations are needed.

• Chattering effect produces oscillation.

• Robust against outside perturbations.
c. Sliding mode control [67] • Complexity of the model
• No additional technical stress on the wind turbine drive train.
• Saturation of signals for the control input.

• Costly.
• Complicated.
d. Fuzzy-basedcontrol [70] • Trifling transient overshoot using fuzzy methods.
• More power consumption.
• Poor time response.

4.6. Future Research Ideas on WEC System Transient Stability Employing Control Mechanisms
This subsection focuses on modern or advanced control methods for LVRT system
improvement. Concerning the DFIG WEC system, strategies must also concentrate on low-
inertia challenges. Incorporating a traditional Virtual Synchronous Generator (VSG) loop into
an RSPEC topology can improve the system’s frequency stability, but combining this with a
strategy to limit the current can enhance the voltage while keeping the frequency stable.

5. Simulation Study
In this section, a case study was conducted using the specialized power system analysis
tool named Matlab/Simulink application to strengthen the credibility of the aforementioned
analysis. This section develops a comprehensive DFIG mechanism model to demonstrate
the protection system’s performance and reviews the insights with the help of a control
strategy field-oriented control to simulate the behavior of a doubly fed generator in the
context of a three-phase grid voltage drop. In addition to the theoretical study presented, a
simulation study of a 9 MW WEC system comprised of six 1.5 MW wind turbines integrated
into a 25 kV distribution network exports power to 120 kV wind turbines equipped with
a DFIG which are composed of a wound rotor induction generator and an AC/DC/AC
PWM converter based on an IGBT module. While the stator winding is directly connected
to the 60 Hz grid, the rotor is fed at a variable frequency via the AC/DC/AC converter.

5.1. DFIG Performance Analysis with the Absence of Protection

Suppose a small disturbance at 3.0 s is created, which results in a drop in the grid
voltage to 0.1 pu. The figures show that, until the fault occurs, the grid voltage/stator
voltage remains constant, the DFIG is operating in normal conditions, the stator current
and rotor current waveforms are quite excellent, the DC linking voltage is also maintained
to be constant, and the reactive power is almost maintained at 0 VAR. At time t = 3.1, the
grid fault instantly decreases the output voltage of the wind generator and decreases the
stator voltage to 10% of the current value, as can be seen in Figure 16a. In addition, the rotor
and stator current increased quickly; the DC link bus illustrates over-voltage, as shown
in Figure 16. In a broad sense, the DFIG mechanism without the protection system of the
crowbar cannot achieve LVRT and is harmful for the systems’ equipment because of the
large failure voltages and currents.
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 2022, 15, 8026
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of
23 of 33
34

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 16. DFIG’s dynamic behavior in the (a) absence of protection, (b) presence of Crowbar pro-
Figure 16. DFIG’s dynamic behavior in the (a) absence of protection, (b) presence of Crowbar
tection, (c) presence of RSDBR protection.
protection, (c) presence of RSDBR protection.

5.2. DFIG Performance Analysis with Crowbar Protection

The most commonly utilizedutilized strategy,
strategy,called
calledthethecrowbar
crowbarprotection
protectionstrategy,
strategy,isisscruti-
scru-
tinized to simulate a grid voltage drop scenario. The crowbar protection
nized to simulate a grid voltage drop scenario. The crowbar protection strategy involves a strategy involves
a set
set ofof resistances
resistances installed
installed onon
thethe slip-ring
slip-ring ofof
thethe rotor-side
rotor-side with
with thethe help
help ofof semiconduc-
semiconductor
tor switches
switches to bypass
to bypass the RSPEC.
the RSPEC. Its general
Its general basic basic operation
operation is thatisthe
that the RSPEC
RSPEC gate sig-
gate signals are
nals are switched
switched off at theoff at the dip,
voltage voltage
anddip, and the
the rotor rotor
rings arerings are shortened
shortened by the crowbar
by the crowbar resistor.
resistor.
In other In othercrowbar
words, words, crowbar activation
activation causes causes
the RSPEC the RSPEC
and WT and toWT
losetosome
lose some
controlcontrol
over
their ability
over their to control
ability active
to control and and
active reactive power
reactive overover
power a period of time.
a period The
of time. crowbar
The crowbar is
is set in the following manner. Whenever the current of the rotor surpasses 1.5 times the
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 23 of 33

set in the following manner. Whenever the current of the rotor surpasses 1.5 times the
rated current, the RSPEC is short-circuited and is subsequently rendered ineffective. The
DFIG mechanism with rotor crowbar protectors is shown in Figure 16b. At time t = 3 s, the
structure identifies stator-voltage losses, which triggers the crowbar protection and stops
the RSPEC. Figure 16b shows the current of the crowbar resistance, which goes up sharply
and then quickly goes down as time passes. The higher the resistance of the crowbar,
the faster the current of the crowbar attenuation. The crowbar resistor has a significant
inhibitory impact on the rotor and stator fault currents, which are now limited within
the DFIG system’s permissible limits. In comparison to the scenario without protection,
the circuit with crowbar safety can rapidly resume stable functioning again when the
voltage returns to normal. Figure 16b also shows that the DC link voltage was significantly
decreased with crowbar shielding, particularly in comparison to Figure 16a.

5.3. DFIG Performance Analysis with Rotor Series Dynamic Breaking Resistance
(RSDBR) Protection
In this method, the dynamic resistance is connected in series with the rotor, and its
structure is similar to the SDBR used to limit the stator and rotor over the current at the
stator end of the generator set. It is controlled by a power semiconductor switch. Under
normal operating conditions, the switch is activated, and the resistance is bypassed. During
a system disturbance, the switch is disabled, and a resistor is inserted in the rotor winding
in series. The RSDBR has the peculiar benefit of being able to directly control the current.
In addition, due to the series configuration of the RSDBR, the high voltage is shared by the
resistance, so the induced excessive voltage will not cause the failure of RSPEC control,
and it will also limit excessive rotor current. Figure 16c shows the simulation results of the
DFIG with rotor resistance protection. At time t = 3 s, the RSDBR configuration recognizes
the stator voltage loss, thus activating the resistance protection system without stopping
the RSPEC. The three-phase current of the rotor is greater than 2 p.u. when there is no
protection system. Figure 16c shows that the RSDBR method effectively suppresses the
rotor’s three-phase current within 2 pu, indicating that the fault ride-through capability
is significantly better than that of no protection. The simulation results in Figure 16c also
demonstrate the efficacy of the RSDBR method by limiting the stator three-phase current
and limiting the variability of the DC bus voltage to less than 1.2 times the rated value,
ensuring that the converter is not harmed.
Table 5 of this report also provides a comparative analysis of several circuits for the
DFIG’s LVRT improvement.

Table 5. Comparing various protection circuitries to enhance the DFIG’s LVRT.

S.No LVRT Strategy Rotor Current RSPEC Status DC Link Voltage Remark(S)
Crowbar Circuit [24,84]
a. Limited To < 2.0 Blocked Limits To < 1. 35p.U Effective For Symmetrical Faults
(Figure 16)
b. DC Link Chopper [8] No Change Maintained Limits To < 1. 05p.U Effective For All Types of Faults
Crowbar Integrated with DC
c. Reduced To < 2.0 Blocked Limits To < 1. 35p.u Effective For All Types of Faults
Link Chopper [84]
d. RSDBR Circuit (Figure 16) [85] Reduced To < 1.59 Maintained Limits To < 1. 15p.u Effective For All Types of Faults
Crowbar Integrated with Series
e. Reduced To < 2.0 Partially Maintained Limits To < 1. 35p.u Effective For All Types of Faults
R–L [27]
f. DVR [47] Reduced To < 2.0 Partially Maintained Limits To < 1. 25p.u Effective For All Types of Faults

6. RTS Results Discussion

A case study was conducted in the real-time simulator (RTS) tool in this section in
order to increase the credibility of the aforementioned analysis. The real-time simulator
(RTS) (Hardware in Loop) provides a comprehensive set of real-time digital simulators
and control prototype systems for WEC systems, electrical grids, power electronics-based
drives, and other mechatronic systems. It provides robust, scalable, and cost-effective
power electronics and power system RTS solutions. The RTS results are used to conduct
feasibility studies, create new concepts, and design and test controllers for a wide range of
power grid and renewable energy applications. The RTS findings are widely regarded as
 6. RTS Results Discussion
A case study was conducted in the real-time simulator (RTS) tool in this section in
order to increase the credibility of the aforementioned analysis. The real-time simulator
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 (RTS) (Hardware in Loop) provides a comprehensive set of real-time digital simulators 24 of 33
and control prototype systems for WEC systems, electrical grids, power electronics-based
drives, and other mechatronic systems. It provides robust, scalable, and cost-effective
power electronics and power system RTS solutions. The RTS results are used to conduct
an excellent
feasibility instrument
studies, for analyzing,
create new concepts, and designing,
design and andtestdeveloping
controllers forWEa control
wide range approaches.
Itofispower
a blendgridofandextensive
renewable software
energy and advanced
applications. Thecomputer
RTS findings hardware.
are widely regarded
as anAexcellent
few of the instrument for analyzing,
LVRT techniques designing,
outlined and article
in this developing
haveWE beencontrol ap-
implemented in
proaches.
the It is a blend
RTS platform of extensive
(OP4500 RTS),software
which and advanced
includes computer
a host PC, a hardware.
DB-37 connector, Bayonet
A few of the LVRT
Neill-Concelman (BNC) techniques
cables, anoutlined in this and
HIL system, article have been implemented
a GWinstek GDS-1104B digitalin the storage
oscilloscope (DSO), as illustrated in Figure 17. The multiplication factorNeill-
RTS platform (OP4500 RTS), which includes a host PC, a DB-37 connector, Bayonet used for all
Concelman (BNC) cables, an HIL system, and a GWinstek GDS-1104B digital storage os-
parameters is 1, because they are all expressed in per unit form, with the exception of the
cilloscope (DSO), as illustrated in Figure 17. The multiplication factor used for all param-
DC link voltage, which is expressed in voltage form rather than per unit form. In this
eters is 1, because they are all expressed in per unit form, with the exception of the DC
RTS result, similar
link voltage, which istoexpressed
the Simulink case,form
in voltage we have
rathertaken
than perthreeunitcases:
form. the firstRTS
In this is without
protection, the second is with crowbar protection, and the third
result, similar to the Simulink case, we have taken three cases: the first is without protec- is with RSDBR protection,
and
tion,their resultsisare
the second with shown
crowbar in protection,
Figures 18–20.and the third is with RSDBR protection, and
The RTS result of a 1.5
their results are shown in Figures 18–20. MW DFIG WEC system under an 80% symmetrical voltage dip
without The aRTS protection
result of acircuit
1.5 MW is DFIG
shown WECin Figure
system 18.underSuppose
an 80%asymmetrical
small disturbance
voltage at 0.5 s
dip without a protection circuit is shown in Figure 18. Suppose
is created, which results in a drop in the grid voltage to 0.2 pu. At time t = 0.5 a small disturbance at 0.5
s, the grid
s is created, which results in a drop in the grid voltage to 0.2
fault instantly decreases the output voltage of the wind generator and decreases pu. At time t = 0.5 s, the gridthe stator
fault instantly
voltage to 10% decreases the output
of the current voltage
value, asofcanthebe
windseengenerator
in Figure and18a.
decreases the statorthe rotor
In addition,
voltage to 10% of the current value, as can be seen in Figure
and stator current increased quickly; the DC link bus illustrates over-voltage, 18a. In addition, the rotor and
as shown in
stator current increased quickly; the DC link bus illustrates over-voltage, as shown in Fig-
Figure 18b–d.
ure 18b–d.
For a DFIG’s low-voltage ride-through (LVRT), the rotor-side crowbar is commonly
For a DFIG’s low-voltage ride-through (LVRT), the rotor-side crowbar is commonly
used. Section 3 details the fundamental control strategy for a DFIG equipped with a rotor-
used. Section 3 details the fundamental control strategy for a DFIG equipped with a rotor-
side crowbar.
side crowbar. The TheRTS
RTS result
result of aof1.5
a 1.5
MWMW DFIG DFIG
WECWEC system system
under under
an 80%an 80% symmetrical
symmetrical
voltage
voltage dip dipwithwitha acrowbar
crowbar is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 19. RTS
19. This Thisresult
RTS shows
result shows
that, forthat, for the entire
the entire
fault time,the
fault time, thepeak
peakrotor
rotorandand stator
stator current
current never never surpassed
surpassed the estimated
the estimated maximum maximum
limit limit
of
of 2 p.u duetotoaacrowbar
p.u due crowbar circuit.
circuit. TheThe
DC DClink link is protected
is protected from dangerous
from dangerous overvoltages
overvoltages
by redirecting
by redirecting transient
transient rotor
rotorcurrents,
currents,andand
electromagnet
electromagnet torquetorque
fluctuations are likewise
fluctuations are likewise
kept to
kept to aa minimum.
minimum.

GWinstek GDS-1104B
OPAL-RT 4500 DSO

Communications Host PC
Lines

Figure 17. RTS diagram of the FRT of DFIG-based WEC systems.

This technique (RSDBR) utilizes a dynamic resistor in series with the rotor to decrease
the rotor and stator overcurrent in a DFIG-based WEC system. Figure 20 shows the RTS
findings for the DFIG with rotor resistance protection. The RSDBR configuration detects a
stator voltage decrease and activates the resistance security mechanism without interfering
with the RSPEC. As shown in Figure 20c, the RSDBR technique effectively reduces the
stator and rotor’s three-phase current within 2 pu, indicating that the fault ride-through
capability is significantly greater than that without protection. RSDBR also eliminates the
significant torque variation associated with fault initiation. The simulation results and RTS
results further show that the RSDBR technique is effective in reducing converter damage
 findings for the DFIG with rotor resistance protection. The RSDBR configuration detects
a stator voltage decrease and activates the resistance security mechanism without inter-
fering with the RSPEC. As shown in Figure 20c, the RSDBR technique effectively reduces
the stator and rotor’s three-phase current within 2 pu, indicating that the fault ride-
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 through capability is significantly greater than that without protection. RSDBR also25elim- of 33
inates the significant torque variation associated with fault initiation. The simulation re-
sults and RTS results further show that the RSDBR technique is effective in reducing con-
verter
by damage
regulating bystator
the regulating the stator
three-phase three-phase
current current
and limiting the and limiting
DC bus thevariability
voltage DC bus volt-to
age variability to less than 1.2
less than 1.2 times the rated value.times the rated value.

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Isabc(0.5pu/div) Time (50ms/div)

Vsabc(0.5pu/div) Time (50ms/div)

(a) (b)

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Vdc Link (500volt/div) Time (200ms/div)

Irabc(0.5pu/div) Time (100ms/div)

(c) (d)
Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault
Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

P (0.5pu/div) Time (500ms/div)

Q (0.5pu/div) Time (500ms/div)

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 34

(e) (f)

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Tem (0.5pu/div) Time (200ms/div)

(g)
Figure18.
Figure 18. Real-time
Real-time simulator
simulator (RTS)
(RTS) results
results demonstrating
demonstrating the
the performance
performanceof ofDFIG-based
DFIG-basedWECWEC
systems without protection: (a) stator voltage; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC link volt-
systems without protection: (a) stator voltage; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC link voltage;
age; (e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque.
(e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque.

During Fault Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault Post-Fault
 Tem (0.5pu/div) Time (200ms/div)

(g)
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 Figure 18. Real-time simulator (RTS) results demonstrating the performance of DFIG-based26 WEC
of 33
systems without protection: (a) stator voltage; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC link volt-
age; (e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque.

During Fault Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault Post-Fault

Icrowbar(2pu/div) Time (500ms/div)

Isabc(0.5pu/div) Time (100ms/div)

(a) (b)

Pre-Fault Post-Fault
Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

During Fault

Vdc-Link(500volt/div) Time (500ms/div)

Irabc(0.5pu/div) Time (200ms/div)

(c) (d)

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

P(1pu/div) Time (500ms/div)

Q(1pu/div) Time (500ms/div)

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 34

(e) (f)

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Tem (1pu/div) Time (500ms/div)

(g)
Figure 19. Real-time simulator (RTS) results demonstrating the performance of DFIG-based WEC
Figure 19. Real-time simulator (RTS) results demonstrating the performance of DFIG-based WEC
systems with crowbar protection: (a) crowbar current; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC
systems with crowbar protection: (a) crowbar current; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC link
link voltage; (e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque.
voltage; (e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque.

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Isabc (1pu/div) Time (100ms/div)

Vsabc(0.5pu/div) Time (50ms/div)

 (g)

Energies 2022, 15, 8026 Figure 19. Real-time simulator (RTS) results demonstrating the performance of DFIG-based27 WEC
of 33
systems with crowbar protection: (a) crowbar current; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC
link voltage; (e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque.

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Isabc (1pu/div) Time (100ms/div)

Vsabc(0.5pu/div) Time (50ms/div)

(a) (b)

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Irabc (1pu/div) Time (100ms/div) Vdc Link (0.5volt/div) Time (500ms/div)

(c) (d)
Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

P (0.5pu/div) Time (200ms/div)

Q (0.5pu/div) Time (200ms/div)

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 34

(e) (f)

Pre-Fault During Fault Post-Fault

Tem (0.5pu/div) Time (200ms/div)

(g)
Figure20.
Figure 20. Real-time
Real-time simulator
simulator (RTS)
(RTS)results
resultsdemonstrating
demonstrating the
theperformance
performance ofofDFIG-based
DFIG-basedWEC
WEC
systems with RSDBR protection; (a) stator voltage; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC
systems with RSDBR protection; (a) stator voltage; (b) stator current; (c) rotor current; (d) DC link
link voltage; (e) active power; (f) reactive power;
voltage; (e) active power; (f) reactive power; (g) torque. (g) torque.

7.7.Comparison
Comparisonof ofthe
thePerformance
PerformanceofofSimulated
SimulatedTechniques
Techniques
The
Thecrowbar
crowbarandandRSDBR
RSDBRprotection
protectiontechniques
techniquesare
arecompared
comparedininterms
termsofof
their simula-
their simu-
tion and
lation andreal-time
real-timesimulator results.
simulator results.InInorder
ordertotoensure
ensurethe
thecomparability
comparabilityof ofthe
theresearch
research
results, the crowbar protection circuit and RSDBR are connected and withdrawn at the
same time. Figures 13–20 respectively illustrate the transient response of a DFIG with
RSDBR and crowbar protection under fault conditions. The reactive power consumed by
the crowbar protection mechanism is greater than the reactive power consumed by the
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 28 of 33

results, the crowbar protection circuit and RSDBR are connected and withdrawn at the
same time. Figures 13–20 respectively illustrate the transient response of a DFIG with
RSDBR and crowbar protection under fault conditions. The reactive power consumed by
the crowbar protection mechanism is greater than the reactive power consumed by the
rotor series resistance mechanism. This is due to the fact that the DFIG remains control-
lable and capable of generating reactive power with RSDBR. As a result, it appears that
RSDBR protection has a significant advantage in terms of grid voltage restoration. When
the crowbar is switched on, its peak torque is significantly greater than the RSDBR, but
when it is switched off, its peak torque is less than the RSDBR. This can cause large torque
fluctuations in the crowbar, as shown in Figures 13 and 20.
Figures 13–20 also illustrates that the peak of the rotor and the stator transient current
waveforms in the crowbar during fault initiation are significantly bigger than those of
the RSDBR. As a result, the effect of the RSDBR is significantly smaller than that of the
crowbar, particularly during start-up. It is possible to conclude that RSDBR scheme is
slightly superior to the other scheme.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations

The primary goal of this study is to provide a state-of-the-art account for DFIG-WEC
system FRT schemes. This paper initially discussed the steady-state and transient behavior
of DFIGs, the grid code requirements for wind turbines, and the modelling of DFIGs.
Then, this paper analyzed the FRT arrangements that rely on additional protection circuits,
implemented reactive power injection systems, and control strategies in order to meet the
demanding necessities. The contributions and unique characteristics of these configurations
were likewise analyzed and compared. External system implementations are used to
update the converter configuration and are most commonly used for pre-installed WEC
systems. Unfortunately, economic considerations continue to be a significant impediment
to external retrofit methods, and the challenges associated with changing the existing
control scheme further limit their implementation. Internal control strategies make use of
the latest innovative control methods to improve the overall DFIG-WEC systems’ LVRT
capability. The improvement of the internal control system may lead to the improvement
of the control effect during the voltage sag of the grid. Because there is no need to use
external additional circuits, it can even enhance the effectiveness of the DFIG-WT’s LVRT.
Therefore, internal control methods are favored in newly installed wind farms, and they
have a huge growth potential in the long run. It is believed that this research is beneficial for
conceptualizing focused attention to improve the DFIG-WT’s FRT capabilities and multiple
aspects of their capabilities. In view of the real-time obstacles faced, the above research aims
to focus the attention of researchers on ways to further improve FRT capabilities. Finally, a
few case studies were undertaken and evaluated, and the performance comparison of the
two-protection technique in a grid voltage drop situation is shown by the results extracted
from the MATLAB/Simulink application and the OPAL-RT application.
The following is an overview of the conclusions and modelling statistics:
• Efficient FRT performance can be obtained with traditional crowbar guarding, but de-
layed disengagement results in grid reactive power absorption. The future direction is
to utilize the crowbar for FRT methods, which incorporates a combinational approach
with batteries and other modification approaches of RSPEC in order to deliver greater
FRT capabilities.
• The time needed to disconnect and restore the converter was greater with the DC link
chopper method than it was with the crowbar control, as the chopper did not gen-
uinely assist electric machines in post-fault demagnetization. The chopper technique
performs significantly weaker than the crowbar technique.
• As of recently, FCL-based configurations have been vastly enhanced. In the com-
parative analysis, the resistive type FCL situated on the side of the stator operates
efficiently, owing to its ability to compensate for voltage sag, the surplus active power
consumed, and the increase in the control of RSPEC. However, these circuits need
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 29 of 33

certain advanced control approaches for assessing the parametric uncertainties of a

nonlinear power network. The future direction of these FRT systems is the optimized
parameter selection for current restrictions. An adaptive technique should be used for
the evaluation of increased FRT capabilities.
• Battery storage techniques only offer active power adjustment by minimizing DC link
voltage variations. They are incapable of providing reactive power adjustment. So, the
future trends for FRT solutions based on ESS will be to use a combinational approach
to improve both real and reactive power.
• FRT can be provided solely with the use of DVR, without the need for any other pro-
tective measures. The low-rated DVR-based configuration is cost-effective and capable
of circumventing the requirement of complex control techniques while improving the
overall reactive power support throughout the FRT in the DFIG.
• The dynamical performance of wind turbines in a power system can be strengthened
using STATCOM. In comparison to STATCOM with SVC, STATCOM provides superior
voltage characteristics, and it can provide greater reactive power adjustment when
there are severe faults. However, it requires a cost-effective solution.
• The active approaches used in modern WEC systems can be used efficiently on the
basis of improved control methods in RSPEC or GSPEC controllers. Especially in
comparison with passive approaches, these active approaches lower external hard-
ware costs.
• Modern controllers with adaptive techniques reduce the complexity of the vector loop
modification and give a dynamic response that is both rapid and resilient. These
controllers have to be capable of meeting the requirements of a weak grid through the
LVRT improvement of DFIG-WTs.

Author Contributions: The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception
and design: A.A.A., G.D.; data collection: A.A.A.; analysis and interpretation of results: A.A.A., G.D.;
draft manuscript preparation: A.A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Vw Wind speed (m/s) ids: iqs d–q components of the stator current
R Radius of the rotor in meters ∅ds ,∅qs d–q components of the stator flux
þ Air density in kg/m3 vdr , vqr d–q components of the rotor voltage
Cp (λ, β) Power coefficient idr , iqr d–q components of the rotor current
λ Tip speed ratio of the turbine blade ∅dr , ∅qr d–q components of the rotor flux
β Pitch angle in degrees R s , Rr Stator and rotor resistance
Γ Gamma function Ls , Lr Stator and rotor inductance
Pm Mechanical active power in watts M Mutual inductance
Tm Mechanical torque Tem Electrical torque
nr Rotational speed of the turbine rotor s Slip
ωs Synchronous electrical speed p Pole pairs
ω re Rotor’s electrical speed Ps Stator real power.
vds , vqs d–q components of the stator voltage Qs Stator reactive power.
Energies 2022, 15, 8026 30 of 33

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