1. What do you understand by Negative feedback? What is feedback factor?

Mention the
advantages of negative feedback amplifier for design an amplifier.

Ans:- Negative feedback is a technique used in electronic circuits,

particularly in amplifiers, to improve their performance and stability. In
negative feedback, a portion of the output signal is fed back to the input
with the opposite phase (inverted) to the input signal. This process reduces
the overall gain of the amplifier but provides several advantages in terms of
linearity, bandwidth, distortion, and stability.

The feedback factor, often denoted by the symbol β (beta), represents the
fraction of the output signal that is fed back to the input. It is defined as the
ratio of the feedback signal to the output signal.

Advantages of Negative Feedback in Amplifiers:

1. Improved Linearity: Negative feedback helps to maintain a more

linear relationship between the input and output signals, reducing
harmonic distortion and nonlinearities. This results in a more faithful
reproduction of the input signal.
2. Increased Bandwidth: Negative feedback can increase the
bandwidth of an amplifier. By trading some gain for improved
bandwidth, the amplifier can respond to a wider range of frequencies.
3. Reduced Distortion: Negative feedback reduces harmonic distortion
by counteracting nonlinearities in the amplifier circuit. This leads to a
cleaner and more accurate reproduction of the input signal.
4. Enhanced Stability: Negative feedback improves the stability of an
amplifier by reducing sensitivity to changes in component
characteristics and environmental conditions. It helps in minimizing
variations and drifts.
5. Lower Output Impedance: Negative feedback typically results in a
lower output impedance, which improves the ability of the amplifier
to drive loads and reduces interaction with connected devices.
6. Improved Noise Performance: Negative feedback can reduce the
impact of noise generated within the amplifier, resulting in lower
overall noise levels in the output signal.
7. Precise Gain Control: Negative feedback allows for more precise
control over the gain of the amplifier. The gain can be adjusted by
varying the amount of feedback, providing flexibility in amplifier
design.
In summary, negative feedback is a valuable technique in amplifier design,
offering a trade-off between gain and various desirable performance
characteristics. It is widely employed to achieve a balance between high
gain and the need for stability, linearity, and reduced distortion in electronic
circuits.
An amplifier has a voltage gain of 200. The gain is reduced to 50 when negative feedback is applied.
Determine feedback factor β.
Ans:- The relationship between the voltage gain (A) and the feedback factor
(β) in an amplifier with negative feedback is given by the formula:

Af=1+A⋅βA

Where:

 Af is the overall voltage gain with feedback,

 A is the voltage gain without feedback, and
 β is the feedback factor.

In this case, the voltage gain without feedback ( A) is given as 200, and the
voltage gain with feedback ( Af) is given as 50. Plugging these values into
the formula:

50=2001+200⋅50=1+200⋅β200

Now, we can solve for β:

50(1+200⋅)=20050(1+200⋅β)=200

1+200⋅=200501+200⋅β=50200

1+200⋅=41+200⋅β=4

200⋅=3200⋅β=3

=3200β=2003

So, the feedback factor β is 32002003 or 0.015.

2. An ideal Op-AMP has the output connected with the inverting input through resistance of
1KΩ. An a.c. voltage of magnitude 5V R.M.S. is applied through series resistance of 5KΩ
 between inverting input and ground. Draw the circuit diagram and state the assumptions for
determine of the output voltage.

Ans:-
To determine the output voltage of the given circuit, let's first draw the circuit
diagram and state the assumptions:

Circuit Diagram:

Assumptions:

1. Ideal Op-Amp: The operational amplifier is assumed to be ideal, which means

it has infinite input impedance, infinite open-loop gain, zero output
impedance, and no offset voltage.
2. Virtual Short Circuit: The concept of a virtual short circuit is applied to the
inputs of the op-amp. It means that the voltage difference between the
inverting (-) and non-inverting (+) inputs is virtually zero.
3. Negligible Input Current: The input current into the op-amp is assumed to
be negligible.
4. Negligible Offset Voltage: The op-amp is assumed to have zero offset
voltage.

Output Voltage Calculation:

The voltage at the inverting input ( Vi−n) is the voltage drop across 1R1, given by
Ohm's law:

Vi−n=IR1⋅R1
The current ( IR1) flowing through R1 can be calculated as:

IR1=Vin/Rin

where Rin is the total resistance seen by Vin, which is the parallel combination of R1
and R2:

1/Rin=1/R1+1/R2

Once you find Vi−n, because of the virtual short circuit assumption, Vi−n is also the
voltage at the non-inverting input ( Vi+n). Since the op-amp is assumed to be ideal,
the voltage at the inverting and non-inverting inputs is the same.

Finally, the output voltage ( Vout) can be calculated using the inverting amplifier
formula:

Vout=−A⋅Vi−n

where A is the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp (which is assumed to be

infinite in this case).

Please note that in practical scenarios, additional considerations, such as the

common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) and the bandwidth of the op-amp, might be
relevant for a more accurate analysis.
4. Design a Non-Inverting Amplifier and calculate the overall gain.

Ans:- The non-inverting amplifier configuration has the following circuit:-

Here:
  Vs is the supply voltage.
 R1 is the resistor connected between the input and the operational
amplifier's inverting (-) input.
 R2 is the resistor connected between the inverting (-) input and the
output.
 Vin is the input voltage.
 Vout is the output voltage.

The gain (Av) of the non-inverting amplifier is given by the formula:

Av=1+R2/R1

Now, let's calculate the overall gain for a specific example. Suppose you
want a gain of 5, meaning Av=5. You can set the ratio of R2 to R1
accordingly.

5=1+ R2/R1

R2/R1=5−1

R2/R1=4

Now, you can choose specific resistor values for R1 and R2. For example, let
R1=1kΩ. Then, R2 would be:

R2=4×R1=4×1kΩ=4kΩ

So, for a gain of 5, you can use R1=1kΩ and R2=4kΩ. The overall gain of
the non-inverting amplifier in this case would be 5.
5.Discuss a phase shift Oscillator circuit.
Ans:- A phase-shift oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator circuit that generates
sinusoidal waveforms. It belongs to the category of RC oscillators and typically
consists of an inverting operational amplifier (op-amp) with multiple RC filter stages
connected in a feedback loop. The feedback network provides the required phase
shift for sustained oscillations.

Here is a basic schematic diagram of a three-stage phase-shift oscillator:

Working Principle:
1. Phase Shift: Each RC stage introduces a phase shift to the signal. In a
three-stage phase-shift oscillator, each RC section contributes a 60-
degree phase shift, resulting in a total of 180 degrees (3 stages * 60
degrees/stage).
2. Feedback Network: The output of the last RC stage is fed back to
the inverting input of the op-amp, providing positive feedback. The
feedback network determines the frequency of oscillation.
3. Frequency of Oscillation: The frequency of oscillation ( f) is
determined by the time constant of the RC network. For a three-stage
oscillator, the frequency can be approximated as f≈1/2πRC.
4. Amplification: The op-amp amplifies the feedback signal to
compensate for the losses in the RC network, ensuring sustained
oscillations.

Design Considerations:

1. Component Values: The values of resistors ( R) and capacitors ( C) in

the RC network determine the frequency of oscillation. Proper
selection is crucial to achieve the desired frequency.
2. Amplitude Stability: The gain of the op-amp should be sufficient to
compensate for the signal losses in the RC network and maintain
stable oscillations. However, excessive gain can lead to distortion.
3. Start-up: The oscillator requires a brief period to start oscillating
from an initial condition. Once started, it can sustain oscillations.
4. Output Amplitude: The output amplitude of a phase-shift oscillator
can be affected by non-idealities in the op-amp and component
tolerances. For a more consistent amplitude, additional amplitude
stabilization circuits may be employed.
Advantages:
1. Simple Design: Phase-shift oscillators are relatively simple in design
and require fewer components compared to some other oscillator
types.
2. Stable Frequency: With proper component values, phase-shift
oscillators can provide stable and predictable frequencies.
3. Ease of Tuning: Frequency adjustment is often achieved by varying
resistor or capacitor values in the feedback network.

Disadvantages:
1. Amplitude Stability: Achieving stable amplitude over a wide range
of operating conditions can be challenging.
2. Sensitive to Component Tolerances: The stability and frequency of
the oscillator can be sensitive to component tolerances.

In summary, a phase-shift oscillator is a versatile circuit commonly used for

generating sine waves in various electronic applications. Careful design and
component selection are necessary to ensure stable and reliable
performance.
6. Explain the working principle of Wien Bridge Oscillator with suitable circuit diagram.

Ans:- The Wien Bridge Oscillator is a type of audio-frequency oscillator that is capable of
generating sinusoidal waveforms. It employs a bridge circuit configuration and is known for
its simplicity and ease of frequency tuning. The key feature of the Wien Bridge Oscillator is its
ability to maintain a constant amplitude output over a wide range of frequencies.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Working Principle:
The Wien Bridge Oscillator consists of two resistor-capacitor (RC) networks
in a bridge configuration, forming a feedback loop. The key components
are R1, R2, C1, and C2.

1. Feedback Loop: The feedback loop is established through R1, R2, C1

, and C2. The bridge network ensures that the feedback to the
amplifier stage is in-phase, which is crucial for sustained oscillations.
2. Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp): An operational amplifier (often
used as an inverting amplifier) is employed to provide the necessary
gain for sustaining oscillations. The op-amp compares the voltage at
its inverting input ( −) with the reference voltage at its non-inverting
input (+).
3. Bridge Balance: The bridge is balanced when the impedances across
its arms are equal. This condition occurs when R1/R2=C2/C1. When
the bridge is balanced, the voltage at the inverting input is the same
as the voltage at the non-inverting input.
4. Frequency of Oscillation: The frequency of oscillation ( f) is
determined by the RC time constants in the feedback network. The
relationship between frequency and the components is given by
f=1/2πR1C1.
5. Amplitude Control: The amplitude of the output signal is controlled
by adjusting the gain of the operational amplifier. This can be
achieved by incorporating an amplitude control mechanism or by
selecting appropriate resistor values.

Tuning:
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is known for its ease of frequency tuning. The
frequency can be adjusted by varying either R1 and C1 or R2 and C2 while
maintaining the ratio R1/R2=C2/C1 for bridge balance.

Advantages:
1. Stability: The Wien Bridge Oscillator can provide stable oscillations
over a wide frequency range.
2. Constant Amplitude: It is designed to produce a constant amplitude
output over its frequency range.
 3. Ease of Tuning: The oscillator is easy to tune by adjusting resistor or
capacitor values while maintaining the bridge balance condition.

Disadvantages:
1. Amplitude Stability: Achieving stable amplitude control can be
challenging, especially at higher frequencies.
2. Sensitive to Component Variations: The circuit may be sensitive to
variations in component values, affecting the desired frequency of
oscillation.

In summary, the Wien Bridge Oscillator is a classic circuit known for its
simplicity and frequency stability. It is commonly used in audio frequency
applications where a stable sinusoidal waveform is required.
7. Explain the Barkhausen criterion for the oscillation

Ans:-
The Barkhausen criterion is a set of conditions that must be satisfied for
sustained oscillations to occur in an electronic circuit. It was formulated by
the German physicist Heinrich Barkhausen and is particularly relevant in the
analysis of electronic oscillators, including feedback amplifiers and
oscillators. The criterion helps determine the conditions under which an
electronic circuit will produce continuous oscillations.

Barkhausen Criterion:
For an electronic circuit to sustain oscillations, two conditions must be met:

1. Amplitude Condition:
 The magnitude of the loop gain ( Aβ) must be equal to or
greater than 1, where:
 A is the voltage gain of the amplifier.
 β is the feedback fraction (the fraction of output voltage
fed back to the input).
Mathematically, this can be expressed as: ∣Aβ∣≥1
This condition ensures that the loop gain is sufficient to compensate
for losses in the circuit and maintain sustained oscillations.
2. Phase Condition:
  The total phase shift around the feedback loop must be a
multiple of 360 degrees (or 2π radians).
Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
Total phase shift=360∘×n
where n is an integer.
This condition ensures that the feedback signal reinforces the input
signal at the appropriate phase, leading to positive feedback and
sustained oscillations.

Explanation:
1. Amplitude Condition:
 When the loop gain ( Aβ) is exactly equal to 1, the system is at
the threshold of oscillation. Any slight disturbance or noise can
trigger oscillations, leading to a continuous and self-sustained
output.
2. Phase Condition:
 The phase condition ensures that the positive feedback
reinforces the input signal, rather than canceling it out. If the
total phase shift is not a multiple of 360 degrees, the feedback
may be negative at certain frequencies, leading to damping
instead of sustained oscillations.

Implications:
 The Barkhausen criterion helps in designing and analyzing oscillators
and feedback amplifiers by providing guidelines for achieving stable
oscillations.
 Achieving the right amplitude and phase conditions is crucial for
avoiding amplitude distortion and ensuring the stability of the
oscillations.
 In practical oscillator circuits, adjustments are often made to the
circuit parameters to meet the Barkhausen criterion, allowing for
precise control of the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations.

In summary, the Barkhausen criterion is a fundamental concept in the

theory of electronic oscillators, providing conditions for sustained and
stable oscillations in feedback systems. Meeting both the amplitude and
phase conditions is essential for designing reliable and effective oscillators.

8. What are the advantage and disadvantage of Negative feedback?

Ans:- Advantages of Negative Feedback:

1. Improved Linearity: Negative feedback helps to maintain a more

linear relationship between the input and output of an amplifier or
system, reducing distortion and providing a more faithful
reproduction of the input signal.
2. Increased Bandwidth: Negative feedback can extend the bandwidth
of a system, allowing it to respond to a wider range of frequencies.
This is particularly beneficial in applications where a flat frequency
response is essential.
3. Reduced Distortion: By counteracting nonlinearities in the system,
negative feedback reduces harmonic distortion, resulting in a cleaner
and more accurate output signal.
4. Enhanced Stability: Negative feedback improves the stability of a
system by reducing sensitivity to changes in component
characteristics, temperature variations, and other external factors. This
makes the system more robust and reliable.
5. Precise Gain Control: Negative feedback allows for precise control
over the gain of an amplifier or system. The gain can be adjusted by
varying the amount of feedback, providing flexibility in design and
operation.
6. Lower Output Impedance: Negative feedback typically results in a
lower output impedance, improving the system's ability to drive loads
and reducing the impact of external devices.
7. Noise Reduction: Negative feedback can help reduce the impact of
noise generated within the system, resulting in a lower overall noise
level in the output signal.

Disadvantages of Negative Feedback:

1. Reduced Gain: One of the primary trade-offs of negative feedback is

that it reduces the overall gain of the system. While this reduction is
 often intentional for improved performance, it may not be desirable
in situations where high gain is a priority.
2. Phase Shift: In some systems, especially at high frequencies, negative
feedback can introduce phase shifts that affect stability and may lead
to instability or oscillations.
3. Increased Complexity: Implementing negative feedback requires
additional components and circuitry, adding complexity to the
system. This complexity can result in increased cost, size, and
potential points of failure.
4. Sensitivity to Component Variations: Negative feedback systems
can be sensitive to variations in component values. Small changes in
resistor or capacitor values, for example, may affect the performance
of the feedback loop.
5. Trade-Offs in Speed: Negative feedback systems may exhibit slower
response times due to the stabilizing effects of the feedback. In
applications where speed is critical, this can be a drawback.
6. Design Challenges: Proper design and tuning of negative feedback
systems can be challenging, requiring careful consideration of
component values and feedback loop parameters to achieve the
desired performance.

In summary, while negative feedback offers numerous advantages in terms

of linearity, stability, and control, it also involves trade-offs such as reduced
gain and increased complexity. The choice to use negative feedback
depends on the specific requirements and constraints of the application.
12. What is virtual ground?

Ans:- Virtual ground is a concept often used in electronic circuits, particularly in

operational amplifier (op-amp) applications. In ideal operational amplifier circuits, the
virtual ground concept simplifies the analysis and design by assuming that the voltage at
certain points in the circuit is virtually constant, similar to a true electrical ground. This
virtual ground simplification is particularly useful in analyzing and designing amplifier
circuits, filters, and other applications.

13. Explain the operation of OP-AMP as voltage amplifier in non-inverting mode.

Ans:- An operational amplifier (op-amp) in non-inverting mode is commonly used as a

voltage amplifier. In this configuration, the non-inverting input (+) is used as the input, while
the inverting input (-) is connected to a fraction of the output voltage through a feedback
resistor network. The non-inverting amplifier configuration provides a positive voltage gain
and is characterized by its high input impedance and low output impedance.
Operation:

1. Input Voltage (Vin): The input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input
of the op-amp. Due to the high input impedance of the op-amp, almost no
current flows into the input terminals.
2. Voltage Divider: The resistor network ( R1 and R2) creates a voltage divider.
The voltage at the non-inverting input is a fraction of the output voltage.
3. Amplification: The op-amp amplifies the voltage difference between its
inputs. In the non-inverting configuration, the output voltage ( Vout) is
proportional to the input voltage ( Vin) with a positive voltage gain given by
the formula:
Voltage Gain(Av)=1+R2/R1 This configuration provides a positive voltage
gain, and the input and output voltages are in phase.
4. Feedback: The feedback path through R2 connects the output to the non-
inverting input, providing stability and controlling the gain of the amplifier.

Advantages:

1. High Input Impedance: The non-inverting amplifier has a high input

impedance, making it suitable for interfacing with high impedance sources
without loading them.
2. Positive Voltage Gain: The voltage gain is always greater than 1, providing
amplification to the input signal.
3. Stability: The feedback path enhances stability and controls the gain of the
amplifier.
4. Ease of Use: The non-inverting configuration is straightforward to design and
offers a simple way to obtain positive voltage gain.

Design Considerations:

1. Choice of Resistors: The values of R1 and R2 determine the voltage gain. The
ratio R2/R1 is crucial in setting the desired gain.
2. Input and Output Impedances: The high input impedance and low output
impedance of the non-inverting amplifier contribute to its versatility.
3. Sensitivity to Component Tolerances: The gain is sensitive to the tolerances
of the resistors used in the circuit. Precision resistors may be required for
precise gain control.
14. Draw the circuit diagram of voltage follower using op-amp.
In this circuit:

 Vin: Input voltage applied to the non-inverting input.

 Vout: Output voltage.
 The non-inverting input is directly connected to the input voltage.
 The inverting input is also connected to the same voltage, creating a
unity gain configuration.
 +VS: Positive power supply voltage.
 GND: Ground reference.

The voltage follower provides a simple and effective way to buffer a signal
source. The output voltage ( Vout) follows the input voltage ( Vin) with a gain
of 1. The high input impedance of the op-amp prevents loading of the
signal source, and the low output impedance allows the circuit to drive a
load with minimal signal distortion.

The voltage follower is useful in applications where impedance matching or

isolation between the input and output is necessary. It is often employed in
situations where the load requires a low-impedance source but where the
source itself has limited current-driving capability.