APPLIED MOTOR CONTROL & LEARNING

Introduction

Motor skills are tasks that require voluntary

control over movements of the joints and body
segments to achieve a goal (e.g. riding a bicycle,
walking, surfing, jumping, running, and
weightlifting). The learning and performance of
these skills are what movement scientists refer to
as motor learning and control, or skill
acquisition. The study of motor learning and
control plays an integral role in both the
performance and rehabilitation of these skills
(e.g. in stroke or total knee
arthroplasty rehabilitation. [1]

According to Roller et al (2012) the production and control of human movement

 Is a process that varies from a simple reflex loop to a complex network of neural
patterns that communicate throughout the Central Nervous System (CNS) and
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). [2]

New motor patterns are learned through movement, interactions with rich sensory
environments, and challenging experiences that challenge a person to solve problems they
encounter. The knowledge about motor control and motor learning shape our
understanding of how individuals progress from novice to skilled motor performance
throughout the lifespan. This page provides an overview about Motor Control and Motor
Learning.
Motor Control

Definition

Motor Control is defined as the process of initiating, directing, and grading purposeful
voluntary movement [3]. Shumway-Cook has defined motor control as the ability to
regulate mechanisms essential to movement [4].

How does it work?

The Motor Control functions in the following way:

1. The task that needs to be completed is

identified→ body gathers sensory
information from the environment→
perceives the information→ chooses a
appropriate movement plan to meet the goal
of the task,
2. Plan is coordinated within the CNS →
executed through motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord → outcome
communicated to the muscles in postural and limb synergies, and in the head and
neck→ motor units timed to fire in a specific manner.
3. Sensory feedback supplied to the CNS by the movement → decision taken to (1)
modify the plan during execution, (2) acknowledge the goal of the task to be
achieved, and (3) store the information for future performance of the same task-
goal combination [2].

Theories of Motor Control

The organization and production of movement is a complex problem, so the study of

motor control has been approached from a wide range of disciplines, including
psychology, cognitive science, biomechanics and neuroscience. The control of human
movement has been described in many different ways with many different models of
Motor Control put forward throughout the 19th & 20th Centuries. There is still a
considerable lack of knowledge which details exactly what is acquired during skill
acquisition and which practices are best in order to develop these skills [1].

Motor Control Theories include the production of reflexive, automatic, adaptive, and
voluntary movements and the performance of efficient, coordinated, goal-directed
movement patterns which involve multiple body systems (input, output, and central
processing) and multiple levels within the nervous system. Many textbooks and
researchers recommend adoption of a systems model of Motor Control incorporating
neurophysiology, biomechanics and motor learning principles (learning solutions based
on the interaction between the patient, the task and the environment). It is imperative to
be aware of the effect this relationship between the task and environment when planning
our interventions so as to enable our patients to achieve their goals. [5] [2]
Motor Control Theories are [4]:

MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

 Movement is controlled by  Use sensory input to control

Reflex Theory Sherrington 1906 stimulus-response. motor output
 Reflexes are the basis for  Stimulate good reflexes
movement - Reflexes are  Inhibit undesirable (primitive)
combined into actions that reflexes
create behavior.  Rely heavily on Feedback

Dynamical Systems Theory Bernstein 1967  Movement emerges to control  Movement is an emergent
degrees of freedom. property from the interaction
 Patterns of movements self- of multiple elements.
Turvey 1977
organize within the  Understand the physical &
characteristics of environmental dynamic properties of the
Kelso & Tuller 1984 conditions and the existing body body - i.e. Velocity- important
systems of the individual. for dynamics of movement.
 Functional synergies are May be good to encourage
Thelen 1987 developed naturally through faster movement in patients
practice and experience and to produce momentum and
help solve the problem of therefore help weak patients
coordinating multiple muscles move with greater ease.
and joint movements at once.
 De-emphasize commands from
CNS in controlling movement
and emphasize physical
explanations for movement.

Hierarchical Theories Adams 1971  Cortical centers control  Identify & prevent primitive
movement in a top-down reflexes
manner throughout the nervous  Reduce hyperactive stretch
system.  Normalize tone
 Closed-loop Mode: Sensory  Facilitate “normal” movement
feedback is needed and used to patterns
control the movement.
 Developmental Sequence
 Voluntary movements initiated
 Recapitulation
by “Will” (higher
levels). Reflexive movements
dominate only after CNS
damage.

Motor Program Theory Schmidt 1976  Adaptive, flexible motor  Abnormal Movement - Not
programs (MPs) and just reflexive, also including
generalized motor programs abnormalities in central
(GMPs) exist to control actions pattern generators or higher
that have common level motor programs.
characteristics.  Help patients relearn the
 Higher-level Motor Programs - correct rules for action
Store rules for generating  Retrain movements important
movements. to functional task
 Do not just reeducate
muscles in isolation

Ecological Theories Gibson & Pick 2000  The person, the task, and the  Help patient explore multiple
environment interact to influence ways in achieving functional
motor behavior and learning. task → Discovering best
The interaction of the person solution for patient, given the
with any given environment set of limitations
provides perceptual information
used to control movement.
 The motivation to solve
problems to accomplish a
desired movement task goal
facilitates learning.

Systems Model Shumway- 2007  Multiple body systems overlap  Identifiable, functional tasks
 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Cook to activate synergies for the  Practice under a variety of

production of movements that conditions
are organized around functional  Modify environmental
goals. contexts
 Considers interaction of the
person with the environment.
 Goal-directed Behavior - Task
Orientated

Systems Involved in Motor Control [4]

Sensory/ Perceptual System Action Systems

Somatosensory Motor Cortex

Visual Basal Ganglia

Vestibular Cerebellum

Central Pattern generators

Motor Learning

Definition

1. "The process of acquiring a skill by which the learner, through practice and
assimilation, refines and makes automatic the desired movement" [2].
2. "An internal neurologic process that results in the ability to produce a new motor
task"[3].
3. “A set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to
relatively permanent changes in the capability for skilled behavior” [6]

Theories of Motor Learning

Motor learning is a complex process occurring in the brain in response to practice or

experience of a certain skill resulting in changes in the central nervous system. It allows
for the production of a new motor skill. It often involves improving the smoothness and
accuracy of movements and is necessary for developing controlled movement and
calibrating simple movements like reflexes.

Motor learning research considers variables that contribute to motor program formation
(i.e., underlying skilled motor behavior), the sensitivity of error-detection processes, and
strength of movement schemas. Motor learning requires practice, feedback and knowledge
of results [5] [2].
The Motor learning theories are:

MOTOR LEARNING THEORY AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

 Closed Loop - Sensory feedback  Perform same exact movement

Adams Closed Loop Theory Adams 1971 is used for the ongoing production repeatedly to one accurate end
of skilled movement point
 Slow movements  Increase Practice → Increase
 Relies on sensory feedback Learning
(Sherrington)  Errors produced during learning
 Blocked Practice → Increase strength of incorrect
 Errors = Bad! Needs to be perceptual trace
accurate!
 Memory Trace - Initiation of
movement
 Perceptual Trace - Built up over a
period of practice & is the
reference of correctness.
 Improvements = Increased
capability of performer to use the
reference in closed loop

Schmidt's Schema Theory Schmidt 1975  Open Loop  Optimal Learning → Task
 Schema - Abstract memory practiced under many different
representation for events → conditions
RULE  Positive benefits for error
 Generalized Motor Program - production (learn from own
Rules that allow for the generation mistakes)
of novel movements  Schema has rules for all stored
 Rapid, ballistic movements = recall elements, not just correct
memory with motor programs and elements
parameters to carry out movement
without peripheral feedback
 Variability of Practice → Improve
Motor Learning

Ecological Theory Newell 1991  Based on Systems & Ecological  Patient learns to distinguish
Motor Control Theories relevant perceptual cues important
 Motor Learning = Increases to action.
coordination between perception
and action thru task &
environmental constraints.
 Perceptual-motor workspace -
Identifies movements and
perceptual cues most relevant to
performance of task
 Optimal task-relevant mapping of
perception & action → NO Rules!
Stages of Motor Learning

According to Fitts and Posner Model [7]:

Stages of Characteristics Attention Demands Activities Description

Learning

 Movements are  Attention to Practice sessions are: Early Cognitive;

Cognitive slow, inconsistent understand what must
and inefficient. move to produce a
specific result.  performance focused Essential Elements were not
 Considerable
 less variable observed or not present
cognitive activity  Large parts of the
is required. movement are  Incorporate a clear
controlled consciously mental image (technical
& visual). Late Cognitive;

Essential elements are

starting to appear

Associative  Movements are  Some parts of the  Practice sessions link Early Associative;
more fluid, reliable movements are performance and
and efficient controlled results, conditions can
consciously, some be varied. Essential elements appear,
 Less cognitive
automatically. but not with consistency.
activity is required  Clear Mental Image =
Accurate Performance

Late Associative;

Essential elements appear

regularly at a satisfactory
level.

Autonomous  Movements are  Movement is largely  practice sessions are Early Autonomous;
accurate, controlled more results orientated
consistent and automatically  Focus is on greater
efficient. Essential elements appear
 Attention can be range of movement,
frequently above required
 Little or no focused on tactical speed, acceleration and
level.
cognitive activity choices use of skill in a novel
is required. situation.

Late Autonomous;

Essential elements appear

continuously at a superior
level.

According to Bernstein's Model:

Underline degrees of freedom (the number of independent movements needed to

complete an action, as a central component of learning a new motor skill). It has 3 stages.
They are:

Stage Description
 Initial individual simplifies movements by reducing the degrees of freedom

Advanced individual gains a few degrees of freedom, which permits movement in more of the articulations involved in the task

Expert Possess all the degrees of freedom to carry out the task in an effective and coordinated manner.

According to Gentile's Model:

There are 2 stages in this Model. They are [9]:

First Stage Second Stage

 Understanding the purpose of the task  fixation or diversification

 developing movement strategies appropriate for  redefining movement
completing the task  adapting movement to change in task and in setting
 Interpreting environmental information that is  being able to perform the task consistently and efficiently
relevant to organizing movement.

Factors affecting Motor Learning [10]:

1. Verbal instructions
2. Practice
3. Active participation and motivation
4. Possibility of errors
5. Postural control
6. Memory
7. Feedback

Clinical Significance of motor control and learning

Motor control and learning help therapists to understand the process behind movements,
motor tasks and skills. By acknowledging the theories of motor learning and control and
integrating them into day- to-day practice, therapists will have a better chance of:

1. identifying issues in motor performance,

2. developing treatment strategies to help patients remediate performance problems,
and
3. Planning programs that include a new movement, or the reacquisition and/or
modification of movement to be taught in such a way that it is, consistent and
transferrable (ability to perform movement under different environments and
conditions).
4. evaluating the effectiveness of intervention strategies employed
It is important that therapists identify the appropriate motor learning strategy and motor
control theory to get optimal and effective results [2][4].
References
1. ↑ Jump up to:1.0 1.1
Science for Sport Skill
Acquisition Available: https://www.scienceforsport.com/skill-acquisition/
(accessed 4.10.2021)
2. ↑ Jump up to:2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Umphred, Darcy A. Umphred's Neurological Rehabilitation. 7th
edition. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier/Mosby, 2013.
3. ↑ Jump up to:3.0 3.1 Medical Dictionary for the Health Professions and Nursing. (2012).
Retrieved March 11 2016
from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/motor+learning
4. ↑ Jump up to:4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott M. Motor Control: Translating
Research into Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.
Print.
5. ↑ Jump up to:5.0 5.1 Bate P. Motor Control. In: Sheila Lennon & Maria Stokes. Pocketbook of
Neurological Physiotherapy. Churchill Livingstone, 2008. p31 - 40.
6. ↑ Krakauer JW. Motor learning: its relevance to stroke recovery and
neurorehabilitation. Curr Opin Neurol. 2006 Feb;19(1):84-90. doi:
10.1097/01.wco.0000200544.29915.cc. PMID: 16415682.
7. ↑ Fitts PM, Posner MI. Human Performance. Brooks/Cole Pub. Co; Belmont, CA:
1967.
8. ↑ Bernstein N. The co-ordination and regulation of movements. The co-ordination
and regulation of movements. 1966.
9. ↑ Gentile AM. A working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching.
Quest. 1972 Jan 1;17(1):3-23.
10. ↑ Cano-de-la-Cuerda R, Molero-Sánchez A, Carratalá-Tejada M, Alguacil-Diego IM,
Molina-Rueda F, Miangolarra-Page JC, et al. Teorías y modelos de control y
aprendizaje motor. Aplicaciones clínicas en neurorrehabilitación. Neurología.
2015;30:32–41. https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-neurologia-english-edition--
495-articulo-theories-control-models-motor-learning-S2173580814001424
11. ↑ Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 1 Classifying Skills and Abilities. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlvh8mxxsr4 [last accessed 01/03/16]
12. ↑ Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 2 Conceptualising Motor Learning. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NOthWZhdXVE [last accessed
01/03/16]
13. ↑ Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 3 Models of Motor Learning Stages. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8xeLsfigGs [last accessed 01/03/16]
14. ↑ Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 4 Structuring the Learning Experience. Available
from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8OvZpBdyPFo [last accessed 01/03/16]