20/03/2023

Braiding
Braiding generally produces tubular or narrow fabrics by
intertwiningthree or more strands of yarns,threads or filaments.
(c)
vaidng angle

Commonly in ropes, shoe laces, composite preforms, etc

1

Baidng
point

Braiding
The yarn packages move on
serpentine path
In simple machines, half of the Hsaing onasingsa tran lu
prupetsiond arrers
packages move in clockwise direction,
whereas the remainingpackages move
in anticlockwise direction.

Shoelaces and ropes

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 Princ

Fabric formation by Braiding

Braided fabric is formed by

diagonal interlacing of yarns.
Enables to produce tubular
structure

Braided structure
Mainly used as preform for industrial
3
composite materials.

Principle of hand braiding with three yarns.

(a) Initial configuration

(b) first step: interlacing the leftyarn over the middle one
(c) second step: interlacing the right yarn over the new
middle yarn
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Principle of Braiding

Astep by step creation ofa

basic braid using three strings Braids with 3,4,5 & 6yarns

Braiding Principle
Take off

The smallest braiding machine consists of Braid

two horn gears and three bobbins. This
produces a flat, 3-strand braid. Braiding point

Carrier with bobbin Yarn

Horn dog.
Track

3
 Braided Fabric : Definition " Braide
define
" Braided structures are produced by
three or more sets of yarns at definedintertwining
angle such
that each strand passes over and under another set
of strand in such a manner that no adjacent
strands twisted around one anothe.
"Braiding is a process of interlacing three or more
threads diagonally to the product axis. Braid Argle olpha
Brald Ane bet

"Interlacing diagonally means that the yarns make

ne

an angle with the product axis, usually in the

range of 30 °- 80 ° This angle is called the
braiding angle.

Braid angle
Bratdod proouct

Brwiiacg pes

Braid angle =0 =tan"

where w is aver age angular velocity of the package (rad's) Came

r is the mandrel radius

tson onar slo

TUS is the take-up speed (cm/s)

PROGUST AX

YARNAne
 20/03/2023

BRAIDED STRUCTURES
" Braided structures are produced by intertwining three or more yarns at
defined angle ralde d peoduct drection
Axiat yons

Bratd angl

Broldig port
Broid former
Braldor
Arial
Yer

Carrier

rack Hom gear

Horn gex slot
Transverso iosding drecticn

Maypole braiding machine with vertical take up

In case of braided structures yarns can be laid down at different
angles to derive both axial as well as bias properties

Braid architecture
" Diamond braid (1/1): where each yarn passes over and below one other yarn in
a repeating manner.
"Regular braids (2/2): where each yarn passes over and below two yarns in a
repeating manner.
"Hercules braids (3/3): where each yarn passes over and below three yarns in a
repeating manner.

Diamond Regular Hercules

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 Circular and Flat Braids
Circular braids:half the carriers move continuously in one direction and the other
half in the opposite direction in two distinct tracks, they interlace with cach other to
torm tubular braided structure., Circular braids are made with the even number of
strands in a closc circular path.
Flat braids: In the case of flat braids, the tracking system does not form a
complete circle the end horn gears have an odd number of slots which allow the
strand carriers to reverse their paths and form a flat structure.
Relurning

Circular Braid Flat Braid

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HOW BRAID IS DIFFERENT FROM

WOVEN & KNITTED STRUCTURES
Properties Woven Knitted Braided

Fiber orientation Orthogonal Varies Varies

Dimensional stability
Good Poor Poor

Structural versatility
Poor Moderate Good

High for 2D
Productivity High High for 2D

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Applications
Aerospace engineering: Biomedicalengineering:
>Stiffleners >Peripheral nerve repair tubes
>Wing spars Biodegradable scaffolds
>Floor bcams Dental floss
>Fuselage frames Catheters
>Ducting >Ligaments, prosthesis
>Rotors >Sutures

Industrial engineering: Sports and recreation:

Hoses Frames and chassis of cars
>Wires and cable insulation >Golf, hockey sticks
>Marine ropes Bungee jumping ropes

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Applications of Braided fabric

Hose pipe used by fire brigade Marine ship rope

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 Applications of Braided fabrics
New Wool Blend Cloth

No Filler

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Widespread Use of Braid

" Aircraft engine containment cases
Frames for commercial aircraft
" Aircraft propellers
" Inflatables
" Prosthetics
Sporting goods

GEnx Fan Case

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Comparative analysis of mechanics of

textile structures

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9
 Load-elongation behaviour of woven fabric
The curve consists of three distinct
Yarn extension
regions; initial OA dominated by
regon
frictional restraint followed by, AB
decrimping region and finally, BC
leading to yarn extension.
Dectimplng regiop
Inter-ber B
tcon eect

The initial high modulus of fabric is

mainlydue to the frictional resistance
Extension to bendingof the thread which
includes inter-fiber friction.

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Typical stress-strain diagram of Nonwoven fabric

(a) (b)

MID CD

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Load-displacement curves for knittedfabric's

samples cutunder different angles.
O00

400
-450

300

200

100 200 400

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Woven vs Knitted

Fore Woven Fabrk Knitted Fahric

Diylacmest lin wütp & ni ire tinsj

Wef Knit

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 structuroc
load-displacement curves of different knitted
Load
(N

Eongation %]

a) Doble jersey b) Sngle jersey wth c) Doubie ersey ) Single jersey with
rtertock wà wet mss soh u t e basc loop udt sttch strudue

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Load-extension curve of the braided structure

RS

Force

OP
Extension

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3)
Braid angle vs Tensile Modulus
(a)
120

300
" Cxperiment (2) Present Stwdy View of the some brad on a different Hose OD
Ku et ot. (10)

A- Braiding angle

Brnid Angte,0(Deg)
(b)
Aresent Stuy * Xu et al. (3a

Greid Agte (D)

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Knitted fabric structure

The horizontal rowof loops is
called 'course'.
The vetical column of loops
is called wale'

The wales per inch (wpi) and

COurses per inch (cpi) of
knitted fabrics are analogous
to ends per inch (epi) and
picks per inch (ppi) of woven
fabrics.

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Knitted fabric structure

For afully relaxed knitted fabric, the wpi and cpi values
are determined by the loop length.
Smaller loop length leads to higher values of wpi and
cpi.
As aresult, the stitch density or loop density, which is a
product of wpi and cpi, also increases with the
reduction in loop length.
The ratio of cpi andwpi is known as loop shape factor.
For a fully relaxed single jersey fabric, the loop shape
factor is around 1.3.

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 Knitted fabric structure

length be linch.
Lettheloop
(cpi)=
and courses per inch
Walesperinch(wpi)

where kw, kc and ks

are wale constant,
FIGURE 1.18 Course and wale.
Course constant and
stitch constant,
Stitch density (inch )=
respectively.

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Knitted fabric structure

Tightness factor implies the relative tightness or
looseness of a single jersey knitted fabric
Indicated by ratio of fabric area covered by the yarn to
total fabricarea the
corresponding to one loop.
It is analogous to the cover
factor of woven fabric.
1/wpi
Tightness factor Area covered by the yarn within the repeat unit
Area of the repeat unit
Ixd

cpt wpi kk

Yarn dianeter ()is proportionate with

Iherefore. (tex)º,
Tightness factor x xtex
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Tensile Properties of Fabric

-Experimental Analysis

Modulus
" Modulus: Resistance Deformation
y"axis
Deformation could be Tensile, Bending, Stress
Shear, Compression, Torsional modulus

Tensile Modulus : Slope =Modulus of elasticity

Srain X-axis
Initial/ Young's modulus
Secant modulus
Tangent Modulus
 Initial Modulus or Young's modulus
Moung's modulus or the initial modulus (M) is ameasure of the amount of
deformation that is caused by a small stress.
Materials with ahigh modulus, often called stiff or hard materials, deform or
deflect very little in the presence of a stress.
Materials With a low modulus, often called soft materials, deflect significantly

In the case of fabric, initial

modulus is related to the fabric Initial Tangent moduluS
eties

handle. Ahigher IM means a

stiffer or harsher fabric handle Strain
whereas a lower IM provides a
softer fabric handle.
x2-x1

Fabric Assistance
"Fabric strength per thread/ Single yarn strength >1
"This increase in strength is due to :
"yarn-to-yarn friction,yarn diameter and
extent of flattening of yarns,
influence the extent of gripping of yarns at cross-over
points
Other factors are weave design, thread
spacing,crimp
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Tensile Properties of Fabric : Issues

Tensile properties of woven fabric involves various problems &
complexities. Because
- Cloth has a modulus which varies considerably with strain
- The variation in initial modulus is very large

-The modulus in warp & weft direction differ, because cloth is not
symmetrical as a rule.

Any extension which takes place at an angle to the warp or weft is

mechanism of
usually of a higher order & also it involves different
deformation.

Approach to study tensile behavior of woven fabric

" The deduction of fabric behaviour can be made by considering the
geometrical changes during extension.

" It is possible to deduce the tensile properties of woven fabrics from

the properties of the constituent yarn and fibre structure.

ear
Tension

Teion

3
 Load-elongation behaviour of woven fabric
The curve consists of
Yam extension
rogon
three distinct
regions; initial OA dominated by
frictional restraint followed by, AB
decrimping region and finally, BC
leading to yarn
Inter-ber
hiction etect
Decimplng roglo B extension.
The initial high
mainly due to themodulus of fabric is
to bending of the frictional resistance
Extenelon

thread which
includes inter-fiber friction.
7

Load-elongation
Once the
behaviour of woven fabric
frictional
restraint is
overcome,
because themodulus decreases gradually
force needed to unbend the
thread in the direction of force Yarn axtension
regon

decreases.
After decrimping, the force rises sharply
as the fibers are extended;
the final region the therefore in Decrimping regiog

property of fabric isload-extension

Inter-nber
triction efect

by the load-elongationentirely governed

yarn. properties of the
Extenslon

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Role of bending rigidity in

- The
tensile properties
resistance to
dependent on the extension
in
the carliest region is
rigidity of yarns themsclves. completely
-Therefore, it has been
proved that initial load
fabric can be predicted from the bending elongation behavior of
yarns. rigidity of constituent
-Initial Young's modulus is here
important while determining a cloth
behavior for converting from fabric to garment

Basic Approach of Tensile Deformation

To understand the behaviour of cloth
during extension, it is necessary to
know the geometrical changes during
such extension. + Wet

It is obvious fromn the figure that on A2

D

tensile loading, one can expect the

change in fabric parametersp and h. Wap

When p and h will change, you can

see the change in c and 1.

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 equations used to predict Tensile properties
Basic
basic eq"s that can be used to predict
- The
Tensile properties are:

l=p(1+c)
4
h=pc
incompressible, as
-Taking the same assumption yarn is inextensible &
extension &compression of yarn is negligible.
-By using, above equations (after differentiation), modulus of several
possible variations in loading of cloth can be estimated.
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Case of a biaxial loading under Large forces

Let us consider a piece of fabric
per the ad
" F, is force per thread in warp direction
" F, is force per thread in weft direction
" n, is the number of warp yarn in fabric
" n, is the no, of weft yarn in fabric
" P, is warp spacing
" p, is weft spacing

" Fabricwidth is n,p, and the fabric length is n, P.

"Now, the forces acting in the warp and weft direction are n, Fand
n, F; respectively
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 During deformation, suppose
Pi-->Prtdp,
P: P,tdp,

In this system, total internal energy will be the work done by the two
forces.
So, the internal energy=work done by F, and F;

for smalldeformations, the extension in the warp direction =n,dp,

and in the weft direction is = n,dp,

When F, &F, are sufficiently large the internal energy can be ignored

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Thus (n,F, (n,dp,) +(n,F)(n, dp) =0

i.e F dp, +F,dp, =0
> dp,/dp, =F/F, -- Equation 1
&
Assuming that the yarn is inextensible (dl = 0)
incompressible ( dh=0),
(a) Then we have, [since, l, -P> (Itc,)}
0= dp, (1te) +p,dc,
’ de, =-(1tc,) dp,/ P2
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 17|02)

and
similarly for the weft yarn we get by interchanging suffix Iwith 2
vice-versa, We willhave,

dc, = -(1te,) dp/p,

4
4
(b) Also since h,+ h, =Dwe get, h, =,P:vci
P,Net p,vc, =3D/4
After differentiation:

> dp.Ve, +(1/(2Nc, )Jdc,:p;t dp.ve, t(/(2Nc,))de,.P,=0

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substituting for dc, and dc, from above, we get

1+a 1+c =0
2/e 2/e
2c-1-c
2/c +dp 2c;-1-ca
2/cz
=0

dp: + ap,2 1=0

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dp I-CL
1-c1
1-c2 VC1 Equation ---2
This equation
of the fabric andshows an increase in the thread
due to change in gives decrease in spacing
thread spacing inin the
in one direction
crimp. the cross-direction
This
equation is analogous to the crimp
equation discussed earlier interchange
The ratio lateral contraction to
Poisson's ratio for extension inlongitudinal extension, dpldp, is called
the warp direction of fabric
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From Egn 1 and Eqn 2,

FLl-c1 C2 Equation ----3

F2 1- c2 V C1
The values of c, c, in relation to 1being small, (1 - G/(1-c) can
be taken as 1.(simplification by approximation)
F L
F

"Using eqn. 1:
dp l- c1 C2
Therefore, C2
dp 2 1-c2 VC1 C

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 17/02/202,

This can be used in conjunction with equation of crimp interchange to

find dimension of defomed fabric

,ve,/(1te,) +1,Ve,/(l+c) =const., - (D)

(D) is a straight lineon 0a(se
(Ve;V(1+e,),(Ne,V(l+e))axes.
(C) is a straight line on
(C;,c) axes, when Fl/F2 gives

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Change in crimp height with change in pick spacing

In foregoing analysis yarn extension, yarn compression and the
change in the internal energy are neglected. The applied forces will
cause change in the thread spacing due to change in crimp. The
change in crimp height with change in pick spacing. (dhldp) can be
obtained from crimp amplitude equation :
4
h,PVei
3

dh,
3 2ye
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substituting value of de, (de, -{Ite) dp/p,)

we get : 4 (1
P,do, + e)|
dhË =
3 P,2yci
dh 4 (1 + c)
Ve 2Je
dp

dh 2 (ci - 1)
dp 2

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Tensile moduus offabric

cloth can be defined as the change in the
The modulus of a fractional increase in length
force per unit width per
(stress/strain).
dF1 ap P dF1
warp modulus
Pi/ P2 P, dp,
Equation

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Case 1: When stresses are sufficiently large

"When stresses are sufficiently large, the intermalenergy changes in the
cloth can beneglected and this particular case of extension
accompanied by negligible internal encrgy changes is the most
commonly used one for fabrics, as it is applicable over a range of the
Load-Extension curve which is of practical interest and also becauseof
it iscasily analysed.
" We have discussed earlier that n l & n2 are no of yarns in wp & wt way
and fl & 2 are the loads, where Fl = fl/nl , F2 = 12/n2, and the
changes in internal cnergy is negligible, then
fln2 dp =-2nldp2
And the extension in wp dirn n2dpl
& the cxtension in wt dirn is =nldp2
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When stresses are sufficiently large

When stresses are sufficiently large, the internal energy changes in the
cloth can be neglected. we have also scen, at cquation 3 earlier

FL 1-C1 |C2 tan 0 2

F2 tan 1
L

=> F,tan, = F tand, ...n 5

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 17/

When stresses are

F L
sufficiently large
F 2 2
CI

>F,\e, =F,lc, ... Eqn 6

>FNc

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From this relationship, the fabric modulus for increase in F, when F, is

constant can be obtained for small change in the extension. Hence,
differentiating the above cquation, we get:
1 1
dF, Von + - dei Fi F2 de: +dF, Vc,
2Ve 2dc 1
1
dc 2- Fi dc 1
(dF ) F2 constant 2Jc1
1 1
F:vc dc i using 6
2ci
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 17/02/2023

1 1

2Vezver de vez de,

= F2 2 3/2
2ci
The modulus of fabric, as per definition is given by,
dF 1 dp 2 dF 1 P2 change in the force per
unit width per fractional
P1 P2 dp 2; P1 increase in length.
substituting the value of dF, from above, we have,
1
fabric modulus for warp =P2
P
|F: (2vo:va do,

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substituting for dc and dc,, weget

fabric modulus = - F2
2p,c1 (+c)| +(l +c) Pia=A
C1
(say)

It has been found that at comparative low loads there is a

rough agreement between experimental and calculated
modulus. The actual modulus (experimental) is greater than
the calculated modulus. This is due to the
neglect of internal
bending energy changes.
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 17/02/2023

Case-II:Yarn is extensible but bending energy is negligible

"In this case modulus is
calculated by
energy is negligible, but elongation ofassuming that the bending
yarns takes place.
" If the yarns are extended during the extension of the
cloth, by
assuming that its behaviour is linear, we get

dl, = K. dF ()

" where k is the spring constant and is the elastic modulus of the yarn.
" Itwill now be assumed that no crimp interchange can take place due
to the assumption that bending energy is negligible,
" Therefore,
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since, I,-P (1+te|)

> dl, = dp,(1+ c) +P,dc
since c is a constant ( no crimp interchange), dc, =0

dl,= dp, (1+ c) (iü)

from equation (i) and (i) we get.

KdF,- (1+c) dp,

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 17/02/2023

so, dF =
(1+ c) dp;
K
the modulus of cloth
P dF P.lte -B (say)
K
P.dp, P,

If the cloth is also extended by crimp interchange, the cloth behaves as

and 1/B.
if there wvere two springs in series with spring constant 1/A
Hence the modulus of the cloth as a whole is given by AB/(A+B).

It is necessary to make an allowance for yarn compression to improve

the agreement. The correction is very small and it makes the
mathematics more complex.
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Question No. 1
Apiece of plain square jammed fabric (10 cm x 20 cm) is cut and tested on
tensile testr. Find the breaking elongation of fabric when the machine showed
breaking strength of 50CN. The count of yarn is 20 tex.
Ans.
" Count of yarn =20 tex = 29.525 Ne
" Dia of yarn 28 1VNe 28 V29.525 = 0.0065 inches.
" Dia of yarn in cm =0,0167 cm
" D= d + d= 0,0334 cm
" Since fabric is plain square jammed, Therefore,
"p=Dsin)
p0.0334* sin60*
p=0.0289 cm
10
" No. of warp threads 0.0289
" No. of warp threads 346

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 023

"Force per
thread in warp direction 50
" No. of
weft 346 -0.1445 cN
threads = 0.0289
20
= 692.04

" Force
per thread in weft
dp1 F1 direction = 692.04 -0.0722 CN
50

dp2 F2
0.01 0.1445
dp2 0.0722
dp2 = 0.005 cmn
" The breaking
extension of fabric = 692.04 x 0.005 = 3.46 cm

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Question No. 2:
What will be the change in criìmp height on change of pick spacing when a
force of 100cN is applied on fabric having EPcm and PPcm = 60 x60.
Fabric poisson's ratiois 1. The change in weft spacing on application of
force is 0.01 cm. Warp way modular length is 0.0448 cm.
Ans.
" EPcm= 60 and PPcm =60
" P1 = P2 =0.0167 cm

" Force per thread in warp and weft direction= 60

100
=0.6 CN
"Since poisson's ratio is 1
F1 VC2
" Therefore, F2 = VWc1-=1
" VC2 = VC1 => C2 = C1

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"c=-1
0.0448
"C= -1
0.0167
"c= 1.6

" Change in crimp height

"dhl = dp2(
"dhl = 0.01()x
" dh1= 0.0032 cm

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