MICROWAVE AND ANTENNAS (20EC520)

Course Title: Microwave and Antennas Course Code: 20EC520

Credits: 4 Total Contact Hours (L:T:P): 52:0:0
Type of Course: Theory Category: Professional Core course
CIE Marks: 50 SEE Marks: 100

Course Outcomes: After completing this course, students should be able to:
CO1: Explain the principles of microwave frequencies, sources, hazards of microwaves and system
modeling using s-parameters.

No. of
Unit No. Course Content
Hours
Introduction to Microwaves: Introduction, bands, advantages,
application and radiation hazards, S-parameters, Microwave filters,
Microwave waveguides and components. Avalanche transit time devices –
1 IMPATT diode, TRAPATT diode, Gunn diode, Tunnel diode, Varactor 11
diodes. Microwave linear beam tubes – Klystrons, TWT, Microwave Cross
field tubes – Magnetron, parametric amplifiers, Cross field amplifiers.
SLE: Strip line fabrications

1. Introduction
Microwaves are generally defined as electromagnetic waves with a frequency between 300
MHz to 300 GHz. typically, the wavelengths of these electromagnetic waves are defined as
well, with the range being from 1m to 1mm.shorter than that of a normal radio wave but
longer than those of infrared radiation.

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Microwaves obey the laws of optics, such as Snell’s law and the law of reflection, and thus
can be transferred, assimilated, or reflected, which is extremely important when
considering how microwaves operate.
Snell's law, in optics, a relationship between the path taken by a ray of light in
crossing the boundary or surface of separation between two contacting substances
and the refractive index of each.
The law of reflection formula is given as:θi = θr
Where,

• θi is the angle of incidence

• θr is the angle of reflection

2. Bands:

Electromagnetic wave
Frequency band Wavelength
spectrum
Radio waves Very high frequency (VHF) (30–300 MHz) 10–1 m

Ultrahigh frequency (UHF) (300–3000 MHz) (100–10 cm)

P band (230 MHz–1 GHz) 130–30 cm
L band (1–2 GHz) 30–15 cm
S band (2–4 GHz) 15–7.5 cm
Super high frequency (SHF) (3–30 GHz) (10–1 cm)
Microwaves S band (2–4 GHz) 15–7.5 cm
C band (4–8 GHz) 7.5–3.75 cm
X band (8–12.5 GHz) 3.75–2.4 cm
Ku band (12.5–18 GHz) 2.4–1.67 cm
K band (18–26.5 GHz) 1.67–1.13 cm
Ka band (26.5–40 GHz) 1.13–0.75 cm

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Electromagnetic wave
Frequency band Wavelength
spectrum
Extremely high frequency (EHF) (30–
(10–1 mm)
300 GHz)
Ka band (26.5–40 GHz) 1.13–0.75 cm
Millimeter waves
V band (40–75 GHz) 7.5–4 mm
W band (75–110 GHz) 4–2.73 mm
Millimeter band (110–300 GHz) 2.73–1 mm

Name Frequency Name origin Common applications

range
VHF Band 30 to 300 Very High Frequency • FM radio
MHz • Television broadcasts
UHF Band 300 to 3000 Ultra High Frequency • Television broadcasts
MHz • Microwave oven
• Microwave devices
• Communications
• Radio astronomy
• Mobile phones
• Wireless LAN
• Bluetooth
L Band 1 to 2 GHz Long • Military telemetry
• GPS
• Air traffic control (ATC) radarS
Band2 to 4 GHzShort• Weather radar
• Surface ship radar
• Microwave ovens
• Microwave devices
• Communications
C Band 4 to 8 GHz Compromise(between • Long-distance radio
S and X) telecommunications

X Band 8 to 12 GHz X for “crosshair” • Satellite communications

(used in WW2 for fire • Radar
control radar • Terrestrial broadband
• Space communications

Ku Band 12 to 18 GHz Kurtz Under • Satellite communications

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Name Frequency Name origin Common applications

range
K Band 18 to 26.5 Kurtz (German for • Radar
GHz short) • Satellite communications
• Astronomical observations
• Automotive radar
Ka 5 to 40 GHz Kurtz Above • Satellite communications
Band26

Generally, microwave (MW) & radio frequency (RF) components are utilized in the
following markets & applications:
1. Military & Defense Radar

2. Air Traffic Control Radar

3. Medical Imaging & Radiotherapy

4. Accelerator Science

5. High-Energy Physics Research

6. Fusion Energy Research

7. Industrial Microwave Systems

8. TV & Radio Broadcast

9. Materials Processing

10.Plasma Processing
3. Properties of Microwaves
Following are the main properties of Microwaves.
• Microwaves are the waves that radiate electromagnetic energy with shorter

wavelength.
• Microwaves are not reflected by Ionosphere.
• Microwaves travel in a straight line and are reflected by the conducting surfaces.
• Microwaves are easily attenuated within shorter distances.
• Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer of a cable.

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4. Advantages of Microwaves
There are many advantages of Microwaves such as the following −
• Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is transmitted. For this
reason, microwaves are used for point-to-point communications.
• More antenna gain is possible.
• Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is more.
• Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
• Low power consumption as the signals are of higher frequencies.
• Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight propagation.
• Provides effective reflection area in the radar systems.
• Satellite and terrestrial communications with high capacities are possible.
• Low-cost miniature microwave components can be developed.
• Effective spectrum usage with wide variety of applications in all available frequency
ranges of operation.
Disadvantages of Microwaves
There are a few disadvantages of Microwaves such as the following −
• Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
• They are hefty and occupy more space.
• Electromagnetic interference may occur.
• Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur.
• Inherent inefficiency of electric power.

5. Applications of Microwaves
There are a wide variety of applications for Microwaves, which are not possible for other
radiations. They are −
Wireless Communications • Outdoor broadcasting
• For long distance telephone calls transmissions
• Bluetooth • Broadcast auxiliary services
• WIMAX operations • Remote pickup unit

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• Studio/transmitter link • Global Positioning System GPSGPS

• Direct Broadcast Satellite DBSDBS Military and Radar
• Personal Communication • Radars to detect the range and
Systems PCSs speed of the target.
• Wireless Local Area • SONAR applications
Networks WLANs • Air traffic control
• Cellular Video CVCV systems • Weather forecasting
• Automobile collision avoidance • Navigation of ships
system • Minesweeping applications
Electronics • Speed limit enforcement
• Fast jitter-free switches • Military uses microwave
• Phase shifters frequencies for communications
• HF generation and for the above-mentioned
• Tuning elements applications.
• ECM/ECCM ElectronicCounterMea Research Applications
sureElectronicCounterMeasure sy • Atomic resonances
stems • Nuclear resonances
• Spread spectrum systems Radio Astronomy
Commercial Uses • Mark cosmic microwave
• Burglar alarms background radiation
• Garage door openers • Detection of powerful waves in the
• Police speed detectors universe
• Identification by non-contact • Detection of many radiations in
methods the universe and earth’s
• Cell phones, pagers, wireless LANs atmosphere
• Satellite television, XM radio Food Industry
• Motion detectors • Microwave ovens used for
• Remote sensing reheating and cooking
Navigation • Food processing applications
• Global navigation satellite systems • Pre-heating applications

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• Pre-cooking • To know about unpaired electrons

• Roasting food grains/beans in chemicals
• Drying potato chips • To know the free radicals in
• Moisture levelling materials
• Absorbing water molecules • Electron chemistry
Industrial Uses Medical Applications
• Vulcanizing rubber • Monitoring heartbeat
• Analytical chemistry applications • Lung water detection
• Drying and reaction processes • Tumor detection
• Processing ceramics • Regional hyperthermia
• Polymer matrix • Therapeutic applications
• Surface modification • Local heating
• Chemical vapor processing • Angioplasty
• Powder processing • Microwave tomography
• Sterilizing pharmaceuticals • Microwave Acoustic imaging
• Chemical synthesis
• Waste remediation
• Power transmission
• Tunnel boring
• Breaking rock/concrete
• Breaking up coal seams
• Curing of cement
• RF Lighting
• Fusion reactors
• Active denial systems
Semiconductor Processing Techniques
• Reactive ion etching
• Chemical vapor deposition
Spectroscopy
• Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

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For any wave to propagate, there is the need of a medium. The transmission lines, which are of
different types, are used for the propagation of Microwaves.

6. Radiation hazards
A. Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiations to Personnel. (HERP)
B. Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiations to Ordnance (HERO)
C. Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiations to Fuel ( HERF)

HERP is caused by thermal effect of radiated energy. Biological substances are : Blood,
Muscles, Bone, Brain, Fat [These behave as conductive dielectric]
Microwave energy directed on to the body may be scattered, reflected, and absorbed, depending
on the field strength, the frequency, dimension of the body and electrical properties of the tissue.
The absorbed microwave energy produces molecular vibrations and converts this energy
into heat. If the organism can not dissipate, this heat energy as fast as heat is produced, the internal
temperature of the body will increase. This heat may damage these biological substances
permanently.
e.g. If the lens of the eye is exposed to microwaves, its circulatory system would be unable to
provide sufficient flow of blood for cooling and may cause cataract.
Similarly, the stomach, intestines and bladder are specially sensitive to thermal damage from high
power microwaves.
Microwave frequencies for which the wavelengths are of the same order of magnitude as the
dimensions of the human body produce close coupling between the body and the microwave field
and large amount of heat can be generated to cause severe damage in the body.
Significant energy absorption will occur even when the body size is at least 1/10 of a
wavelength. Although the biological damage occurs mostly due to electric field coupling, low
frequency magnitude field coupling can also produce damage when exposure time is large.
How to Protect from Radiations - Radiation protection can be practiced by preventing
radiations from entering into the beam of the transmit antenna or
by preventing coming close to any microwave generator or propagating medium. - In areas where
high power Radar are used, the service and maintenance personnel must wear microwave
absorptive suit made out of stainless steel woven into a fire retardant synthetic fiber.
- The suit is light weight, comfortable and easy to put on.

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- The attenuation produces by such suit is above 20dB at 2450 MHz, 20-35 dB from 650-1150
MHz, and 35-40 dB from 1-11 GHz.
• Hazard of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel (HERF) is the hazard associated with the
possibility of igniting fuel or other volatile materials through RF energy induced arcs or
sparks. It takes a certain amount of arc energy to ignite a fuel and modern fuels like JP-5 are
much safer than older fuels like JP-4. You can see how that might be a concern aboard and
aircraft carrier. Fortunately there are many operational safeguards against this problem
and many of the newer fuels such as JP-5 are much harder to ignite.
• Hazard of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO) is defined as the danger of
accidental actuation of electro-explosive devices or otherwise electrically activating
ordnance because of radio frequency electromagnetic fields.
This unintended actuation could have safety or reliability consequences such as duding. For
HERO safety, we are concerned with any ordnance item containing electro-explosive devices
(EEDs) or electrically initiated devices (EIDs). These devices can be adversely affected by
RF energy to the point that the safety and/or reliability of the system is in jeopardy when
the system is employed in the operational electromagnetic environment. Note that an EID
cannot discriminate between an accidentally induced signal and a purposeful one

Types of waveguides
Waveguides are majorly classified as rectangular or circular but these are basically of 5 different
types:

Modes of propagation in a Waveguide

When an electromagnetic wave is transmitted through a waveguide. Then it has two field components
that oscillate mutually perpendicular to each other. Out of the two one is electric field and the other is
a magnetic field.

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The figure below represents the propagation of an electromagnetic wave in the z-direction with the
two field components:

The propagation of wave inside the waveguide originates basically 2 modes.

However, overall basically 3 modes exist, which are as follows:

• Transverse Electric wave:

In this mode of wave propagation, the electric field component is totally transverse to the direction of
wave propagation whereas the magnetic field is not totally transverse to the direction of wave
propagation. It is abbreviated as TE mode.

• Transverse Magnetic wave:

In this mode of wave propagation, the magnetic field component is totally transverse to the direction
of wave propagation while the electric field is not totally transverse to the direction of wave
propagation. It is abbreviated as TM mode.

• Transverse electromagnetic wave:

In this mode of wave propagation, both the field components i.e., electric and magnetic fields are
totally transverse to the direction of wave propagation. It is abbreviated as TEM mode.

It is to be noted here that, TEM mode is not supported in waveguides. As for the TEM mode, there is
a need for the presence of two conductors and we already know that a waveguide is a single hollow
conductor.
Parameters of a Waveguide:

• Cut-off wavelength: It the maximum signal wavelength of the transmitted signal that can be
propagated within the waveguide without any attenuation. This means up to cut-off wavelength, a
microwave signal can be easily transmitted through the waveguide. It is denoted by λc.

• Group velocity: Group velocity is the velocity with which wave propagates inside the waveguide. If
the transmitted carrier is modulated, then the velocity of the modulation envelope is
somewhat less as compare to the carrier signal. This velocity of the envelope
is termed as group velocity. It is represented by Vg.

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• Phase velocity: It is the velocity with which the transmitted wave changes its phase during
propagation. Or we can say it is basically the velocity of a particular phase of the propagating wave.
It is denoted by Vp.

• Wave Impedance: It is also known as the characteristic impedance. It is defined as the ratio of the
transverse electric field to that of the transverse magnetic field during wave propagation at any point
inside the waveguide. It is denoted by Zg.
Advantages of waveguides

1. In waveguides, the power loss during propagation is almost negligible.

2. Waveguides have the ability to manage large-signal power.
3. As waveguides possess a simple structure thus their installation is somewhat easy.
Disadvantages of waveguides
1. Its installation and manufacturing cost is high.
2. Waveguides are generally rigid in nature and hence sometimes causes difficulty in applications where
tube flexibility is required.
3. It is somewhat large in size and bulkier as compared to other transmission lines.
It is noteworthy in the case of waveguides that their diameter must have some certain value in order
to have proper signal propagation. This is so because if its diameter is very small and the wavelength
of the signal to be propagated is large (or signal frequency is small) then it will not be propagated
properly.
So, the signal frequency must be greater than the cutoff frequency in order to have a proper signal
transmission.

7. S-parameters (Scattering Parameters)

Linear two-port (and multi-port) networks are characterized by a number of equivalent circuit parameters,
such as their transfer matrix, impedance matrix, admittance matrix, and scattering matrix. Fig. shows a
typical two-port network.

The transfer matrix, also known as the ABCD matrix, relates the voltage and current at port 1 to those at
port 2, whereas the impedance matrix relates the two voltages V1,V2 to the two currents I1, I2.

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• Thus, the transfer and impedance matrices are the 2×2 matrices:

• The admittance matrix is simply the inverse of the impedance matrix, Y = Z−1.
• The scattering matrix relates the outgoing waves b1, b2 to the incoming waves a1,
a2 that are incident on the two-port:

The matrix elements S11, S12, S21, S22 are referred to as the scattering parameters or the S-
parameters. The parameters S11, S22 have the meaning of reflection coefficients, and S21, S12, the
meaning of transmission coefficients.

S- the scattering matrix

The scattering matrix is defined as the relationship between the forward and backward moving waves.
For a two-port network, like any other set of two-port parameters, the scattering matrix is a 2| matrix.

Properties of S matrix:
In general the scattering parameters are complex quantities having the following Properties:
Property (1) :When any Z port is perfectly matched to the junction, then there are no reflections from
that S = 0. If all the ports are perfectly matched, then the leading diagonal II elements will all be zero.
Property (2): Symmetric Property of S-matrix: If a microwave junction satisfies reciprocity condition
and if there are no active devices, then S parameters are equal to their corresponding transposes.
i.e., Sij=Sji
Property (3): Unitary property for a lossless junction - This property states that for any lossless network,
the sum of the products of each term of anyone row or anyone column of the [SJ matrix with its complex
conjugate is unity
Property (4) Phase - Shift Property: Complex S-parameters of a network are defined with respect to the
positions of the port or reference planes. For a two-port network with unprimed reference planes 1 and 2

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8. Microwave filters
• The Basics of Lumped Element L-C Filter Construction
In general, lumped element filters are passive filters constructed using the appropriate number of
inductors (Ls), capacitors (Cs), and resistors (Rs) to meet the specific filtering needs of a particular
application.
At the most basic level, lumped element filters can be constructed from a collection of simple L-C
resonators as shown in Figure 1.

The resonators used in the filter will create poles and zeros in the frequency response. A zero
occurs when the function tends to zero, and a pole occurs when the roots that make the function
tend towards its maximum function.

By understanding how poles and zeros function (which you can learn more about in this post), we
can construct resonators using Ls and Cs and place the poles and zeros where we need them to be
to tightly control the frequency response.

Figure 1. An example of a generic lumped element

L-C filter structure

Lumped Element Filter Characteristics

Lumped element filters offer small size at low frequencies that are not achievable with common
ceramic, cavity, or waveguide implementations. Additionally, lumped element filter designs are
highly customizable both in terms of electrical performance and mechanical and thermal
characteristics.

This is because we have a high level of control in terms of component and material choices as well
as assembly techniques. For example, a lumped element filter can be constructed with withstand
temperature and input power ranges that may not be possible with alternative resonator
technologies.

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What Filter Types Can Be Built Using a Lumped Element Construction?

All the usual filter types can be implemented in in a lumped element format including lowpass, high
pass, bandpass, and band reject.
Lumped element filters can be customized to operate reliably in high-power, high-temperature,
and harsh environmental conditions. More specifically, lumped element filters can be designed
with the following specifications:

▪ Bandpass filters with narrow to moderate bandwidths (1 percent FBW to 70 percent FBW)
and a Center Frequency (Fo) from 10 MHz to 7 GHz

▪ Bandpass filters with an extra wide bandpass bandwidth (70 percent FBW to 175 percent
FBW) and a Fo of 20 MHz to 11 GHz

▪ Lowpass filters from 10 MHz to 22 GHz

▪ Highpass filters from 10 MHz to 10 GHz

▪ Bandreject filters from 20 MHz to 6 GHz that can be narrow band or wide band from 10 MHz
to 6 GHz

9. Microwave waveguides and components

Waveguide multiport junctions:

T-junction power divider using waveguide:

• The T-junction power divider is a 3-port network that can be constructed either from a
transmission line or from the waveguide depending upon the frequency of operation.

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For very high frequency, power divider using waveguide is of 4 types

• H-Plane Tee
• E-Plane Tee
• E-H Plane Tee/Magic Tee
• Rat Race Tee
H-Plane Tee

An H-Plane Tee junction is designed by bestowing a simple waveguide to a rectangular

waveguide which previously has two ports. The arms of rectangular waveguides make two ports called
collinear ports i.e., Port1 and Port2, while the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or H-arm. This H-
plane Tee is also called as Shunt Tee.

As the axis of the side arm is similar to the magnetic field, this junction is called H-

Plane Tee junction. This is also called as Current junction, as the magnetic field splits
itself into arms. The cross-sectional details of H-plane tee can be agreed by the resulting
figure.

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The following figure shows the connection made by the sidearm to the bi-
directional waveguide to form the serial port.

Properties of H-Plane Tee

The properties of H-Plane Tee can be defined by its [S]3×3matrix.
1.It is a 3×3 matrix as there are 3 possible inputs and 3 possible outputs.

2.Scattering coefficients S13 and S23 are equal here as the junction is symmetrical in plane

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4.We can say that we have four unknowns, considering the symmetry property.

From the Unitary property

From the Equation 6,

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We know that [b] = [s][a]

This is the scattering matrix for H-Plane Tee, which explains its scattering properties.

E-Plane Tee

An E-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to the broader

dimension of a rectangular waveguide, which already has two ports. The arms of
rectangular waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e., Port1 and Port2, while
the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or E-arm. T his E-plane Tee is also called as
Series Tee.

As the axis of the side arm is parallel to the electric field, this junction is called E-
Plane Tee junction. This is also called as Voltage or Series junction. The ports 1 and 2
are 180° out of phase with each other. The cross-sectional details of E-plane tee can be
understood by the following figure. An E-Plane Tee junction is designed by assigning a
simple waveguide to the broader dimension of a rectangular waveguide, which previously
has two ports. The arms of rectangular waveguides create two ports called collinear ports
i.e. Port1 and Port2, while the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or E-arm. T his E-
plane Tee is also called as Series Tee.

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As the axis of the side arm is similar to the electric field, this junction is called E-
Plane Tee junction. This is also called as Voltage or Series junction. The ports 1 and 2 are
180° out of phase with each other. The cross-sectional details of E-plane tee can be
assumed by the resulting figure.

The resulting figure displays the connection made by the sidearm to the bi-directional
waveguide to form the parallel port.

Properties of E-Plane Tee

The properties of E-Plane Tee can be defined by its [S]3x3[S]3x3 matrix.

1.It is a 3×3 matrix as there are 3 possible inputs and 3 possible outputs.

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2.Scattering coefficients S13 and S23 are out of phase by 180° with an input at port 3

3.The port is perfectly matched to the junction.

4.From the symmetric property,

Considering equations 3 & 4, the [S] matrix can be written as,

We can say that we have four unknowns, considering the symmetry property.

5.From the Unitary property

Multiplying we get,
(Noting R as row and C as column)

Equating the equations 6 & 7, we get

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From Equation 8,

From Equation 9,

Using the equations 10, 11, and 12 in the equation 6, we

get,

Substituting the values from the above equations in [S][S] matrix, We

get,

We know that [b]= [S][a]

This is the scattering matrix for E-Plane Tee, which explains its scattering properties.

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E-H-Plane

The resulting figure shows the assembly made by the side arms to the bi-directional
waveguide to form both parallel and serial ports.

Characteristics of E-H Plane Tee

• If a signal of equal phase and magnitude is sent to port 1 and port 2, then the output at
port 4 is zero and the output at port 3 will be the additive of both the ports 1 and 2.

• If a signal is sent to port 4, (E-arm) then the power is divided between port 1 and 2
equally but in opposite phase, while there would be no output at port 3. Hence, S 34 = 0.

• If a signal is fed at port 3, then the power is divided between port 1 and 2 equally,
while there would be no output at port 4. Hence, S43 = 0.

• If a signal is fed at one of the collinear ports, then there appears no output at the other
collinear port, as the E-arm produces a phase delay and the H-arm produces a phase
advance. So, S12 = S21 = 0.

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Now we understand that ports 1 and 2 are perfectly matched to the junction. As this is a
4 port junction, whenever two ports are perfectly matched, the other two ports are also
perfectly matched to the junction. The junction where all the four ports are perfectly
matched is called as Magic Tee Junction.

• Microwave source is linked to H-Arm port. The collinear ports composed with these
ports make a bridge and the impedance measurement is done by balancing the bridge.

• E-H Plane Tee is used as a duplexer − A duplexer is a circuit which mechanisms as

both the transmitter and the receiver, by means of a single antenna for both drives.
Port 1 and 2 are used as receiver and transmitter where they are inaccessible and
hence will not interfere. Antenna is connected to E-Arm port. A matched load is
connected to H-Arm port, which provides no reflections. Currently, there exists
transmission or reception without any problem.

E-H Plane Tee is used as a mixer − E-Arm port is connected with antenna and the H-
Arm port is connected with local oscillator. Port 2 has a matched load which has
noreflections and port 1 has the mixer circuit, which gets half of the signal power and
half of the oscillator power to produce IF frequency.

• In addition to the above applications, an E-H Plane Tee junction is also used as
Microwave bridge, Microwave discriminator, etc.
• If we need to association two signals with no phase modification and to avoid the

signals with a path difference then we need microwave device. A usual three-port Tee
junction is taken and a fourth port is added to it, to make it a ratrace junction. All of
these ports are linked in angular ring forms at equal intervals using series or parallel
junctions.

• The mean circumference of total race is 1.5λ and each of the four ports is detached by a
distance of λ/4. The resulting figure shows the image of a Rat-race
junction.

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Let us study a few cases to appreciate the operation of a Rat-race

junction. Case 1

If the input power is applied at port 1, it gets similarly split into two ports, but in
clockwise direction for port 2 and anti-clockwise direction for port 4. Port 3 has
unconditionally no output.The reason being, at ports 2 and 4, the powers combine in
phase, whereas at port 3, cancellation occurs due to λ/2 path difference.

Case 2

If the input power is applied at port 3, the power gets similarly separated between
port 2 and port 4. But there will be no output at port 1.

Case 3

If two unequal signals are applied at port 1 itself, then the output will be relative
to the sum of the two input signals, which is separated between port 2 and 4. Now at
port 3, the differential output appears.

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The Scattering Matrix for Rat-race junction is represented as

Applications:
Rat-race junction is used for uniting two signals and separating a signal into two halves.
Directional coupler
• A Directional coupler is a device that trials a minor amount of Microwave power
for measurement tenacities. The power measurements comprise incident power,
reflected power, VSWR values, etc.

• Directional Coupler is a 4-port waveguide junction comprising of a primary main

waveguide and a secondary supporting waveguide. The resulting figure shows
the image of a directional coupler.

• Directional coupler is used to couple the Microwave power which may

be unidirectional or bi-directional.

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Properties of Directional Couplers:

The properties of an ideal directional coupler are as follows.

All the finishes are matched to the ports.

• When the power travels from Port 1 to Port 2, some portion of it gets coupled to Port
4 but not to Port 3.
• As it is also a bi-directional coupler, when the power travels from Port 2 to Port 1,
some portion of it gets coupled to Port 3 but not to Port 4.
• If the power is incident through Port 3, a portion of it is coupled to Port 2, but not
to Port 1.
• If the power is incident through Port 4, a portion of it is coupled to Port 1, but not
to Port 2.
• Port 1 and 3 are decoupled as are Port 2 and Port 4.
• Preferably, the output of Port 3 should be zero. Though, almost, a small amount of
power called back power is practical at Port 3. The resulting figure specifies the
power flow in a directional coupler.

Where
• Pi = Incident power at Port 1
• Pr = Received power at Port 2
• Pf= Forward coupled power at Port 4
• Pb = Back power at Port 3

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Resulting are the parameters used to define the performance of a directional coupler.
Coupling Factor (C)
The Coupling factor of a directional coupler is the ratio of incident power to the
forward power, measured in dB.

Directivity (D)
The Directivity of a directional coupler is the ratio of forward power to the back
power, measured in dB.

Isolation
It defines the directive properties of a directional coupler. It is the ratio of incident
power to the back power, measured in dB.

Isolation in dB = Coupling factor + Directivity

Two-Hole Directional Coupler

This is a directional coupler with same main and auxiliary waveguides, but with two
small holes that are common between them. These holes are λg/4 distance apart where λg
is the guide wavelength. The following figure shows the image of a two-hole directional
coupler.

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A two-hole directional coupler is planned to see the ideal condition of directional

coupler, which is to evade back power. Some of the power while travelling between Port 1
and Port 2, escapes through the holes 1 and 2.
The greatness of the power depends upon the dimensions of the holes. This leakage
power at both the holes are in phase at hole 2, adding up the power causal to the forward
power Pf. Though, it is out of phase at hole 1, stopping each other and stopping the back
power to occur. Therefore, the directivity of a directional coupler improves. The general S
matrix of a directional coupler is,

1.Since all ports in a directional coupler are matched.

S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0 ----------------- (2)
2.Since there is no coupling between ports 1 & 3 and ports 2 & 4
S13 = S31 = S24 = S42 = 0 ------------- (3)
Apply equation (2) & (3) in (1)

3.By unitary property, [S][S]* = I

2 2
R1C1 => |S12| + |S14| = 1 ------------ (4)
R2C2 => |S12|2 + |S23|2 = 1 ------------ (5)
R3C3 => |S23|2 + |S34|2 = 1 ------------ (6)

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R1C3 => S12 S23* + S14 S34* = 0 ----------- (7)

Comparing equations (4) and (5)

|S12|2 + |S14|2 = |S12|2 + |S23|2

S14 = S23 --------------- (8)
Comparing equations (5) and (6)

|S12|2 + |S23|2 = |S34|2 + |S23|2

S12 = S34 --------------- (9)

Let, S12 be real and positive,

i.e, S12 = S34 = p --------------- (10)
applying equation (10) in (7)
Therefore, p S23* + S14 p = 0

p [S23* +
S14] = 0 p
[S23* +
S23] = 0
S23* + S23
=0
To satisfy the above condition, S23 should be a complex value.
Let S23 = jq
Therefore, the S matrix of directional coupler is,

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ATTENUATORS:
• In order to control power levels in a microwave system by partially
absorbing the transmitted microwave signal, attenuators are employed.
Resistive films (dielectric glass slab coated with aquadag) are used in the
design of both fixed and variable attenuators.
• A co-axial fixed attenuator uses the dielectric lossy material inside the
centre conductor of the co-axial line to absorb some of the centre conductor
microwave po wer propagating through it dielectric rod decides the amount
of attenuation introduced. The microwave power absorbed by the lossy
material is dissipated as heat.

• In waveguides, the dielectric slab coated with aduadag is placed at the

centre of the waveguide parallel to the maximum E-field for dominant TEIO
mode. Inducedcurrent on the lossy material due to incoming microwave signal,
results in power dissipation, leading to attenuation of the signal. The dielectric
slab is tapered at both ends upto a length of more than half wavelength to reduce
reflections as shown in figure 5.7. The dielectric slab may be made movable
along the breadth of the waveguide by supporting it with two dielectric rods
separated by an odd multiple of quarter guidewavelength and perpendicular to
electricfield.

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• When the slab is at the centre, then the attenuation is maximum (since the
electric field is concentrated at the centre for TEIO mode) and when it is
moved towards one side-wall, the attenuation goes on decreasing thereby
controlling the microwave power corning outof the other port.

• Above figure shows a flap attenuator which is also a variable attenuator. A

semi-circular flap made of lossy dielectric is made to descend into the
longitude in slot cut at the center of the top wall of rectangular waveguide.
When the flap is completely outside the slot, then the attenuation is zero
and when it is completely inside, the attenuation is maximum. A maximum
direction of 90 dB attenuation is possible with this attenuator with a VSWR
of 1.05. The dielectric slab can be properly shaped according to
convenience to get a linear variation of attenuation within the depth of
insertion.
• A precision type variable attenuator consists of a rectangular to circular
transition (ReT), a piece of circular waveguide (CW) and a circular-to-
rectangular transition (CRT) as shown in below figure . Resistive cards Ra,
Rb and Rc are placed inside these sections as shown. The centre circular
section containing the resistive card Rb can be precisely rotated by 360

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with respect to the two fixed resistive cards. The induced current on the resistive
card R due to the incident signal is dissipated as heat producing attenuation of the
transmitted signal. TE mode in RCT is converted into TE in circular waveguide.
The resistive cards R and R a kept perpendicular to the electric field of TEIO mode
so that it does not absorb the energy. But any component parallel to its plane will be
readily abs orbed. Hence, pure TE mode is excited in circular waveguide section II.

• If the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle 8 relative to the E-
field direction of the TEll mode, the component Ecos(θ) parallel to the card get
absorbed while the component E sin θis transmitted without attenuation. This
component finally comes out as E sin2θ as shown in figure below.

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PHASE SHIFTERS:

• A microwave phase shifter is a two port device which produces a variable

shift in phase of the incoming microwave signal. A lossless dielectric slab
when placed inside the rectangular waveguide produces a phase shift.

PRECISION PHASE SHIFTER

• The rotary type of precision phase shifter is shown in figure below which
consists of a circular waveguide containing a lossless dielectric plate of
length 2lcalled "half-wave section", a section of rectangular-to-circular
transition containing a lossless dielectric plate of length l, called "quarter-
wave section", oriented at an angle of 45° to the broader wall of the
rectangular waveguide and a circular-to-rectangular transition again
containing a lossless dielectric plate of same length 1 (quarter wave
section) oriented at an angle 45°.
• The incident TE10 mode becomes TEll mode in circular waveguide section.
The half-wave section produces a phase shift equal to twice that produced
by the quarter wave section. The dielectric plates are tapered at both ends
to reduce reflections due to discontinuity.

• When TE10 mode is propagated through the input rectangular waveguide

of the rectangular to circular transition, then it is converted into TEll in the
circular waveguide section. Let E; be the maximum elelectric field strength
of this mode which is resolved into components, EI parallel to the plate and
E2 perpendicular to El as shown in figure 5.12 (b). After propagation
through the plate these components are given by the length I is adjusted
such that these two components E1 and Ez have equal amplitude but
differing in phase by = 90.

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• The quarter wave sections convert a linearly polarized TEll wave into a
circularly polarized wave and vice-versa. After emerging out of the half-
wave section,the electric field components parallel and perpendicular to the
half-wave plate After emerging out of the half-wave section, the field
components E3 and E4 as given in above equations, may again be resolved
into two TEll modes, polarized parallel and perpendicular to the output
quarter-wave plate. At the output end of this quarter-wave plate, the field
components parallel and perpendicular to the quarter wave plate, by
referring to figure above.

Waveguide Joints

As a waveguide system cannot be made in a single piece continuously,

occasionally it is essential to join dissimilar waveguides. This joining must be
sensibly done to stop problems such as − Reflection effects, creation of standing
waves, and increasing the attenuation, etc.The waveguide joints also evading
irregularities should also take care of E and H field patterns by not affecting them.
There are many types of waveguide joints such as bolted flange, flange joint, choke
joint, etc.

10. Avalanche transit time devices – IMPATT diode, TRAPATT

diode, Gunn diode, Tunnel diode, Varactor diodes.
Microwave diodes are diodes that work in the microwave frequency band. It is a solid-state
microwave device. Microwave band usually refers to the frequency from 300 MHz to 3000
GHz. After the discovery of the point contact diode effect at the end of the 19th century,
microwave diodes such as PIN diodes, varactor diodes, and Schottky diode tubes appeared
one after another. Microwave diodes have the advantages of small size and high reliability,
and are used in microwave oscillation, amplification, frequency conversion, switching,
phase shifting and modulation.
Diodes are used in electronic circuits, integrated circuits, and electronic devices in
computers. For example, diodes and transistors are a combination of P-type and N-

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type semiconductor materials. Diodes are an example of the P-N type and are widely used
in electronics.
Figure 1 shows the changes that occur when the P-type and N-type semiconductor
materials are combined. A large number of electrons in the N-type material pass through
the conduction band and enter the electron holes in the valence band of the P-type
material.
Each electron eliminates an electron-hole, the N-type loses energy to the P-type and
reaches a balance. The electrons must pass through the junction when flowing through the
system, and the energy of a lower voltage can be applied to control the current.
Various diodes in the microwave field, including varactor diodes, step diodes, PIN diodes,
limiting diodes, electrically modulated varactor diodes, solid noise diodes, and avalanche
diodes. Various microwave diodes play the roles of low-noise amplification, power
generation, frequency conversion, modulation, demodulation, and signal control in
microwave circuits.
Microwave diodes are diodes that mainly work in the microwave frequency band.
Such as barrier injection transit time diode (BARITT), impact avalanche transit time diode
(IMPATT), limited space-charge accumulation diode (LSA), Gunn diode (Gunn), trapped
plasma avalanche diode (TRAPATT), and varactor diode Wait. All of these diodes use the
negative resistance effect to directly convert DC electrical energy into radiant microwave
energy.

Types

IMPATT Diode

In high frequency microwave applications, the high-power semiconductor diode used is

IMPATT Diode. The full form IMPATT is IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode.

A voltage gradient when applied to the IMPATT diode, results in a high current. A usual
diode will finally breakdown by this. Though, IMPATT diode is developed to withstand all
this. A high potential gradient is applied to back bias the diode and hence minority carriers
flow across the junction.

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Application of a RF AC voltage if overlaid on a high DC voltage, the increased speed of holes

and electrons outcomes in additional holes and electrons by beating them out of the crystal
structure by Impact ionization. If the original DC field practical was at the threshold of
developing this situation, then it leads to the fall current multiplication and this process
continues. This can be assumed by the resulting figure.

Due to this result, the current pulse takes a phase shift of 90°. On the other hand, instead of
being there, it changes towards cathode due to the reverse bias applied. Based on the
thickness of n+ layer the time taken for the pulse to reach cathode is stated, which is
adjusted to make it 90° phase shift. Currently, a dynamic RF negative resistance is showed
to exist. Therefore, IMPATT diode acts both as an oscillator and an amplifier.

The following figure shows the constructional details of an IMPATT diode.

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The efficiency of IMPATT diode is represented as

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages of IMPATT diode.

• It is noisy as avalanche is a noisy process

• Tuning range is not as good as in Gunn diodes

Applications

Following are the applications of IMPATT diode.

• Microwave oscillator
• Microwave generators
• Modulated output oscillator
• Receiver local oscillator
• Negative resistance amplifications
• Intrusion alarm networks (high Q IMPATT)
• Police radar (high Q IMPATT)
• Low power microwave transmitter (high Q IMPATT)
• FM telecom transmitter (low Q IMPATT)
• CW Doppler radar transmitter (low Q IMPATT)

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TRAPATT Diode

The full form of TRAPATT diode is TRApped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit diode. A
microwave generator which operates between hundreds of MHz to GHz. These are high
peak power diodes usually n+- p-p+ or p+-n-n+structures with n-type depletion region,
width varying from 2.5 to 1.25 µm. The following figure depicts this.

The electrons and holes stuck in low field region behind the zone are made to fill the
reduction region in the diode. This is complete by a high field fall region which spreads
through the diode.

Applications

There are many applications of this diode.

• Low power Doppler radars

• Local oscillator for radars
• Microwave beacon landing system
• Radio altimeter
• Phased array radar, etc.
• AVALANCHE TRANSIT TIME DEVICES
•

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IMPATT TRAPPAT

Operating Frequency 0.5-100 GHZ 1-10 GHZ

Noise Figure 30 dB 60 dB

Not used as an amplifier

Power output 1W (CW), 400 W (Pulsed) Several 100 W (Pulsed)

3. Gunn Diode
Gunn Diode, also known as body effect diode. The working mechanism of this type of device
is based on an electron transfer effect. It uses the carriers in the semiconductor (electrons
in N-type GaAs) to obtain energy in an external electric field, and transfers from the main
energy band with high mobility to the sub-band with low mobility and high energy state,
forming a differential resistance, thus producing Microwave oscillation. Gunn diodes have
lower operating voltage and lower FM noise and are suitable for making local oscillator
sources, signal sources, and low-power emission sources.
The materials used in Gunn diodes are III-V group compound semiconductors. At present, it
is mainly GaAs and InP, but the GaAs Gunn diode operating frequency is below 100GHz
millimeter-wave band, above which the output power will drop sharply. Because the
speed-electric field characteristic of InP material has a higher peak-to-valley ratio and
threshold electric field than GaAs, InP Gunn diodes have better frequency, power,
efficiency, and noise performance.
4. Varactor Diode
Varactor diodes are made based on PN junction capacitance changing with reverse bias
voltage. It can be roughly divided into two categories: varactors for low-noise parametric

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amplifiers and varactors for electrical tuning. The former is used for microwave parametric
amplifiers, with a noise temperature as low as 30K, and has been widely used in satellite
earth stations. The latter is mainly used for frequency tuning, voltage-controlled oscillators,
electronic countermeasures, and rapid frequency agile radar frequency modulation. In
addition, the varactor can also be used for phase shifting and amplitude limiting. In terms
of production, there are certain differences between the two types of devices. The
parametric varactor must have good capacitance nonlinearity and a high figure of merit;
while the electrically tuned varactor must strictly control the doping concentration
distribution of the semiconductor epitaxial layer in order to obtain a Large capacitance
change area, and should have a higher figure of merit.
The characteristic of the varactor diode is that the junction capacitance that changes with
the applied voltage provides variable reactance characteristics, and can be used as a
lossless nonlinear element in the circuit. It is suitable for application in microwave signal
modulation, harmonic generation (up-conversion), pulse generation and formation, etc., to
make solid-state parametric amplifiers, harmonic generators, mixers, or frequency
converters.

11. Microwave linear beam tubes – Klystrons, TWT,

MICROWAVE TUBES
Limitations and losses of conventional Tubes at Microwave Frequencies
Conventional vacuum triodes, tetrodes and pentodes are less useful signal sources at
frequencies above 1 G Hz because of
• lead inductance
• Inter-electrode capacitance effects,
• Transit angle effects
• Gain bandwidth product limitations.
• Power losses

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Classification of Microwave tubes.

TWT-Travelling wave tube

BWO- Backward wave Oscillator
Klystron – Two-cavity Klystron Amplifier
Definition: Klystrons are a special type of vacuum tubes that find applications as
amplifiers and oscillators at microwave frequencies. Its principle of operation is velocity
modulation. Thus the device used for amplifying microwave signals is known as Two-
cavity Klystron.
Operating Principle of Two-cavity Klystron
Klystron is based on the principle of velocity modulation. Thus two-cavity klystron
amplifier utilizes the kinetic energy of moving electron beam for signal amplification.
The variation in the velocity of electrons while moving inside the tube is known
as velocity modulation. This velocity modulation permits bunching of electrons while
propagation. So, the combined energy of bunched electrons is transferred at the output
thereby providing an amplified signal.

Construction
The figure below represents the structure of a two-cavity klystron:

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As we can see that the above figure consists of 2 cavities namely the buncher
cavity and catcher cavity. The RF signal to be amplified is provided at the buncher cavity.
The electron gun comprises cathode, heating element and anode. The electron beam is
produced by the cathode by making use of a heating element and the high positive potential
at the anode provides the required acceleration to the electron beam initially. The region
between two cavities is known as drift space.
To allow focussed propagation of electron beam inside the tube an external
electromagnetic winding is used that generates a longitudinal magnetic field. This is done
in order to prevent the spreading of the beam inside the tube. The amplified RF signal is
achieved at the catcher cavity. Also, a collector is present near the second cavity that
collects the electron bunch.

Working of Two-cavity Klystron Amplifier

Initially, electrons are emitted from the electron gun and the anode present in the structure
provides the desired acceleration to the beam.
• In the absence of any RF input, the electron will tend to move with their
respective uniform velocities to reach the catcher cavity and gets collected at the
collector.
• But when external RF signal is applied at the input of the buncher cavity then
this causes the generation of a local electric field inside the tube.
This electric field causes the bunching of electrons as the field applies acceleration and
deceleration to the moving electron, according to the polarity of the signal by which the
field is generated.

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Basically, the reason for causing acceleration and deceleration is that when the
direction of movement of an electron is opposite to the direction of the field, then, in this
case, the electrons experience a decrease in their moving velocity. However, if the
generated electric field and the direction of movement of the electron are the same then, in
this case, the electrons experience increase in the velocity of their movement.
Let us now understand in detail how this increase and decrease in velocity causes bunching
of electrons:
1. When the negative half of the RF signal is provided as input to the buncher cavity
then the moving electrons experience a repulsive force due to the presence of a
negative charge at the entering plate of the buncher cavity.

Or we can say, that due to the negative half of the input the generated field will be in
a direction opposite to the direction of the movement of electrons. So, because of the
opposition offered by the field, the moving velocity of electrons gets reduced.
2. Further when the positive half of the RF signal is provided then the positive
potential at the first plate of the cavity applies attractive force to the moving
electrons. More simply, for the positive half cycle of input, the generated electric
field will be in a direction similar to the direction of electron

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movement.
So, this leads to an increase in the moving velocity of the electrons.

Thus, combinely when we consider both the cases then the electrons that were
emitted earlier by the gun will be decelerated. While the electrons emitted later will be
accelerated. Thus all the electrons while moving with different velocities get bunched in the
drift space. This change in the velocity of electrons while moving due to RF input is known as
velocity modulation. Once the electron bunching is done then the catcher cavity present at
another end of the tube absorbs the beam energy.
It is to be noted that to find the position of the catcher cavity transit time of the
bunches must be considered. This is so because the catcher cavity must be present at a
sufficient distance from the buncher cavity so that bunching can be attained in the drift
space. Further, once the energy is transferred to the catcher cavity then electrons (now
with low energy) gets collected at the collector.

Applegate Diagram
The figure below shows the Applegate diagram that represents the bunching of electrons
moving with different velocities:

The electron travelling inside the tube under the absence of external fields acts as the
bunching centre. Also, the electrons moving due to the influence of the positive half cycle of

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the signal reaches faster. While the movement due to the negative half cycle is retarded.
Thus the figure represents the bunching process at a certain point and at a specific distance
inside the tube.

Applications
The two-cavity Klystron finds application in satellite communication, UHF TV transmitters
as well as radar systems, wideband high power communication and troposphere scatter
transmitters etc.

Reflex Klystron
Definition: A Reflex Klystron is a specialized low-power vacuum tube used to produce
oscillations at microwave frequency. Its principle of operation is velocity and current
modulation.
Klystrons are basically specialized tubes used as amplifiers and oscillators at the
microwave frequency range.

Need of Reflex Klystron

Basically, a two-cavity klystron can be converted into an oscillator, but some disadvantages
are associated with it. As we know to design an oscillator, positive feedback must be
provided to the input in a way to have a magnitude of loop gain as unity.
So, if we design a klystron oscillator using a two-cavity klystron then to have a change in
oscillating frequency, the resonant frequency of the two-cavities is also required to be
changed. Thereby leading to cause difficulty in generating oscillations. Thus to overcome
the disadvantage, a reflex klystron having a single cavity was invented to have sustained
oscillations at microwave frequency.

Operating Principle

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Like a two-cavity klystron, a reflex klystron utilizes the phenomenon of velocity and
current modulation to produce oscillations. However, there exist variation in
constructional structure and the respective applications of the two. A reflex klystron
consists of a single cavity that performs the action of both buncher and catcher cavity. As
to have oscillations, feedback is needed to be applied at the input which is provided by the
oscillator.
While moving electrons undergoes velocity modulation and the repeller applies
repulsive forces on them. This leads to the formation of a bunch of electrons. Further, this
bunching will lead to cause, current modulation.

Construction of Reflex Klystron

The basic schematic of a reflex klystron is shown below:

The structure consists of a cathode and focusing anode that combinedly acts as an electron
gun for the tube. The cathode emits the electron beam which is focussed inside the tube by
the focusing anode. Also, a positive potential is provided as input which sets up an electric
field inside the cavity.
• As it is a single cavity structure, thus single cavity act as buncher and catcher
cavity separately. At the time of forward movement of the electron beam, it acts
as a buncher cavity. While at the time of backward movement, it is a catcher
cavity.
A repeller plate that causes backward movement of the electron beam is present at the
opposite end of the electron gun. The potential at the repeller is made extremely negative
in order to permit repulsion of like charges.

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• Repulsion is necessary in order to build electrical oscillations, as output power

must be fed to the input. So the velocity modulated electrons must have to travel
a backward path in order to provide feedback. Thusrepeller is used in the
structure of the klystron.

Working of Reflex Klystron

• Initially when the electron beam is emitted by the electron gun, then the early
electrons, ee experience a very high potential. Due to this, a strong electric field
gets generated inside the cavity gap, leading to cause movement of electrons
towards the repeller with a very high velocity.
• Due to high velocity, the electrons penetrate deeper into the region of the
repeller and thus require greater time to repel back towards the catcher cavity.
• But when the externally applied potential is almost 0, then the electron moves
with a uniform velocity with which it was emitted by the gun. These electrons
are generally known as reference electrons er.
• So, in this case, er will not penetrate deeply into the repeller surface and gets
repelled by the repeller in a lesser time than the early electron.
• Further, the electron that is emitted by the gun after the reference electron
experiences a highly negative potential at the cavity. This electron is generally
known as late electron el and moves with a very low velocity inside the tube.
The penetration level of the late electron into the repeller space is least thus
takes a minimal amount of time to get repelled back.
It is to be noted that due to deep penetration in the repeller region, ee will take more time
than er while returning towards the catcher. This change in the velocity of moving electrons
is known as velocity modulation. And due to this velocity modulation, all the electrons get
bunched while returning towards the catcher cavity.

So, in this way bunch of electrons reaches the catcher cavity. This bunching of electrons
leads to cause, current modulation inside the tube. Therefore, at the time of returning,

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the bunched electrons transfer the maximal of their energy to the catcher cavity. Thereby
leading to cause oscillations inside the tube.
• Transit Time: Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electrons to
return to the cavity gap after getting repelled by the repeller. For sustained
oscillations to take place, transit time is the most important factor. Basically, the
optimum time for leaving the gun is centered around the reference electron,
which is considered at a 180º phase difference from the sinusoidal applied
potential across the gap.
• Bunching Process: The figure below shows the process of bunching on the
return journey of all the 3 categories of electrons i.e., ee, er, and el:

Here the x-axis represents the time and the y-axis shows the distance traveled by the
electrons inside the tube.
As we have already discussed that bunching takes place at the time of the return journey of
electrons. Thus it is represented in the figure that though ee, er and el, are approaching the
repeller with different velocities, yet while returning all of them are bunched at a
respective time.

Specifications
1. The operating frequency range generally offered is 1 to 20 GHz.
2. It delivers output power in the range of 10mW to 2.5 W.
3. The tuning range of klystron lies between 5 GHz at 2W to 30 GHz at 10 mW.

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4. Theoretically, the efficiency is considered 22.78% while practically the achieved

efficiency is only 10 to 20%.

Applications
As reflex klystrons are oscillators thus find applications in local oscillators receivers, radar
receivers, radio receivers. Also utilized as signal sources in microwave generators and
pump oscillators of parametric amplifiers.

Multi Cavity Klystron

• Typical gain of 2-cavity klystron is 30 dB. This gain is not adequate in many
applications
• In order to achieve higher gain, several two cavity resonant tubes are connected in
cascade in which output of each of the tubes is fed as input to the following tube.
• The intermediate cavities are place at a distance so that the bunching parameter X =
1.841 with respect to the previous cavity.
• The intermediate cavity acts as a buncher with the passing electron beam inducing a
more enhanced RF voltage than the previous cavity, which in turn sets up an
increased velocity modulation.
• Typical gain achievable by a multi cavity klystron is of the order of 50 dB with
bandwidth of about 80 M Hz.
• A multi cavity klystron amplifier produces high gain and narrow bandwidth if all
the cavities are tuned to the same frequency.
• When each of the cavities are tuned to slightly different frequencies (Staggered
tuning), the bandwidth will appreciably increase but at the cost of the gain

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Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)

A travelling wave tube is a high power amplifier used for the amplification of microwave
signals up to a wide range. It is a special type of vacuum tube that offers an operating
frequency ranging between 300 MHz to 50 GHz.
Travelling wave tubes are non-resonant structures that offer continuous
interaction of applied RF field with the electron beam over the entire length of the tube.
Due to this reason, it provides wider operating bandwidth.
Basic Concept
Travelling wave tubes are abbreviated as TWT. It is majorly used in the amplification of RF
signals. Basically a travelling wave tube is nothing but an elongated vacuum tube that
allows the movement of electron beam inside it by the action of applied RF input.
The movement of an electron inside the tube permits the amplification of applied RF
input. As it offers amplification to a wide range of frequency thus is considered more
advantageous for microwave applications than other tubes.

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It offers average power gain of around 60 dB. The output power lies in the range of few
watts to several megawatts.
A travelling wave tube is basically of two types one is helix type and the other is
coupled cavity. Here in this section, we will discuss the detailed construction and working
of a helical travelling wave tube.

Construction of Travelling Wave Tube

The figure here shows the constructional structure of a TWT:

As we can see that the helical travelling wave tube consists of an electron gun and a slow-
wave structure. The electron gun produces a narrow beam of the electron. A focusing
plate is used that focuses the electron beam inside the tube.
A positive potential is provided to the coil (helix) with respect to the cathode
terminal. While the collector is more positive than the coil (helix). In order to restrict beam
spreading inside the tube. A dc magnetic field is applied between the travelling path by the
help of magnets.
The signal which is needed to be amplified is provided at one of the ends of the
helix, present adjacent to the electron gun. While the amplified signal is achieved at the
opposite end of the helix.
In the figure, we can clearly see that attenuator is present along both the sides of the
travelling wave tube. This is so because travelling wave amplifiers are high gain devices, so
in case of poor load matching conditions, oscillations get build up inside the tube due to
reflection.

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Thus in order to restrict the generation of oscillations inside the tube attenuators
are used.
Attenuators are basically formed by providing a metallic coating over the surface of
the glass tube. Aquadag or Kanthal are majorly used for this.
It is to be noteworthy that a slow-wave structure is considered here, the reason is to
maintain continuous interaction between the travelling wave and electron beam.

Need of Slow-Wave Structure

We know that the velocity of the electromagnetic wave is very much higher when
compared with the phase velocity of the electron beam emitted by the electron gun.
Basically the RF wave applied at the input of TWT propagates with the speed of light
(i.e., 3 * 108 m/s). While the propagating velocity of the electron beam inside the tube is
comparatively smaller than the velocity of RF wave.
If we try to somehow accelerate the velocity of the electron beam, then it can be
accelerated only to a fraction of velocity of light. So it is better to reduce the velocity of the
applied RF input in order to match the velocity of the electron beam.
Therefore, a slow-wave structure is used that causes a reduction in the phase
velocity of the RF wave inside the TWT.
The slow-wave structures can be of different types like a single helix, double helix,
zigzag line, corrugated, coupled-cavity or ring bar type etc.
A single helix slow-wave structure is formed by wounding a wire of element like
tungsten and molybdenum in the form of a coil. The helical shape of the structure slows the
velocity of the wave travelling along its axis to a fraction of about one-tenth of c.
This is so because due to the helical shape of the structure, the wave travels a
much larger distance than the distance travelled by the beam inside the tube. So, in this
way, the speed of wave propagation depends on the number of turns or diameter of the
turns.
More specifically we can say that change in pitch can vary the speed of wave
propagation inside the tube.

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The equation given below shows the relation of phase velocity of the wave with the
pitch of the helix:

: c = velocity of light (3 * 108 m/s)

VP = phase velocity in m/s
P = pitch of helix in m
d = diameter of the helix in m
Therefore, this causes continuous interaction between the RF input wave and the electron
beam as the velocity of propagation of the two is not highly different. As such interaction is
the basis of working of TWT thus slow-wave structures are used.

Working of Travelling Wave Tube

The applied RF signal produces an electric field inside the tube. Due to the applied
positive half, the moving electron beam experiences accelerative force. However, the
negative half of the input applies a de-accelerative force on the moving electrons.
This is said to be velocity modulation because the electrons of the beam are
experiencing different velocity inside the tube.
However, the slowly travelling wave inside the tube exhibits continuous interaction
with the electron beam.
Due to the continuous interaction, the electrons moving with high velocity transfer
their energy to the wave inside the tube and thus slow down. So with the rise in the
amplitude of the wave, the velocity of electrons reduces and this causes bunching of
electrons inside the tube.
The growing amplitude of the wave resultantly causes more bunching of electrons
while reaching the end from the beginning. Thereby causing further amplification of the
RF wave inside the tube.

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More specifically we can say that forward progression of the field along the axis of
the tube gives rise to amplification of the RF wave. Thus at the end of the tube an amplified
signal is achieved.
The positive potential provided at the other end causes collection of electron bunch
at the collector.
The magnetic field inside the tube restricts the spreading of the beam as the
electrons possess repulsive nature.
However, as the TWT is a bidirectional device. Therefore, the reflected signal
causes oscillations inside the tube. But as we have already discussed earlier that the
presence of attenuators reduces the generation of oscillations due to reflected backwave.
Sometimes despite using attenuators, internal impedance terminals are used that
puts less lossy effects on the forward signal.

Applications of TWT
1. Travelling wave tubes are highly used in continuous wave radar systems.
2. These amplifying tubes also find application in broadband receivers for RF
amplification.
3. TWT’s are also used to get high power output in satellite transponders.

12. Microwave Cross field tubes – Magnetron

Definition: A magnetron is a device that generates high power electromagnetic wave. It is
basically considered as a self-excited microwave oscillator. And is also known as a crossed-
field device.
The reason behind calling it so is that the electric and magnetic field produced inside
the tube are mutually perpendicular to each other thus the two crosses each other.

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Operating Principle

A magnetron is basically a vacuum tube of high power having multiple cavities. It is also
known as cavity magnetron because of the presence of anode in the resonant cavity of the
tube.
The operating principle of a magnetron is such that when electrons interact with electric
and magnetic field in the cavity then high power oscillations get generated.

Construction of Magnetrons

The figure here shows a magnetron with 8

cavities:

A cylindrical magnetron has a cylindrical cathode of a certain length and radius present at
the centre around which a cylindrical anode is present. The cavities are present at the
circumference of the anode at equal spacing.

Also, the area existing between anode and cathode of the tube is known as interaction
space/region.
It is to be noted here that there exists a phase difference of 180⁰ between adjacent cavities.
Therefore, cavities will transfer their excitation from one cavity to another with a phase
shift of 180⁰.

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Thus we can say that if one plate is positive then automatically its adjacent plate will be
negative. And this is clearly shown in the figure given above.

More specifically we can say that edges and cavities show180⁰ phase apart relationship.

As we have already discussed that here the electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to
each other. And the magnetic field is generated by using a permanent magnet.

Working of Magnetron

The excitation to the cathode of the magnetron is provided by a dc supply which causes the
emergence of electrons from it.

1. When RF input is not present

Case I: When the magnetic field is 0 or absent
When the magnetic field is absent then the electron emerging from the cathode radially
moves towards the anode. This is shown in the figure below:

This is so because the moving electron does not experience the effect of the magnetic field
and moves in a straight path.

Case II: When a small magnetic field is present

In case a small magnetic field exists inside the magnetron then the electron emerging from
the cathode will slightly deviate from its straight path. And this will cause a curvy motion of

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the electron from cathode to anode as shown in the

figure:

This motion of the electron is the result of the action of electric as well as magnetic force
over it.

Case III: In case when the magnetic field is further increased then electrons emerging from
the cathode gets highly deflected by the magnetic field. And graze along the surface of the
cathode, as shown below:

This causes the anode current to be 0. The value of the magnetic field that causes the anode
current to become 0 is known as the critical magnetic field.

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If the magnetic field is increased beyond the critical magnetic field. Then the electron will
bounce back to the cathode itself without reaching the

anode.

The reaching of the emitted electrons from the cathode back to it is known as back
heating. So to avoid this the electric supply provided to the cathode must be cut-off after
oscillations have been set up in the tube.
2. When the RF field is present
Case I: In case an active RF input is provided to the anode of the magnetron then
oscillations are set up in the interaction space of the magnetron. So, when an electron is
emitted from the cathode to anode then it transfers its energy in order to oscillate.
Such electrons are called favoured electrons. In this condition, the electrons will have a
low velocity and thus will take a considerably high amount of time to reach from cathode to
anode.

This is given in the figure below:

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Case II: Another condition arises in the presence of RF input. In this case, the emitted
electron from the cathode while travelling takes energy from the oscillations thereby
resultantly increasing its velocity.
So despite reaching the anode, the electrons will bounce back to the cathode and these
electrons are known as unfavoured electrons.
The propagation of unfavoured electrons is shown below:

Case III: When the RF input is further increased then the electron emitted while travelling
increases its velocity in order to catch up the electron emitted earlier with comparatively
lower velocity.
So, all those electrons that do not take energy from the oscillations for their movement are
known as favoured electrons. And these favoured electrons form electron
bunch or electron cloud and reaches anode from the cathode.
The formation of electron bunch inside the tube is known as phase focusing effect.
Due to this, the orbit of the electron gets confined into spokes. These spokes rotate
according to some fractional value of electron emitted by the cathode until it reaches anode
while delivering their energy to oscillations.

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However, the electrons released from the region of cathode between spokes, will take the
energy of the field and get back to the cathode very quickly. But this energy is very small in
comparison to the energy delivered to the oscillations. This is shown in the figure below:

The movement of these favoured electrons inside the tube enhances the field existing
between the gaps in the cavity. This leads to sustained oscillations inside the magnetron
thereby providing high power at the output.

Frequency Pushing and Pulling

The variation in the oscillating frequency of the magnetron give rise to the term frequency
pushing and pulling.
When the voltage applied at the anode of the magnetron is varied then this causes the
variation in the velocity of the electrons moving from cathode to anode. This resultantly
changes the frequency of oscillations.

Therefore, we can say when the resonant frequency of the magnetron shows variation due
to the change in the anode voltage then it is known as frequency pushing.
The change in resonant frequency is sometimes a result of the change in the load
impedance of the magnetron. The load impedance varies when the change is purely
resistive or reactive. This frequency variation is known as frequency pulling. A steady

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power supply can provide a reduction in this frequency variation.

Advantages

• Magnetrons are a highly efficient device used for generation of the high power
microwave signal.
• The use of magnetrons in radar can produce radar system of better quality for
tracking purpose.
• It is usually small in size thus less bulky.
Disadvantages

• It is quite expensive.
• Despite producing a wide range of frequency, there exists a drawback in
controllability of the generated frequency.
• It offers average power of around 1 to 2 kilowatts.
• Magnetrons are quite noisy.
Applications of Magnetron

• A major application of magnetron is present in a pulsed radar system in order to

produce a high-power microwave signal.
• Magnetrons are also used in heating appliances likes microwave ovens so as to
produce fixed frequency oscillations.
• Tunable magnetrons find their applications in sweep oscillators.
It is noteworthy here that this mode of operation of the magnetron is also known as π
mode. This is so because a proper phase shift of 180⁰ is maintained between two adjacent
plates. Also, it is to be noted that oscillations are only built-up in π mode.

13. parametric amplifiers

It is the device in which periodic variation of the it's parameters e.g. capacitance of
the varactor diode under the influence of suitable pump signal. Due to this. it is
known as parametric amplifier.

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If a small input signal with frequency fg and AC power with frequency fp are applied
to varoctor diode, linear amplification of small input signal occurs. This happens due
to time varying capacitance of the varactor diode.

Here pump signal (fp) provides power needed for amplification. The power output
is either at the input frequency (fg) or at the idler frequency (fi=fp-fg).

A set of relations are obtained by Manley-Rowe in order to determine maximum

gain of parametric amplifier. The power gain of signal is expressed as follows:

Power Gain = fo/fg = (fg+fp)/fg = 1 + fp/fg

Manley Rowe relations provides maximum gain theoretically. But practically, gain is
less than 1+(fp/fg) due to losses. This type of parametric amplifier is referred as up
converter.

When the output frequency is equal to fg-fp, the parametric device is referred as
down converter. In this condition it provides loss instead of gain.
The figure-part (b) depicts equivalent circuit of parametric amplifier. The varactor diode
represents negative resistance at signal frequency to provide amplification of the input

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signal.

The figure-part (a) depicts equivalent circuit of parametric up converter. As shown fp and
fg are applied through tuned circuits to the varactor diode. Output is taken at frequency fi
equal to fp + fg. The series tuned circuits will allow only currents with respective
frequencies (fg,fp and fi) in each of the loops.
Parametric Amplifier Advantages

Following are advantages of Parametric amplifier:

• Noise Figure: Because of minimum resistive elements, thermal noise in parametric
amplifier is very less in comparison to transistor amplifier. Hence noise figure is less and
will be in the range 1-2 dB.

• Frequency Range: The upper freqency limit (about 40 to 200GHz) is set by the difficulty
of obtaining a source power at pump frequency and also by the frequency at which the
varactor capacitance can be pumped. The lower frequency limit is set by the cut-off
frequency of the microwave components used in circuit
• Bacause of its low noise, parametric smplifiers are used in space communications
systems, tropo-receivers and radio telescopes.
Parametric Amplifier Disadvantages

Following are disadvantages of Parametric amplifier

• Bandwidth: Parametric amplyfier bandwidth is small due to the presence of tuned
circuits. Bandwidth can be increased by stagger tuning.
• Gain: It is limited by the stabilities of pump source and the time varying capacitance. It is
usually in the rane of 20 to 80 dB.

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14. Cross field amplifiers.

The Crossed Field Amplifier is a microwave power amplifier based on the magnetron and
looking very much like it. It is a cross between the TWT and the magnetron in its operation.
It uses an essentially magnetron structure to provide an interaction between crossed dc
electric and magnetic fields and an RF field. It uses a slow-wave structure similar to that of
the TWT to provide a continuous interaction between the electron beam and a moving RF
field. (It will be noted that in the magnetron, interaction is with a stationary RF field.) The
Crossed Field Amplifier is more recent than most other microwave tubes, having been first
proposed in the early 1960s.

Operation:

The cross section of a typical Crossed Field Amplifier is shown in Figure; the similarity
to a coaxial magnetron is striking in its appearance. It would have been even more
striking if, as used in practice, a vane slow-wave structure had been shown, with
waveguide connections. The helix is illustrated here purely to simplify the explanation.
Practical CFAs and magnetrons are very difficult to tell apart by mere looks, except for
one unmistakable giveaway: unlike magnetrons, CFAs have RF input connections.

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As in the magnetron, the interaction of the various fields results in the formation of
bunched electron clouds. An input signal is supplied and receives energy from electron
clouds traveling in the same direction as the RF field. In the TWT, signal strength grows
along the slow-wave structure, and gain results. It will be seen in Figure 11-22 that
there is an area free of the slow-wave structure. This provides a space in which
electrons drift freely, isolating the input from the output to prevent feedback and hence
oscillations. An attenuator is sometimes used also, similar to the TWT arrangement.

In the tube shown, the direction of the RF field and the electron bunches is the same;
this is a forward-wave Crossed Field Amplifier. Backward-wave CFAs also exist, in
which the two directions are opposed. There are also CFAs which have a grid located
near the cathode in the drift-space area, with an accelerating anode nearby. They are
known as injected-beam CFAs.

Practical considerations:

The majority of Crossed Field Amplifier are pulsed devices. CW and dual-mode CFAs are
also available, although their performance and other details tend to be shrouded in
military secrecy. However, dual-mode operation is easier for CFAs than for TWTs,
because here both the electric and the magnetic fields can be switched to alter power
output. Thus 10:1 or higher power ratios for dual-mode operations are feasible.

Pulsed CFAs are available for the frequency range from 1 to 50 GHz, but the upper
frequency is a limit of existing requirements rather than tube design. CFAs are quite
small for the power they produce (like magnetrons), and that is a significant advantage
for airborne radars. The maximum powers available are well over 10 MW in the UHF
range (with an excellent efficiency of up to 70 percent), 1 MW at 10 GHz (efficiency up
to 55 percent) and 400 kW CW in the S-band. The excellent efficiency contributes to the
small relative size of this device and of course to its use. Duty cycles are up to about 5
percent, better than magnetrons but not as high as TWTs. Bandwidths are quite good at
up to 25 percent of center frequency (and one octave for some injected-beam CFAs).
The relatively low gains available, typically 10 to 20 dB, are a disadvantage, in that the

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small size of the tube is offset by the size of the driver, which the klystron or TWT, with
their much higher gains, would not have required.

A typical forward-wave Crossed Field Amplifier is the Varian SFD257. It operates over the
range 5.4 to 5.9 GHz, producing a peak power of I MW with a duty cycle of 0.1 percent. The
efficiency is 50 percent, gain 13 dB, and noise figure approximately 36 dB, a little higher
than for a corresponding klystron. The anode voltage is 30 kV dc, and the peak anode
current is 70 A. The tube, like a number of magnetrons, uses back-heating for the cathode,
and indeed both it and the anode are liquid-cooled. The whole package, with magnet,
weighs 95 kg and looks just like a high-power magnetron with an extra set of RF terminals.
Crossed Field Amplifier are used almost entirely for radar and electronic countermeasures.

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