Metals

STRUCTURE AND BONDING

BODY-CENTERED CUBIC

A body-centered cubic unit cell structure is composed of atoms organized in a cube with one atom in each corner and
one atom in the center. Eight other unit cells share the atom at the cube's corners.

FACE-CENTERED CUBE

This crystal structure is known as face-centered cubic and has atoms at each corner of the cube and six atoms at each
face of the cube

METALLIC BOND

• Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic attractive force between
conduction electrons and positively charged metal ions.

• It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a structure of positively charged ions

FERROUS METALS

• Ferrous comes from the Latin “ferrum”, which means “iron.”

• ferrous metal came into existence around 1200 BC when iron production became more common in the iron age.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
FERROUS METALS

- High Strength and Durability

- Malleability and Ductility
- Corrosion Susceptibility
- Recyclability
- Cost-Effectiveness

Gray cast iron - the most common type

- has graphite structure
- gray cast iron offers similar compressive strength as steel.

White cast iron - the most uncommon type

- has cementite structure
- hard but brittle.
Ductile cast iron - soft type

Malleable cast iron - the most workable type

- heat treatment processed white cast iron
- can be bent and manipulated to achieve unique shapes and sizes

WROUGHT IRON
Almost entirely made of iron, it contains very little to no carbon at all, making it more malleable so that it can be forged
into different shapes.

MILD STEEL
This metal contains very low traces of carbon, as little as 0.1 to 0.3 percent. It is used in the structural engineering
industry and other various purposes.

STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is known for its corrosion resistance and is used in a wide range of applications, including kitchen
appliances (sinks, cutlery, cookware), medical instruments, automotive exhaust systems, and architectural components.

CARBON STEEL

This steel alloy contains anywhere from 0.5% to 3% carbon and It is commonly found in cutting tools; such as saws and
drill bits, automotive chassis and frames, and structural components.

NON FERROUS METALS

Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain a significant amount of iron in their composition. Unlike ferrous
metals, which primarily consist of iron and its alloys (such as steel and cast iron), non-ferrous metals are more resistant
to corrosion, have lower magnetic properties, and are often used in applications where these characteristics are
beneficial. Here are some common non-ferrous metals:

Types of Non-ferrous metals

1. Aluminum

2. Copper

3. Brass

4. Titanium

5. Magnesium

6. Zinc

7. Precious metals

Aluminum

• Aluminum is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals. It is lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and has
excellent conductivity. It finds applications in construction, transportation (e.g., aircraft and automobiles),
packaging, and electrical wiring.

Copper

• Copper is known for its high electrical and thermal conductivity. It's used in electrical wiring, plumbing, heat
exchangers, and various industrial applications.

Brass

• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It's corrosion-resistant and has a pleasing appearance, making it suitable for
decorative purposes, musical instruments, and plumbing fixtures.

Titanium

• Titanium is a lightweight and corrosion-resistant metal used in aerospace, medical implants, and chemical
processing equipment.

Magnesium

• Magnesium is a lightweight metal used in aerospace, automotive components, and electronic devices.

Zinc

• Zinc is often used as a coating to protect steel from corrosion in a process called galvanization. It's also used in
die-casting for various products.

Precious metals

• Precious metals like gold (Au), silver (Ag), and platinum (Pt) are also non-ferrous metals. They are valued for their
rarity and various industrial and decorative applications, including jewelry, currency, and electronics.
ALLOYS

WHAT IS ALLOY?

COMBINING TWO OR MORE METALS OR A METALS AND A NON-METAL

Ex: ZINC + COPPER = BRASS

• SOLID SOLUTION HOMIGINOUS ALLOYS

• MIXTURE OF METALLIC PHASES OR HETEROGENEOUS ALLOYS

• INTER-METALLIC COMPOUND

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ALLOYS

WHEN A MOLTEN METAL IS MIXED WITH ANOTHER SUBSTANCE, THERE ARE TWO MECHANISMS THAT CAN CAUSE AN
ALLOY TO FORM: (1) ATOM EXCHANGE OR (2) INTERSTITIAL MECHANISM.

SUBSTITUTIONAL ALLOY

When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms
composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent.

1. a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper
atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms.

INTERSTITIAL ALLOYS

Interstitial Alloys: In these alloys, the interstitial spaces between the metal atoms in the lattice are filled with atoms or
molecules of different element.

Examples include carbon steel, which is an alloy of iron and carbon, and titanium carbide, which is an interstitial alloy
of titanium and carbon.

Substitutional + Interstitial

Some alloys form from a combination of atom exchange and interstitial mechanisms. For example, stainless steel has
carbon atoms in its interstices, plus nickel and chromium atoms replace some carbon atoms.

An easy way to remember the difference between interstitial and substitutionary alloys is to look at their names!

Substitutionary = Substitute Same Size Atoms

Interstitial = Inconsistent Sized Atoms In spaces

Physical Properties of Metals

State

• Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury, which is liquid at room temperature

• Metals remain in a solid state primarily due to metallic bonding

Luster

• The shiny appearance of metals.

• Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and can be polished

Conduction

• Conduction is the transfer of energy in the form of heat or electricity from one atom to another within an object
by direct contact

• Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons

Density

• Density is the measurement of how tightly a material is packed together

• Metals are typically dense materials, which means they have a high mass per unit volume

• The formula for density is: ρ= m/v. The unit for mass is kilograms (kg)/grams (g) and volume in centimeters cubed
(cm^3) or meters cubed (m^3).

Valency

• The valency of an element is a measure of its combining capacity

• Metals typically have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms

Melting Points and Boiling Points

• The temperature at which solid changes its state to liquid at atmospheric pressure is called the melting point of
that liquid

• The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure of the liquid’s environment

• Metals have high melting and boiling points

Mechanical properties

Elasticity
It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after removal of load.

Plasticity

It is the property of a material by virtue of which material retains the deformation (permanent) even after removal of the
load.

Strength

It is the ability of a material to resist the load (external applied force).

Tensile strength

Metals ability to resist the pulling forces.

Compressive strength

Metals ability to resist the crushing forces.

Shear strength

Metals ability to resist the shear load.

Torsional strength

Metals ability to resist the twisting forces.

DUCTILITY

The ability of a material by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires by application of a tensile force.

Brittleness

It is the property of a metal by virtue of which it breaks without any appreciable deformation opposite to ductility.

Malleability

It is the ability of a material to be hammered, pressed, or rolled (compressive forces) into thin sheets without breaking.

Stiffness

It is the ability of a material to resist deformation in response to an applied load.

Toughness

It is the ability of a material to absorb energy before fracture.

Resilience

It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads.

Creep

It is the ability of a material to deform continuously under a steady load. Slow and permanent deformation under a
steady load.

Fatigue

Failure of a material caused by cyclic or repeated loading.

Hardness

Ability of a material to resist abrasion, indentation, and scratching by a hard material.

Machinability

It is the ease with which a material can be machined (cut and formed into different shapes).

Common Uses of Metals in Our Daily Life

Major Uses of Metals

• Transportation
 • Construction

• Telecommunication

• Security

• Electricity

Transportation

Metals like steel and titanium account for about 80 percent of the total weight of the average vehicle.

Construction

Metals play a major role in construction of vertical structures as well. For instance, columns and beams of low and high-
rises are reinforced with steel bars.

Telecommunication

The towers and dishes that feed signal into your electronic devices are all made of metals.

Security

Metals, with their immense strength and toughness, are the preferred material for this application.

Electricity

If you peel off an electrical cable’s plastic jacket or insulator, you’ll be greeted by a metallic core. Metals are an ideal wire
core material because they are electrically conductive.

Uses of Metals in Our Daily Life Gadgets and Appliances

• Cutlery Just about every device or equipment you own is either partially or
mainly metallic, be it your entertainment system, laptop, cellphone, or
• Money
kitchen appliances.
• Decoration

• Jewelry

• Gadgets and Appliances

Cutlery

Metal cutlery lasts longer and is easy to

maintain.

Money

All modern coins are made of metal. Copper,

nickel, and zinc are metals that are both
lightweight and corrosion-resistant, so they
are perfect for this application.

Jewelry

The majority of jewelry items, have metallic

components. Even bracelets or hair clips that
are made mostly of stone or ceramic usually
have metallic chains, cords, or clasps.

Decoration

Metallic decorations have long been

incorporated in interior and architectural
designs because they are both elegant-looking
and durable.
Material Science and Engineering
GROUP 2
Ceramics

I. Introduction

• The word ‘ceramic’ is originated from Greek word “keromikos” which means “burnt stuff”
• Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements
• Generally hard and brittle
• Generally electrical and thermal insulators
• Can be optically opaque, semi-transparent, or Transparent
All of us have dropped drinking glasses and mugs before and seen them break into many pieces
on the floor. This begs the question: how can such brittle materials be used in engineering?
Ceramics have been used in civil structures for centuries. They are used in many ancient structures
that have survived to the present day - the great pyramid of Giza, the great Wall of China. These
structures show that ceramics are very resistant to corrosion and wear, and can be used in many
applications, even though they may be brittle.

II. Bonding
• Can Be ionic/ and or covalent in character.
• Ionic character increases with difference in electronegativity of atoms:
• Most ceramics have ionic bonding which leads to very high strength. These ceramics are
typically a combination of a metal and a non-metal, e.g., sodium chloride NaCl or alumina
Al2O3.
• Some ceramics, however, have covalent bonding. These are either a combination of two
non-metals, e.g., silica SiO2, or pure elements, e.g., diamond C.

UNSTABLE STABLE STABLE

III. General Properties of Ceramics

a. LOW DUCTILITY
• Very brittle
• High elastic modulus
b. LOW TOUGHNESS
• Low fracture toughness
• Indicates the ability of a crack or flew to produce a catastrophic failure
c. LOW DENSITY

• Porosity affects
 d. HIGH STRENGTH AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

IV. Thermal Properties

1. Thermal expansion
• The coefficients of thermal expansion depend on the bond strength between the
atoms that make up the materials.
2. Thermal conductivity
• generally, less than that of metals such as steel or copper
• Ceramic materials, in contrast, are used for thermal insulation due to their
low thermal conductivity (except silicon carbide, aluminum nitride)
3. Thermal shock resistance

• A large number of ceramic materials are sensitive to thermal.

V. Mechanical Properties
1. Hardness
The high hardness of technical ceramics results in favorable wear resistance. Ceramics
are thus good for tribological applications.
Some typical hardness values for ceramic materials are provided below:

2. Toughness
 3. Porosity
Porosity can be generated through the appropriate selection of raw materials, the
manufacturing process, and in some cases using additives.

VI. Electrical and Superconducting Properties

Electrical Properties
• Most of ceramic materials are dielectric. (Materials, having low electric conductivity, but
supporting electrostatic field).
• Dielectric ceramics are used for manufacturing capacitors, insulators, and resistors.

Superconducting Properties
• Despite of very low electrical conductivity of most of the ceramic materials, there
are ceramics, possessing superconductivity properties (near-to-zero electric resistivity).
• Lanthanum (yttrium)-barium-copper oxide ceramic may be superconducting
at temperature as high as 138k.
• This critical temperature if much higher, than superconductivity critical temperature of
other superconductors (up to 30k)

VII. Classification of Ceramics

Classification based on Composition
1. Oxides
• Oxidation resistant
• chemically inert
 • electrically insulating
• generally low thermal conductivity

• slightly complex manufacturing

• low cost for alumina
• more complex manufacturing higher cost for zirconia

2. Non-oxides
• Low oxidation resistance
• extreme hardness
• chemically inert
• high thermal conductivity

• electrically conducting
• difficult energy dependent manufacturing and high cost.

3. Composite

• Tough
• low and high oxidation resistance (type related)
• variable thermal and electrical conductivity

• complex manufacturing processes

• high cost

VIII. Traditional Ceramics

Traditional ceramics – most made up of clay, silica, and feldspar

• The older and more generally known types (porcelain, brick, earthenware, etc.)
• Based primarily on natural raw materials of clay and silicates

Examples of Traditional Ceramics

• Clay
• Refractories
• Amorphous Ceramics
• Abrasives
• Cements
Application
• building materials (brick, clay pipe, glass)
• household goods (pottery, cooking ware)
• manufacturing (abbrasives, electrical devices, fibers)
Examples of Traditional Ceramics

Clay Ceramics
- Made from natural clays and mixtures of clays and added crystalline ceramics.
- These include:
o Whitewares
o Structural Clay Products
• Whitewares
o Crockery
o Floor and wall tiles
o Sanitary-ware
o Electrical porcelain
o Decorative ceramics
Refractories

- Firebricks for furnaces and ovens.

- Have high Silicon or Aluminium oxide content.
Amorphous Ceramics (Glasses)
- Main ingredient is Silica
- If cooled very slowly will form crystalline structure.
- If cooled more quickly will form amorphous structure consisting of disordered and linked
chains of Silicon and Oxygen atoms.
- This accounts for its transparency as it is the crystal boundaries that scatter the
light, causing reflection.
- Glass can be tempered to increase its toughness and resistance to cracking
• Three Common Types of Glass:
o Soda-lime glass - 95% of all glass, windows containers etc.
o Lead glass - contains lead oxide to improve refractive index
o Borosilicate - contains Boron oxide, known as Pyrex.
Abrasives
- Natural (garnet, diamond, etc.)
- Synthetic abrasives (silicon carbide, diamond, fused alumina, etc.) are used
o for grinding
o for cutting Silicon wafers
o polishing
o for oil drilling lapping, or pressure blasting of materials
Cements
- Used to produce concrete roads, bridges, buildings, dams.
-
IX. Advanced Ceramics
Advanced Ceramics
- these consist of highly purified aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and silicon nitride
 - Advance ceramics are also referred to as “special”, “technical” or “engineering” ceramics
- They exhibit superior mechanical properties, corrosion/oxidation resistance, or
electrical, optical, and/or magnetic properties.
- Have been developed over the past half century.
- Include artificial raw materials, exhibit specialized properties, require more sophisticated
processing
- Advanced ceramics include newer materials such as
o Laser host materials
o Piezoelectric ceramics
o Ceramics for dynamic random access memories (DRAMs), often produced in small
quantities with higher prices.
o As thermal barrier coatings to protect metal structures, wearing
surfaces Advanced Ceramics

• Engine Components
• Turbo Charger
• Structural Ceramics
• Silicone Carbide
• Ceramics in the Field Biomaterials
• Dental Implant

Engine Components

Turbo Charger
Structural Ceramics

Silicone Carbide
- Automotive Components in Silicon Carbide
- Chosen for its heat and wear resistance
- Body armour and other components chosen for their ballistic properties

Ceramics in the Field Biomaterials

Common Medical Implants

Dental Implant
Metallic Framework

X. Electronic Ceramics
Electronic Ceramics
- The first use of ceramics in the electrical industry took advantage of their stability when
exposed to extremes of weather and to their high electrical resistivity, a feature of many
siliceous materials.
- Ceramics with higher resistivities also had high negative temperature coefficients of
resistivity, contrasting with the very much lower and positive temperature coefficients
characteristic of metals.
-
• Dielectric Property
• Piezoelectricity
• Pyroelectricity
• Ferroelectricity

Dielectric Property
- Dielectric properties of materials are molecular properties which are fundamental in all the
materials that are capable of impending electron movement resulting in polarization within
the material on exposure to an external electric field.
Piezoelectricity
- Piezoelectricity is the ability of a material to generate an internal electric field when
subjected to mechanical stress or strain (Berlincourt, 1971).
Pyroelectricity
- pyroelectric effect is the change in polarization due to the change in temperature.
Ferroelectric materials are expected to be strongly pyroelectric because ferroelectric
 materials have a large range of temperature-dependent spontaneous polarization (Fatuzzo
and Merz, 1967).
Ferroelectricity
- Ferroelectrics are a class of materials exhibiting spontaneous polarisation below the
ferroelectric Curie temperature (TC), and the polarisation direction can be modified by
applied electric field.
XI. Common Uses of Ceramics in Daily Life and in Engineering
Common Uses of Ceramics in Daily Life
- Ceramic products are hard, porous, and brittle. As a result, they are used to make
pottery, bricks, tiles, cements, and glass. Ceramics are also used at many places in gas
turbine engines. Bio-ceramics are used as dental implants and synthetic bones.
Common Uses of Ceramics in Engineering
Here are just a few things made out of ceramics, or parts that contain ceramics:
• Fiber optics used in security systems, communications networks (including
phones and the internet), sensors, and imaging devices for tight places, including
the human body.
• Heat-resistant, protective tiles on the outside of the space shuttles.
• Electronic components - touch-screens, CPUs, magnetic memory devices, lasers
and solar-cells.
• Snowboards and skis, and other sporting goods including golf clubs and tennis
rackets.
• Batteries and fuel cells.
• Roads and buildings.
Material Science in Engineering Report Group 3 - POLYMERS

INTRODUCTION

Polymers are large molecules made by bonding (chemically linking) a series of building blocks. The word polymer
comes from the Greek words for “many parts.” Each of those parts is scientists call a monomer (which in Greek means
“one part”). A process of making the monomer molecules react together in a chemical reaction and produce three-
dimensional networks or polymer chains is called polymerization.

A. BASIC POLYMER STRUCTURES

Linear polymers resemble ‘spaghetti’ with long chains. The long chains are typically held together by the weaker van
der Waals or hydrogen bonding. Since these bonding types are relatively easy to break with heat, linear polymers are
typically thermoplastic.

Branched polymers resemble linear polymers with the addition of shorter chains hanging from the spaghetti backbone.
Since these shorter chains can interfere with efficient packing of the polymers, branched polymers tend to be less dense
than similar linear polymers.

Crosslinked polymers resemble ladders. The chains link from one backbone to another. So, unlike linear polymers
which are held together by weaker van der Waals forces, crosslinked polymers are tied together via covalent bonding.

B. TYPES OF REACTION

Addition polymerization is the process of repeated addition of monomers that possess double or triple bonds to form
polymers. It involves the rearrangement of bonds within the monomer in such a way that the monomers link up directly
with each other. In order to make this happen, a chemically active molecule (called an initiator) is needed to start what
is known as a chain reaction.

Condensation polymerization is a type of chemical reaction in which two small molecules join to form a larger
molecule, releasing a small molecule like water or alcohol in the process. It occurs when two small molecules, called
monomers, react with each other and release a small molecule like water or alcohol. The reaction causes the monomers
to bond together, forming a polymer.
 II. PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

A. Physical properties of polymers – deals with the molecular weight, molar volume, density, degree of
polymerization, crystallinity of polymers.
Polymerization – is a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules (monomers) combined chemically to
produce a network molecule called a polymer.
Monomers - a molecule of any of a class of compounds, mostly organic, that can react with other molecules to
form very large molecules, or polymers. Ex. C2H4
Polymerization of ethyne to polyethylene is carried out by using Fe, Co as catalyst.
Molecular weight - is the product of the degree of polymerization and the molecular weight of the repeating unit.
Weight-Average Molecular Weight (WAMW) – can be determined by summing the squares of the weights
divided by the sum of the molecular weights.

∑ 𝑁𝑖𝑀𝑖2
M = W
∑ 𝑁𝑖𝑀𝑖

Number-Average Molecular Weight (NAMW)– is defined as the total weight of polymer divided by the total number
of moles repeating of all the components.

mol A
XA =
total mol of the solution

Degree of polymerization (DP)-n – is about the number of units in the polymer chain
Number−Average Molecular Weight
Degree of polymerization (DP)-n =
Weight−Average Molecular Weight

Crystalline and amorphous polymers

B. Thermal Properties

Amorphous Region

Glassy state - at low temperature (frozen state) the molecules can vibrate slightly but are not able to move
significantly.
Rubbery state - when the polymer is heated, the polymer chains are able to wiggle around each other. Glass transition
temperature (Tg) - temperature at which the glassy state makes a transition to rubbery state.
Crystalline region is characterized by the melting point.

C. Mechanical Properties

Strength - the strength is the stress required to break the sample.

Factors Affecting the Strength of Polymers

Molecular Weight - The tensile strength of the polymer rises with increase in molecular weight.
Cross-linking -The cross-linking restricts the motion of the chains and increases the strength of the polymer.

Toughness - The toughness of a material is given by the area under a stress–strain curve.

Viscoelasticity

2 types: elastic and viscous

Elastic deformation - the strain is generated at the moment, the constant load (or
stress) is applied, and this strain is maintained until the stress is not released. On
removal of the stress, the material recovers its original dimensions completely, that
is the deformation is reversible.
Viscous deformation - the strain generated is not instantaneous and it is time
dependent. The strain keeps on increasing with time on application of the constant
load, that is, the recovery process is delayed. When the load is removed, the material
does not return to its original dimensions completely, that is, this deformation is
irreversible.
III. TYPES OF POLYMERS
1. Natural Polymers - occur in nature and can be extracted.

Examples: silk, wool, DNA, cellulose

Cellulose - a polysaccharide consisting of 3000 or more glucose units.

2. Synthetic Polymers - derived from petroleum oil, and made by scientists and engineers.

Examples: polyvinyl acetate, polystyrene, polyester, polyethylene terephthalate.

Polyethylene Terephthalate - composed of two different kinds of monomers: terephthalic acid and ethylene
glycol monomers.

IV. CATEGORIES OF POLYMERS

A. THERMOPLASTICS

Thermoplastic polymers can be very broadly classified as amorphous or crystalline. Thermoplastic materials can be
cooled and heated numerous times without any change in their chemical or mechanical characteristics.

Amorphous thermoplastics are easy to thermoform and as such are an excellent choice for most injection molding
applications. Whereas semi-crystalline plastics tend to be opaque in their solid state, amorphous thermoplastics are
usually translucent.

Types of Thermoplastics

• Polyester- This is one of the most common thermoplastics, which is frequently used to produce bed linens,
clothing, and other domestic fabrics.
• Tarpaulins
• Yarns
• Ropes
• Seatbelts
• Acrylic- Acrylic is loved for its versatile nature and attractive finish. This thermoplastic can be molded in
a range of colors as well.
• Motorcycle helmet visors
• Aquariums
• Fish tanks
• Windows
• Polythene- It’s one of the best-known thermoplastics known outside engineering and manufacturing
circles for its versatility as a packaging product.
• Food containers
• Bottles
• Films
• Plastic bags
• Polyamide- Popularly known as nylon, polyamide is a common material used in sports equipment and
fabrics.
 • Industrial components
• Medical products
• Footwear
• Sports equipment
B. THERMOSETS
Thermoset is a polymer that experiences both a physical and chemical change during a non-reversible curing process.
Thermosets cannot be reheated and reshaped.

Cross-Linking
• Strong interconnecting bonds that cannot easily be broken by applying thermal energy to the system.

Thermosets Advantages
• Resistance to heat, chemicals and dimensional changes.
• Low Flammability
• Hardness
• Stiffness
• Compression Strenght

Thermosets Disadvantages
• Long Cycle Times
• Secondary Operations
• Health Concerns

Examples of Thermosetting Plastic

1. BAKELITE - was the first thermoset plastic that was synthesized from synthetic components. The
chemical name of Bakelite is ‘Polyoxybenzyl Methylene Glycol Anhydride.
2. DUROPLAST- is a composite thermoset material that is similar to Bakelite except for the fact that
it is reinforced with cotton or wool fibers. One of the most significant properties of duroplast is that
it is lightweight and strong.
3. POLYIMIDE - resins are produced by the condensation’s reaction of aromatic primary diamines
with aromatic tetracarboxylic dianhydrides. Because of the presence of aromatic rings in them, they
have excellent thermal and chemical properties, and they can withstand high temperatures.

C. ELASTOMERS

PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMERS

a. Viscosity- The ability of a substance to flow. Elastomers are generally very viscous, making them
slow flowing under force.
b. Elasticity- The ability of an object to return to its original shape after stretching or compressing it
under force.

• VULCANIZATION
- A process that allows rubber to withstand heat and cold.
- Charles Goodyear is best known for the discovery of the vulcanization process in 1839.

COMMON EXAMPLES OF ELASTOMERS

1. Cis-Polyisoprene (Natural Rubber, NR)- which is made from the milky latex of various trees, most
usually the Hevea rubber tree. It has a molecular structure where the isoprene units are arranged in a
cis configuration. Examples: rubber balloons, latex gloves, rubber bands
 2. Cis-Polybutadiene (Butadiene Rubber, BR)- It is known for its excellent abrasion resistance and
low-temperature flexibility, making it valuable in applications like tire manufacturing. Examples: tire
treads, anti-vibration mounts, conveyor belts
3. Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)- It is a copolymer, meaning it is made by polymerizing two
different monomers: styrene and butadiene. It is widely used in the production of car tires due to its
ability to provide good traction, wear resistance, and cost-effectiveness. Examples: car tires, belts and
hoses, shoe soles
4. Ethylene-Propylene Rubber (EPR)- are synthetic rubber that don't get easily damaged by the
weather, heat, or chemicals. Examples: roof membranes, automotive seals, pond and pool liners

V. CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS

Difference Between Thermosetting Plastic and Thermoplastic

THERMOPLASTIC THERMOSET
Low Tensile Strength High Tensile Strength
Low Melting Point High Melting Point
Low Molecular Weight High Molecular Weight
Ability to maintain its molecular More stiffness and superior
structure after being heated and mechanical properties
reshaped
Recyclable Non-Recyclable

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the following general attributes.
1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals.
2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators.
3. Generally, polymers are very lightweight, with varying degrees of strength.
4. Polymers can be processed in various ways to produce thin fibers or very intricate parts.

Polymers affect every day of our lives. These materials have so many varied characteristics and applications that their
usefulness can only be measured by our imagination. Polymers are the materials of past, present, and future generations.

VI. USE OF POLYMERS IN OUR DAILY LIVES

1.) CLOTHING
• Polyester
Polyester is a synthetic kind of polymer. 4 characteristics of it are: strong and durable, inexpensive and affordable,
retains heat and low absorbency.
• Nylon
Nylon is also a sythetic kind of polymer. It is water resistant and it is mostly used for jackets, backpacks, jogging pants
and swim suits.
• Silk
Silk is a natural polymer. It comes from various insects and spiders but most commonly from silkworms. It is mainly
used for dresses, scarves, etc.
2.) DISPOSABLE CUPS
• Polyethylene
Polyethylene cups are clear, smooth, shinning, and durable. They are ideally used for juice, water, sodas. Its number on
the "number of plastics" is 1.
• Polystyrene Cups
Polysterene cups are white and foamy. These are typically used for hot beverages such as coffee or hot chocolates. Its
number on the “number of plastics” is 6.
How are polyethylene and polysterene cups made?
Polyethylene and polystyrene pellets are melted and poured in a cup mold then dried.
3.) PLASTIC BAGS
Plastic bags are also made from polyethylene. These are made by heating and melting polyethylene
pellets then these are blown into a thin material then manufactured as bags.
4.) POLYURETHANE FOAM CUSHION
Polyurethane is made when two or more liquid streams are mixed. In this case, polyol (alcohol) and
polymer isocyanate were mixed, forming the foamy texture.
5.) TEFLON COOKWARES
Teflon cookware is typically known as nonstick cookware. But not all nonstick are Teflon coated. They
are made by spraying or brushing the teflon on the top surface of normal (not nonstick) cookware, after
drying, it is then baked.
6.) CDs/DVDs
CDs and DVDs are made from polycarbonates. Polycarbonates are being melted down and pressed under
high pressure until the desired thinness is achieved.
7.) ACRYLIC PAINT
Acrylic paint uses acrylic polymer as a binder. This binder causes the paint to have a plastic like film
when dried.
8.) CHAIR
Plastic chairs such as monoblocs are made out of polypropylene. Polypropylene pellets are being melted
down up to 220 degrees Celsius and poured into a chair mold then air dried.
SEMICONDUCTORS – GROUP 4

SEMICONDUCTORS

• These are the building blocks of all electronic circuits.

• We are familiar with them since it is our field of expertise.

• These function as basically the brain of every single electronic device that we see today.

WHAT IS A SEMICONDUCTOR?

• To refresh ourselves on what it is, a semiconductor is both a conductor and an insulator.

• Silicon is usually the material used for semiconductors.

• It is usually made nowadays, into microchips or Integrated Circuits.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS

• Cheap

• Smaller

• Silent

• Less power

WHY USE SEMICONDUCTORS?

• It became a necessity due to the influx of digital technology.

• It is flexible and used in any computing systems. For example, communication systems.

• It is also used in other renewable energy sources, since solar cells for solar panels are made with
semiconductor material.

MATERIALS USED FOR SEMICONDUCTORS

OFTENLY USED MATERIALS

• Silicon

• Germanium

• Gallium Arsenide

History of Semiconductor

Early Discoveries

• Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)

• Michael Faraday (1791-1867)

• Thomas Seebeck (1770-1831)

 • The term “semiconductor” was used for the first time by Alessandro Volta in 1782.

By touching a charged electrometer with different materials, he discovered that contact with metals
caused immediate discharge of the electrometer. By contrast, contact with dielectrics caused no
discharge at all. However, some materials (“semiconductors”) caused discharge within a short but non-
zero time.

● In 1833, Michael Faraday was the first who observed that the resistance of silver sulfide (Ag2S) is
decreasing when the temperature was also decreased.

● Field Effect - refers to the modulation of electrical conductivity of a material by applying an

external electric field

● In 1821, Thomas Seebeck discovered the Seebeck Effect, which describes the generation of an
electromotive force (EMF) in a circuit when there is a temperature difference between two
different metals.

Birth of Semiconductors

Vacuum Tubes (1939-1954)

Invented by John Ambrose Fleming, a glass tube with vacuum inside and has an anode and cathode to
flow electrons.

Transistors (1954-1959)

Three American physicists, John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William Shockley, were honored. They
were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for “their investigations on semiconductors and the
discovery of the transistor effect”.

Integrated Circuits (IC) (1959-1971)

In 1958, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor, both came up with
a new idea called the integrated circuit (IC)

● Jack Kilby made an IC by putting all the important parts like transistors and resistors onto one
piece of semiconductor material.

● Robert Noyce's way, which is mostly used nowadays, used something called the "planar
process."

Moore’s Law

A prediction and observation of Gordon Moore, Moore's law is the observation that the number of
transistors in an integrated circuit doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an observation and
projection of a historical trend.

Manufacturing

Advances in manufacturing techniques like photolithography and doping have allowed the creation of
intricate semiconductor components.
These techniques and environments are essential for producing the high-performance electronic devices
we rely on in our modern world.

Semiconductor Companies

● The "Traitorous Eight" is a term used to refer to a group of eight engineers and scientists who left
Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in 1957 to form their own company.

The members of the Traitorous Eight were:

1. Robert Noyce

2. Gordon Moore

3. Jean Hoerni

4. Julius Blank

5. Victor Grinich

6. Eugene Kleiner

7. Jay Last

8. Sheldon Roberts

Most Prominent Semiconductor Companies

Intel Corporation

Samsung Electronics

Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC)

Electronic Properties of semiconductors

Semiconductors possess specific electrical properties. A substance that conducts electricity is called a
conductor, and a substance that does not conduct electricity is called an insulator. Semiconductors are
substances with properties somewhere between them.

Energy Band

The electrons cannot orbit the nucleus at any distance in the atomic space surrounding the nucleus, but
only certain, very specific orbits are allowed, and only exist in specific discrete levels. These energies are
called energy levels. A large number of atoms gather to form a crystal, and interacts in a solid material,
then the energy levels became so closely spaced that they form bands. These Bands are called
Energy Band.

Fermi Energy - the maximum energy occupied by an electron at 0K.

Energy band Gap - The energy band gap, often referred to simply as the "band gap," is a fundamental
concept in solid-state physics, particularly in the study of semiconductors, insulators, and conductors. It
represents the energy difference between the highest energy electrons in the valence band and the
lowest energy electrons in the conduction band within a solid material.

Types of band

Conduction Band - is a delocalized band of energy levels in a crystalline solid that is partially filled with
electrons.

Valence Band - the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump out of, moving into the conduction
band when excited.

Band Gap

Insulators - Insulators have a relatively large band gap, typically greater than 5 eV. This means that there
is a substantial energy barrier between the valence and conduction bands, making it difficult for
electrons to move from the valence band to the conduction band. As a result, insulators do not conduct
electricity easily.

Conductors - Conductors have little to no band gap, as the valence and conduction bands overlap. This
allows electrons to move freely in the conduction band even at low energies, leading to high electrical
conductivity.

◦ Semiconductors - Semiconductors have a moderate band gap, typically between 0.1 and 3 eV.
This band gap allows electrons to move from the valence band to the conduction band when
provided with sufficient energy (e.g., by thermal excitation or external voltage). This property
makes semiconductors useful for electronic devices.

◦ Electrons - in a semiconductor play a crucial role in determining the electrical properties and
functionality of semiconductor devices

◦ Holes - refer to a concept related to the movement of electrons within a crystal lattice. Holes are
not actual physical entities but rather a way to describe the absence of an electron in a specific
location where one could exist based on the electron distribution in the crystal.

Doping

◦ Doping - in semiconductors is a deliberate and controlled process of introducing specific types

and concentrations of impurity atoms or molecules into a semiconductor crystal to alter its
electrical properties. Doping is a fundamental technique used to customize semiconductor
materials for various electronic applications. There are two primary types of semiconductor
doping: n-type and p-type.

◦ N type Doping - In n-type doping, elements from Group V of the periodic table, such as
phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), or antimony (Sb), are introduced into the semiconductor crystal
lattice as impurities.

N-type doping increases the electron concentration in the semiconductor, enhancing its
electrical conductivity. The material becomes more negatively charged due to the excess
electrons.
 ◦ P type Doping - In p-type doping, elements from Group III of the periodic table, such as boron
(B), gallium (Ga), or indium (In), are introduced into the semiconductor crystal lattice as
impurities.

◦ P-type doping increases the hole concentration in the semiconductor, making the material more
positively charged.

Crystal Structure of Semiconductor Materials

Crystalline

Repeating arrangement of atoms

Polycrystalline

Has characteristics of crystalline and amorphous materials

Amorphous

Random arrangement of atoms

3 Basic Unit Cells

Simple Cubic

Body-centered Cubic

Face-centered cubic

Unit cell - basic smallest repeating structure of crystalline material.

Lattice - array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions.

Classification of Semiconductor Materials

Elemental Semiconductor

Consists of single column IV elements.

Binary Semiconductor

• Alloys of two or more semiconductors.

• IV – high speed or high temperature semiconductor.

• III – V - high speed devices and devices requiring emission or absorption of light.

• II – IV – flourescent materials such as television screen.

Lewis Structure of Silicon

Column IV Elements have 4 valence(outer shell) electrons.

Valence electrons(Outer Shell Electrons) – responsible for most chemical activity and bonding

Covalent Bonding – outer shell electrons shared between eighboring atoms.

Tetrahedral Bond – 4 covalent bonds around each silicon atoms, generating effectively 8 atoms around
each atom

8 outer shell electron = stable atomic bonding

Steric Hindrance – 4 electron bonds repel each other.

This results in a tetraheral bond of 109.5 degree angle.

Two Types of Lattice

Diamond Lattice

where 4 atoms is connected to other 4

Zinc Blende Lattice

Same as diamond lattice but zinc blende has both zinc and sulfur atoms in its structure while
diamond lattice has only carbon atoms in its structure.

MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

WAFER MANUFACTURING

- Heating
- Crystallization
- Slicing & Polishing

OXIDATION

- Oxygen
- Water Vapor
PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY

It is called “photo” for short because it is similar to developing a photo taken on a film camera.

MASK

ETCHING

- Wet Etching
- Dry Etching

DEPOSITION AND ION IMPLAMANTATION

METAL WIRING

The process of depositing a thin metal film to allow electricity to pass through.

What is EDS?

Process of testing electrical characteristics to make sure each individual chip has reached the desired
quality level
PACKING

- Wafer cutting
- Chips bonding
- Wire bonding
- Sealing & Marking

Material Science Advancements in Semiconductors

The Semiconductor Industry is a fast-paced industry.

We used to get exponential gains in computing power every single year.

Moore’s Law is Dead

the principle that the speed and capability of computers can be expected to double every two years, as a
result of increases in the number of transistors a microchip can contain.

Carbon Nanotubes

The first carbon nanotube computer was created in 2013. It is a 1-bit processor consisting of only 178
transistors and runs at a speed of 1KHz.

How are carbon nanotubes created?

Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, is essentially placed in a furnace at high temperature and pressure. The
chamber is filled with inert gas, and particular metals are used to grow carbon nanotubes.

Compared to silicon, Carbon nanotubes are almost as thin as an atom. And they ferry electricity well. As
a result, they make better semiconductors than silicon.

In principle, carbon nanotube processors could run three times faster than silicon ones. And they would
consume about one-third as much energy as silicon processors

Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistor (CNTFET)

A carbon nanotube field-effect transistor is a field-effect transistor that utilizes a single carbon nanotube
or an array of carbon nanotubes as the channel material, instead of bulk silicon, as in the traditional
MOSFET structure. It has a biasing voltage of only 0.289V.

The problem with carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes contain 0.01% metallic nanotubes.

Iron Pyrite

Pyrite absorbs 100 times as much light as the present major solar cell material, silicon. A thin layer of
pyrite, just 0.1 millionth of a meter in thickness, theoretically absorbs almost 90 percent of the solar
radiation, whereas thicker current silicon-based systems harvest less than 20 percent.

What does this mean?

This means that pyrite can be used as an alternative material used for solar panels.
APPLICATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors are used in almost all electronic devices. Their reliability, compactness, low cost and
controlled conduction of electricity make them ideal to be used for various purposes in a wide range of
components and devices.

Semiconductor Applications

- Consumer Electronics
- Embedded Systems
- Thermal Conductivity
- Lighting and LED displays
- Solar Cells

Consumer Electronics

Mobile phones, laptops, games consoles, microwaves and refrigerators all operate with the use of
semiconductor components such as integrated chips, diodes and transistors.

Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are small computers that form part of a larger machine. They can control the device
and allow user interaction.

Thermal Conductivity

Some semiconductors have high thermal conductivity, so can be used as a cooling agent in certain
thermoelectric applications.

Power Generation

Thermoelectric materials can convert a temperature gradient (difference in temperature) into electricity.
When one side of the material is heated while the other side is kept cooler, a voltage is generated, which
can be used to power devices.

Cooling

Thermoelectric materials can also be used for cooling applications through the Peltier effect. When an
electric current is passed through the thermoelectric material, one side becomes hotter while the other
side becomes cooler. This can be used for solid-state cooling devices.

Lighting and LED displays

Some semiconductors, usually those available in liquid or amorphous form as a thin-coated film, can
produce light and are used in LEDs and OLEDs.
LED Backlit LCD TVs

In LED-backlit LCD TVs, white LEDs (usually made from indium gallium nitride, InGaN) are used as a light
source behind the LCD panel. These LEDs are arranged in an array, and their individual brightness can be
controlled to achieve high-quality images with improved contrast and energy efficiency.

OLED TVs

In OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) TVs, organic semiconductor materials are used to create self-
emissive pixels. Each pixel in an OLED TV contains a tiny organic semiconductor layer that emits light
when an electric current passes through it. This technology eliminates the need for a separate backlight,
allowing for incredibly thin and flexible display panels with true blacks and vibrant colors.

Solar Cells

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Silicon is also the most commonly used semiconductor in the
production of solar panel cells.

Monocrystalline Silicon (Mono-Si)

• Monocrystalline silicon solar cells are made from single-crystal silicon wafers, which
have a uniform and high-purity crystalline structure.

• They offer high efficiency and good performance in various lighting conditions.

• Monocrystalline panels tend to be more space-efficient, making them suitable for

installations with limited roof space.

• They are recognized by their black or dark blue appearance.

Polycrystalline Silicon (Poly-Si or Multicrystalline)

• Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are made from multiple small silicon crystals,
resulting in a less uniform structure.

• They are generally less expensive to manufacture compared to monocrystalline

cells.

• Polycrystalline panels are slightly less efficient than monocrystalline panels but
still offer good performance.

• They often appear as bluish or grayish panels.