APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL.

1255

Hydrography, Circulation, and Mixing at the Calypso Deep (the Deepest

Mediterranean Trough) during 2006–09

H. KONTOYIANNIS, V. LYKOUSIS, V. PAPADOPOULOS, AND S. STAVRAKAKIS

Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Center for Marine Research, Anavyssos, Greece

E. G. ANASSONTZIS
Physics Department, University of Athens, Athens, Greece

A. BELIAS* AND S. KOUTSOUKOS*

NESTOR Institute for Deep Sea Technology and Neutrino Astroparticle Physics,
National Observatory of Athens, Pylos, Greece

L. K. RESVANIS
Physics Department, University of Athens, and NESTOR Institute for Deep Sea Technology and
Neutrino Astroparticle Physics, National Observatory of Athens, Pylos, Greece

(Manuscript received 12 October 2015, in final form 15 January 2016)

ABSTRACT

The mass and flow fields from June 2006 to May 2009 in the Calypso Deep (bottom depth ;5.2 km) are
investigated using eddy-resolving surface-to-bottom hydrography (station grid spacing ;0.28) and two tall
moorings yielding current-meter records at depths from 700 m to near bottom. A salty warm lens (excess core
salinity and temperature are ;0.01 and 0.0258C relative to the surrounding water) of Cretan Deep Water
with a core at ;3000 m and a horizontal (vertical) scale of ;50 km (1.5 km) is identified in June 2006 to be
locked over the trough. The lens coincides with local maxima in dissolved oxygen. In October 2006 the salinity
content of the lens and of all deeper layers is increased; the oxygen maxima are shifted to the bottom layers,
indicating an episodic intrusion of higher-density ventilated Adriatic water. The circulation changes from
anticyclonic at all depths in June 2006 to cyclonic below ;2.5 km in October 2006, whereas after January 2007
it is cyclonic at all instrumented depths. The measured currents are weak (mean speeds , 5 cm s21) and
persistent in direction, being mostly along the bottom topography at all current-meter depths. After October
2006, the lens erodes due to salt/heat loss caused predominantly by lateral (intrusive) mixing, which works
from the outside toward the lens center. The horizontal diffusivity is on the order of ;10 m2 s21, near the
center of the lens, and ;102 to 103 m2 s21, at its periphery, with an average error ;15 times the diffusivity
value. In the deepest part of the trough and in periods of predominance of vertical mixing the vertical dif-
fusivity at 4400 m is ;(4 6 3) 3 1023 m2 s21.

1. Introduction
* Current affiliation: Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics,
NCSR ‘Demokritos’, Athens, Greece.
The existing knowledge about the deep eastern
Mediterranean relies basically on coarse sampling over
long transects that concern only the mass field in studies
Corresponding author address: Harilaos Kontoyiannis, Hellenic dealing with the deep thermohaline circulation
Center for Marine Research, Institute of Oceanography,
46.7th km of ATHENS-SOUNIO Av., Anavissos/Attica, 190-13, (Roether at al. 1996; Malanotte-Rizzoli et al. 1997; Klein
Greece. et al. 1999). Information on deep circulation structures,
E-mail: [email protected] such as can be derived by smaller-scale eddy-resolving

DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-15-0198.1

Ó 2016 American Meteorological Society

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1256 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

FIG. 1. (a) A part of the eastern Mediterranean including the southern Ionian Sea, with the
tentative neutrino telescope areas, NESTOR and NEMO, and the Cretan Straits (i.e., the
narrow sea passages to the northwest and northeast of Crete). Our study area is within
the rectangle. Colored lines are bathymetric contours as indicated in the lower part. (b) A
focused view of the study area with positions of hydrographic/CTD (conductivity, temperature,
depth) stations and current-meter moorings. The thick black line indicates a repeated hydro-
graphic section during the various surveys in the study area. Bathymetric contours are in
meters. The 4400-m isobath is the dashed red line and the 5000-m isobath is shown in black
around station NESTOR 5.2.

hydrography or even more by direct current observations, processes. Most of the existing direct current observa-
is scarce if not unavailable at all. The overall absence of tions are from surface drifters (Gerin et al. 2009; Menna
current measurements in the eastern Mediterranean is et al. 2012) or current-meter moorings deployed in areas
also vital with respect to the assessment of the mixing of sea straits (Astraldi et al. 1999; Kontoyiannis et al.

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1257

FIG. 2. (a) Profiles of potential temperature (curve 1), salinity (curve 2), percent light transmission for red light
(curve 3), normalized dissolved oxygen, i.e., in situ dissolved oxygen divided by the profile minimum value, (curve
4), and potential density s0 (curve 5) at station NESTOR 5.2 in May 2007. Deep water masses are indicated on the
salinity profile. (b) Profiles of potential temperature, salinity, and potential density south of the east Cretan Straits
(34.388N, 26.08E) in April 2008. (c) The u/S diagrams for the deep part of the temperature and salinity profiles at site
NESTOR 5.2 in May 2008 (curve 1) and of the profiles south of the Cretan Straits in (b) (curve 2).

1999). Deep current-meter measurements have been The present work investigates the deep mass field
obtained off the coast of Libya at depths of 2000 m (www. and flow conditions in the deepest area of the Medi-
ifremer.fr/lobtln/EGYPT) and offshore from southeast terranean Sea, the so-called Calypso Deep or Vavylov
Italy in the early 2000s at depths near 3000 m (Rubino Deep, which is a circle-shaped bottom trough with
et al. 2012). a diameter near 50 km and depths greater than

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FIG. 3. (a) Cross-sectional distributions of deep (800–5200 m) salinity, density s3, and normalized dissolved
oxygen (see text) on the transect shown in Fig. 1, along with the salinity profiles at the stations of the salinity cross
sections in the upper panels for June 2006, October 2006, and May 2007. (b) As in (a), but for April 2008 and May
2009 without the dissolved oxygen cross sections and the salinity profiles at the stations of the cross section.

4 km to the southwest of the Peloponnesus at the south- depth of 5267 m in the northwest where the bottom slope
ern part of the Hellenic mainland (Figs. 1a,b). The Ca- increases to values around 2.0 3 1021. The interest in this
lypso Deep has a moderate bottom slope (2.6 3 1022) for area is also associated with plans for installing therein a
most of its extent, while it reaches a maximum bottom deep-sea neutrino telescope system called NESTOR

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1259

structures at depths greater than 2 km, because the

coarse hydrographic sampling employed along specific
transects at those depths is not suitable for the creation
of dynamic height maps.
The present work fills this knowledge gap for our
study area which is of limited extent compared to the
POEM surveys. Nevertheless, the employed dataset
consists of half-yearly surface-to-bottom CTD (conduc-
tivity, temperature, and depth) casts in the period
2006–09 and current measurements derived from de-
ployments of tall current-meter moorings during the
same period. It therefore reveals previously unknown
information on the flow dynamic structures and vari-
ability throughout the entire water column, the role of the
bottom topography on the local flows, and the mixing
processes in the deep layers.

2. Field work and data

From February 2006 through May 2009, eight research
cruises were conducted by the Hellenic Centre for Ma-
rine Research (HCMR) on board the R/V Aegaeo in the
FIG. 3. (Continued) NESTOR area located to the southwest of Peloponnesos
(Fig. 1b). In these cruises, hydrographic CTD work was
(http://www.inp.demokritos.gr/nestor/). The contribution carried out at several sites shown in the station grid of
of physical oceanography to the neutrino telescope site Fig. 1b. The entire grid was not sampled in all of the
characterization (i.e., to the investigation of the appro- cruises. The CTD section in Fig. 1b was conducted on five
priateness of a site and the area around it for the neutrino (June 2006, October 2006, May 2007, April 2008, May
telescope operation) has been to provide the description 2009) out of the total eight cruises, whereas stations south
and insights on the deep physical water characteristics of the CTD transect were visited in four cruises and
and flow conditions along with their variability. therefore deep dynamic height maps over the Calypso
The wider oceanic area to the southwest of the Pelo- Trough, as depicted by the 4000-km isobath, can be
ponnesus was surveyed several times in the period from constructed only for those four cruises (June 2006,
the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s during the Physical October 2006, April 2008, May 2009).
Oceanography of the Eastern Mediterranean (POEM) A Sea-Bird SBE-9-plus unit was used for the CTD casts
program, which has conducted most of the large-scale and the salinity readings were checked by employing
hydrographic surveys in the eastern Mediterranean corresponding salinity measurements on water samples
(Robinson et al. 1991, 1992). The POEM surveys sam- with the use of a Guildline 8400B Autosal salinometer.
pled the upper ;2 km of the water column on a dense The salinity corrections, when applied, agreed to the re-
grid of hydrographic stations. A basic outcome was the sults on conductivity-sensor drift that was determined
detailed large-scale picture of the circulation structures when the sensors were sent back to Sea-Bird for post-
that drive the upper 2-km flows in the different regions cruise calibration. The final maximal estimated un-
of the eastern Mediterranean. This circulation picture certainties for temperature and salinity are 60.0028C and
was based on dynamic height maps. According to the 60.003, resulting in a 60.0025 kg m23 uncertainty for the
POEM results the NESTOR area is near the north pe- density. Measurements of dissolved oxygen with the CTD
riphery of the so-called Pelops anticyclone (Malanotte- unit were also obtained on the cruises of June 2006, Oc-
Rizzoli et al. 1997; Theocharis and Kontoyiannis 1999). tober 2006, and May 2007, for which no cross-checking
This dynamic structure of clockwise flow is not a per- was done via laboratory oxygen determinations while the
manent one and appears mostly in the subthermocline profile oxygen values varied from cruise to cruise, possi-
layers (i.e., below ;250 m), with a signature that is bly due to sensor drift. Therefore, the oxygen data in
particularly strong at depths around 0.5–1 km (Robinson each CTD cast are used to provide only the vertical
et al. 1991). The POEM project, however, did not pro- structure in the oxygen profiles and not the actual oxy-
vide any information on measurement-based circulation gen concentrations. This is accomplished by employing

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normalized oxygen values (i.e., oxygen content relative at ;3000 m. The water masses of these local maxima in
to a minimum recorded oxygen defined for each cruise), salinity and temperature originate most likely in the
and we report only on the spatial structure of the relative Cretan Sea. Similar double maxima in CTD profiles have
oxygen distributions. been observed in the late 1990s in the area of the east
In addition to the typical temperature, salinity, and dis- Cretan Straits, where the east outflow channel with sill
solved oxygen measurements, the CTD profiles included depth near ;1000 m provides the deeper salinity core and
measurements of water transparency expressed as the west outflow channel with sill near ;800 m provides
percent light transmission. This refers to the percent the upper salinity core (Kontoyiannis et al. 2005; Roether
red-light intensity detected at a distance s of 25 cm et al. 2007). Additional evidence with respect to the origin
relative to the intensity emitted from a light source at of the salinity maxima at ;1800 m and at ;3000 m is also
s 5 0. The light transmission measurements show the observed during 2008 in Figs. 2b and 2c, where we
relative spatial changes of the water transparency present a comparison between a CTD cast south of the
during a specific cruise. Measurements of absolute values east Cretan Straits (34.388N, 26.08E) in May 2008 and the
of light transmission at various depths in the same area one at site NESTOR 5.2 in the same month. The CTD
are reported for several wavelengths in the work by profiles south of the east Cretan Straits (Fig. 2b) are again
Anassontzis et al. (2010). characterized by two local maxima in temperature and
Apart from the hydrographic work, long-term (3.5 yr) salinity. The deep part of the potential temperature/
deployments of tall moorings, equipped with RCM8, salinity (u/S) curve south of the east Cretan Straits
RCM9, and RCM11 Aanderaa current meters, occurred (curve 2) is very similar in shape to the corresponding
at stations NESTOR 4.5 and NESTOR 5.2 with bottom curve at NESTOR 5.2 (curve 1). Despite the fact that the
depths 4.5 and 5.2 km respectively (Fig. 1b). Site NESTOR CDW undergoes along-isopycnal mixing on its spreading
4.5 is located at a relatively flat bottom area to the east to the west by entraining ambient waters, it preserves
of the deepest part of the trough, which is depicted by a strong Cretan Sea component in its u/S characteristics.
the 4400-m depth contour (Fig. 1b). The tall mooring In the depth range below the lower limit of the CDW,
deployments started in June 2006 and were continued which is at ;3600 m (Fig. 2a), there is a lower-salinity,
until May 2009 at NESTOR 5.2 and September 2009 at lower-transparency water of Adriatic origin that fills the
NESTOR 4.5. The current-meter depths ranged from near-bottom layers of the eastern Mediterranean again
700 m down to 200 m off the bottom and were selected after the early 2000s. The oxygen minimum at ;800 m
in combination with criteria relevant to sediment-flux corresponds to the core of a water body that is affected
measurements, since the current meters had to ac- the least by dissolved oxygen input. It contains a wide
company sediment traps. mixture of quantities, which may still include old bottom
water of Adriatic origin before the early 1990s.
Figure 3a shows for June 2006, October 2006, and May
3. Water masses
2007 the deep structure in salinity, potential density
Prior to the early 1990s, the bottom layers of the east referenced to 3000 dbar s3, and normalized oxygen
Mediterranean were occupied by water masses of Adri- content on the section indicated by the thick black line
atic origin whereas the Cretan water was outflowing into in Fig. 1b. The normalized oxygen content is defined as
the eastern Mediterranean at intermediate depths the in situ oxygen content measured by the CTD divided
(Malanotte-Rizzoli et al. 1999). In the period from the by the average of the oxygen minima of the stations in
late 1980s to the mid-1990s, the Cretan water was trans- the section. A lens-like water blob with a strong Cretan
formed to become dense enough and it massively sank to component, associated with the salinity maximum near
the bottom of the east Mediterranean as Cretan Deep ;3000 m, extends between 2500 and 3500 m. This water
Water (CDW) (Roether et al. 1996; Theocharis et al. blob exhibits variability in salt content and size. From
1999). By the late 1990s the density and the volume of the June 2006 to October 2006 there is an increase in its salt
CDW decreased so that it could not reach the eastern content and size, depicted by the dashed salinity contour
Mediterranean bottom anymore (Theocharis et al. 2002). of 38.76. From October 2006 to May 2007 the size and
Water masses of Adriatic origin reoccupied the bottom the salinity values of the blob are decreased. The core is
layers again after the early 2000s (Manca et al. 2006; confined to site NESTOR 5.2. The bottom panels of
Hainbucher et al. 2006). Fig. 3a show the deep salinity profiles of the stations in
Figure 2a shows profiles of various hydrographic the cross-transect; a comparison of their values with the
properties at site NESTOR 5.2 in May 2007. Focusing on salinity values of the contour plots confirms the accuracy
the deep signatures, two local maxima in salinity and of the contouring routine and the reality of the deep
temperature are observed, one at ;1800 m and the other salinity blob.

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1261

FIG. 4. (left) Objectively mapped horizontal fields of vertically averaged salinities in the
depth range of 2400–3600 m, along with (right) the corresponding objective mapping errors for
the cruises of June 2006, October 2006, May 2007, and April 2008. Dots indicate the stations of
the salinity input data, crosses indicate the outer limits of the rectangular domain of objective
mapping, and the dashed line is the 4000-m isobath (Fig. 1b).

A corresponding variability exists in the density and of anticyclonic motion. In October 2006 an increase
oxygen distributions. In June 2006 the oxygen maxima appears in the normalized oxygen values. The oxygen
are at the depth range of the deep Cretan blob and the maxima are shifted to the bottom layers indicating an
oxygen concentrations are decreasing toward the bot- intrusion of water masses with higher oxygen into the
tom in the layers occupied by the waters of Adriatic study area at these layers. The near-bottom densities
origin. The density distribution in June 2006 is indicative increase in October 2006 and their structure is indicative

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1262 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

FIG. 5. (left) 40-h low passed current stick time series at the depths of (top to bottom) 1200, 2900, 4000, and
4800 m at site NESTOR 5.2, along with (right) histograms of flow direction. Gross statistics (mean magnitude
jVjmean and maximum magnitude jVjmax) on the original unfiltered data points are shown within each panel.

of cyclonic motion. In May 2007 the normalized oxygen include the effects of both the salinity measurement
maxima shift toward the depth range of the Cretan blob. uncertainty and the mapping uncertainty. The depth-
The decay of the higher salinity blob is continued toward averaged view of this deep saline lens exhibits variability
April 2008 and May 2009 (Fig. 3b). In May 2009 the deep with qualitative characteristics similar to the ones shown
salinity peak is preserved only at NESTOR 5.2 while a in its sectional view of Figs. 3a and 3b.
homogenized layer in salinity extending between 2.5 and Qualitative similar results are derived for the profile-
3.5 km appears at NESTOR 4.5. In April 2008 the hori- temperature maxima at ;3000 m from the correspond-
zontal density gradients below 3 km have relaxed. At these ing plots of the depth-averaged temperatures, which are
depths, however, substantial density gradients reappear not shown. The salinity and temperature anomalies in
in May 2009 indicating anticyclonic motion. The current- the core of the deep lens with respect to the surrounding
meter data will elucidate the deep flow during May 2009. water are ;0.01 and ;0.0258C, respectively.
The deep salinity maxima in the depth range 2400–
3600 m with a peak near ;3000 m are due to an isolated
4. Currents and flow field
saline lens that is locked over the bottom topography (i.e.,
the 4000-m isobaths). This is shown in the objective maps Figures 5 and 6 show the 40-h low-passed current stick
of the averaged salinities over the particular depth range at time series at sites NESTOR 5.2 and NESTOR 4.5, re-
each station (Fig. 4). Our objective analysis scheme uses spectively. Some gross statistics on the original nonfiltered
the approach presented by Bretherton et al. (1976) and currents are also shown within the figures for convenience.
adapted by Watts et al. (2001). We use a correlation The flow speeds at both sites are weak, near 2–3 cm s21 in
function of the form R 5 (1 2 r2/a2) exp(20.5r2/b2), average, while the maxima never exceeded ;18 cm s21,
where a 5 20 km and b 5 40 km, according to estimates a value that was observed at the depth of 1200 m at site
of these quantities that appear in Nittis et al. (1993). The NESTOR 4.5. Site NESTOR 5.2 is characterized by even
error fields, shown in the right panels of Fig. 4, are ex- weaker speeds at all levels with maxima of 10 cm s21 at
pressed as percent of the input signal variance and 1200 m and 7 cm s21 at 4000 and 4800 m.

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1263

FIG. 6. As in Fig. 5, but for the current measurements at site NESTOR 4.5 at the depths (top to bottom) 700, 1200,
2000, 3200, and 4350 m.

The progressive vector diagrams in Figs. 7 and 8 are western Ionian Sea near Sicily (Rubino et al. 2012). At
used to indicate the flow direction during periods with deeper levels, the high-frequency motions are dominated
data coverage and therefore they are plotted as continu- by semidiurnal tides relative to near-inertial motions.
ous lines despite some existing data gaps. They show that However, the in-depth analysis and presentation of the
for most of the deployment period in 2007, 2008, and 2009 information existing in the present current-meter dataset
the flow at all levels of site NESTOR 4.5 (i.e., from 700 m is beyond the objectives of this work.
down to 4300 m) is to the north-northwest approximately Figure 9 shows dynamic-height maps at 500 m with
parallel to the 4000-m isobath, whereas at site NESTOR levels of no motion at 2500 m during June 2006 and
5.2 the flow is to the south at 1200 m and south-southeast October 2006 and at 2500 m with level of no motion at
at 2900, 4000, and 4800 m (i.e., approximately along the 3850 m during June 2006, October 2006, April 2008,
5000-m isobath) (Fig. 1b). The persistence of flow to a and May 2009. Dynamic-height maps at 500 m with a
direction nearly parallel to the bottom contours through- reference at 2500 m were not constructed for April 2008
out most of the water column at both sites is indicative of and May 2009 due to the lack of adequate horizontal
topographic steering; the observed flow directions at the coverage of the CTD stations, as in June 2006 and Oc-
two sites suggest that a tall cyclone locked on the bottom tober 2006, which is necessary to capture the larger lateral
topography is dominant after the beginning of 2007. A extent of the dynamic structures in the 500–2500-m range
differentiation in the cyclonic flow pattern exists in June in comparison to the deeper structures (2500–3850-m
2006, when the flow at 4300 and 3200 m at NESTOR 4.5 is depth range) that are locked over the deep narrow part of
to the west, suggesting an anticyclonic pattern over the the trough. The dynamic-height representations are in-
deep part of the trough. Further relevant information will dicative of the flow at the specific depth relative to an
be added by use of the dynamic height maps. observer moving with the flow speed at the level of no
The currents recorded in the study area exhibit vari- motion. In June 2006 an anticyclonic circulation ap-
ability at all scales from tidal to near-inertial to mesoscale pears in the depth range 500–2500 m, suggesting that
(synoptic). It is of interest to mention that a preliminary the study area is within the northeast periphery of the
analysis shows that near-inertial flow variability extends Pelops anticyclone (Fig. 9a). The anticyclonic motion
at least as deep as ;3 km, which was also observed in the in June 2006 extends deeper in the depth range of

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1264 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

FIG. 7. Progressive vector diagrams (PVDs) and time coverage of the current time series in
Fig. 5. Orange, burgundy, cyan, and purple indicate available data within 2006, 2007, 2008, and
2009, respectively. Data gaps within a certain year are shown by double arrow on the PVD lines.

2500–3850 m (Fig. 9c). In October 2006 and the depth and near-bottom flow, as observed in the near-bottom cur-
range 500–2500 m, a local cyclonic structure that does rent records, remains cyclonic (Figs. 7 and 8). The apparent
not form a closed loop exists to the east of site anticyclonic motion in the dynamic height map of Fig. 9f is
NESTOR 5.2 (Fig. 9b). This appears to be linked with due to the flow intensification that occurs in the near-bottom
the cyclonic eddy that (a) is dominant in the deeper layers layers relative to the layer above and this is shown in the
(2500–3850 m), (b) is steep in dynamic-height topography current-meter records. The current time series at 4350 m at
(Fig. 9d), and (c) is apparently developed by the intrusion NESTOR 4.5 show that for the entire period from February
of the higher-density water mass (Fig. 3). In late October 2009 to September 2009 the flow is mostly to the northwest,
2006 the flow at NESTOR 5.2 at 1200 m is to the south typical of the actual deep cyclone (Fig. 6), but it is charac-
(Figs. 5 and 7), whereas at NESTOR 4.5, at 700, 1200, and terized by higher speeds relative to the flow at 2000 m.
2000 m the flow varies from northeast to southeast
(Fig. 6), which is in agreement with the corresponding 5. Considerations on mixing; approximate heat/salt
dynamic-height structure in Fig. 9b. fluxes
In April 2008 the dynamic-height map at 2500 m relative
a. The deep lens
to 3850 m (Fig. 9e) still indicates a cyclonic motion but with a
less steep dynamic topography in comparison to the corre- A first overview of the mixing processes is obtained by
sponding structure of October 2006. In May 2009 the flow at examining the thermohaline evolution at NESTOR 5.2
2500 m relative to the flow at 3850 m indicates an anticy- and NESTOR 4.5 on u/S diagrams for the period 2006–09
clone (Fig. 9f). In the same period, however, the actual deep (Fig. 10). The two broad thermohaline inversions on each

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1265

FIG. 8. As in Fig. 7, but for the current time series of Fig. 6.

u/S curve are associated with the salinity and temperature 2009 at stations 1, 4, NESTOR 5.2, and NESTOR 4.5
maxima observed at ;1800 and ;3000 m, discussed in (Fig. 1b). Stations 1 and 4 are at the periphery of the deep
section 3. Considering the temporal u/S changes at warm-saline lens, whereas NESTOR 5.2 and NESTOR
;3000 m with respect to the orientation of the isopycnals, 4.5 are close to the lens core, with the exception of
it is evident that a strong contribution of cross-isopycnal NESTOR 4.5, which is away from the core in April
mixing exists in the changes from June 2006 to October 2008 and May 2009, since the lens was diminished
2006 (Fig. 10, upper panels), whereas along-isopycnal u/S (Figs. 3 and 4). With the aid of the temperature data
changes and predominance of lateral mixing occur after in Fig. 11, we further investigate the evidence of hori-
October 2006 in the layers of the deep warm-saline lens zontal mixing below 1000 m, which appears in the fine-
(Fig. 10, lower panels). structure anomalies in the temperature profiles.
Figure 11 shows the shape (i.e., the relative changes) According to Georgi and Schmitt (1983), this fine struc-
in the temperature profiles from June 2006 through May ture (i.e., the local temperature/salinity profile peaks

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1266 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

FIG. 9. Objectively mapped dynamic-height anomaly fields at 500 m with level of reference at
2500 m, during (a) June and (b) October 2006, and at 2500 m with level of reference at 3850 m
during (c) June and (d) October 2006, (e) April 2008, and (f) May 2009. Black bullets indicate
positions of CTD stations; H and L indicate areas of higher and lower dynamic height values
respectively. Dynamic-height contour labels are in dynamic meters, while the contour interval is
in the inset label in each panel in dynamic millimeters. Dashed contour is the 4000-m isobath.

with a vertical scale of a few tens of meters) is in- In addition to the lateral intrusive peaks, temperature
dicative of horizontal mixing by lateral intrusive mo- steps appear under the deep lens at NESTOR 5.2 in Oc-
tions in cases such as ours where strong horizontal tober 2006 and at NESTOR 4.5 in June and October 2006,
temperature/salinity gradients exist. The lateral tem- suggesting evidence of vertical mixing through salt fingers.
perature intrusions in our profiles have an approximate The deep Rr ratio [Rr 5 (a›T/›z)/(b›S/›z), where a and
maximum magnitude of 0.018C and weaken from 2006 b are the thermal expansion and haline contraction co-
to 2009. They are minimal in the central core of the efficients, respectively] attains values near ;1.2 under the
deep lens as is shown on the profiles of June and Oc- high salinity core in theses profiles, indicating conditions
tober 2006 at NESTOR 5.2. favorable for the onset of salt fingers.

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1267

FIG. 10. (top) u/S diagrams for depths greater than ;800 m at sites NESTOR 5.2 and
NESTOR 4.5 during June 2006 (black) and October 2006 (red). (bottom) As at (top), but for
October 2006 (red), May 2007 (green), April 2008 (cyan), and May 2009 (blue). The isopycnals
s0 5 29.18, s2 5 37.84, and s3 5 41.99 are also shown for reference. Temperature and salinity
measurement uncertainties are shown in the lower right of each panel.

The above qualitative observations on the spatial and usually in periods when sharp lateral thermohaline gradients
temporal characteristics of the lateral intrusions are sub- exist in their vicinity, as in June and October 2006 (Fig. 4).
stantiated when we quantify their standard deviation. This is From the available current-meter data and the
accomplished by fitting on each of the temperature temperature/salinity objective analysis maps at the current-
profiles a smoothed curve with a 250-m running mean and meter levels during the CTD surveys we can obtain esti-
then subtracting from the original data. The results are mates of horizontal eddy diffusivities for heat and salt for
shown in Table 1 for the layers of 1100–2200 m, in which an the periods after October 2006 when there is a lateral
upper broad temperature and salinity maximum appears, advection–diffusion balance in the heat/salt equation due to
and 2200–3600 m, which is the depth range of the warm the predominance of lateral mixing at the depths of the
saline lens (Figs. 11 and 3). We notice that in both layers the saline lens (Fig. 10). These estimates can be attempted for
smaller activity of lateral intrusions is observed at NESTOR the current-meter depth of 2900 m at NESTOR 5.2 in May
5.2 in the center of the lens, whereas the peripheral stations 1 2007 and April 2008 and for the current-meter depth of
and 2 exhibit the strongest activity in lateral intrusions, 3200 m at NESTOR 4.5 in May 2007 (Fig. 12). The

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1268 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

FIG. 11. Structure (relative changes) of the temperature profiles at (top left) station 1, (top
right) station 4, (bottom left) NESTOR 5.2, and (bottom right) NESTOR 4.5 in the various
cruises from June 2006 to May 2009.

horizontal advection–diffusion balance for temperature (1) is substituted by the salinity S. The objective analysis
with local time dependence is expressed as temperature and salinity fields at the current meter depths
are on a 5 km 3 5 km grid (Fig. 12). This grid is sub-
›T/›t 1 u›T/›x 1 y›T/›y ; KHT (›2 T/›x2 1 ›2 T/›y2 ) , sampled along the x and y axes at the locations of the
(1) current meters to get the estimates of the first and second
horizontal derivatives by employing spline fits on the
where u and y are the low-pass filtered east and north subsampled data. The results on the computation of the
velocities respectively, T is temperature, and KHT is the horizontal eddy diffusivities along with their errors are in
horizontal eddy diffusivity (mixing coefficient) for heat. Tables 2 and 3. The details of the error analysis, along
The corresponding expression for salinity and horizontal with tests of sensitivity to the temperature/salinity input
salinity diffusivity KHS appears when the temperature T in values in the objective analysis procedure, are in the

TABLE 1. Standard deviation values of fine-structure temperature anomalies of the profiles shown in Fig. 11. All tabulated values must
be multiplied by 1024 to return the standard deviation in 8C. Mean values in parentheses for station 4 indicate probable bias due to lack of
data in October 2008 and May 2009.

Station 1 (31024)8C NESTOR 5.2 (31024)8C NESTOR 4.5 (31024)8C Station 4 (31024)8C
1100–2100 m
JUN 06 30 25 27 25
OCT 06 28 20 28 18
MAY 07 21 25 14 15
OCT 07 22 15 17 17
APR 08 23 12 11 17
OCT 08 – 15 14 —
MAY 09 15 17 22 —
Mean 23.2 18.4 19 (18.4)
2100–3600 m
JUN 06 17 11 16 24
OCT 06 11 19 21 36
MAY 07 25 16 19 10
OCT 07 7 20 24 13
APR 08 8 13 9 7
OCT 08 – 8 11 —
MAY 09 15 7 9 —
Mean 13.8 13.4 15.6 (18)

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1269

appendixes. The average diffusivity error is approximately

;15 times the diffusivity value. The resulting ranges of or-
der of magnitude for the horizontal diffusivities, when the
information on their errors is utilized, are ;10 to 102 m2 s21
at the center of the lens at site NESTOR 5.2, and ;102 to
104 m2 s21 at the periphery of the lens at site NESTOR 4.5.
If we assume that the shape of the deep lens resem-
bles that of a cylinder with radius r (r 5 ;25 km) and
height h (h 5 ;1400 m) that loses heat and salt due to
horizontal processes, as in May 2007 and April 2008
(Figs. 3 and 10), then for the total salt S and the total heat
H of the lens we have ›S/›t 5 2prhFS and ›H/›t 5
2prhFH, where FS and FH are, respectively, the horizontal
fluxes of salt and heat through the side of the cylinder
(i.e., salt or heat per unit time per unit area). An overall
(vertical and horizontal) mean of salinity and tempera-
ture is produced for the entire volume of the cylinder,
which is then multiplied by the water mass/heat capacity
of the cylinder to return the total salt/heat content of the
cylinder. Figure 13 shows the time evolution of the total
salt and heat content in the lens for the period June 2006–
April 20008, when the lens has approximately the above
dimensions of r 5 ;25 km and h 5 ;1400 m (Figs. 3 and
4). In the period October 2006–May 2007, when lateral
mixing predominates, the horizontal fluxes through the
entire side of the cylinder are ;9.5 3 105 kg s21 for salt
(FS ; 4.3 3 1023 kg s21 m22) and ;6.8 3 109 W for heat
(FH ; 31 W m22). These fluxes decrease by a factor of ;3
for the salt and ;2 for the heat in the period May 2007–
April 2008, that is, to ;3.3 3 105 kg s21 (FS ; 1.5 3
1023 kg s21 m22) and ;3.7 3 109 W (FH ; 17 W m22).
If in June 2006 the lens-averaged and the background
salinities are 38.758 and 38.754, respectively, and in April
2008 they decrease to 38.751 and 38.748 respectively
(Fig. 4); that is, the extra salinity drops from 0.004 to 0.003
in ;23 months, a gross estimate of the e-folding scale te
for the extra salinity reduction is approximately ;7 yr,
according to 0.003/0.004 5 exp(223/te). A similar calcu-
lation for heat results in an e-folding scale of ;2.5 yr.
b. The deepest part of the trough
The volume of water below the 4400-m depth contour,
considered to represent the deepest part of the trough
(Fig. 1b), is ;1.2 3 1011 m3 while the surface area en-
closed by the 4400-m contour is ;3.5 3 108 m2. Both
estimates are based on HCMR swath-bathymetry data.
Because of the bottom geomorphology, which resembles
an oblique conical depression, this particular volume of
water is expected to be influenced by vertical fluxes
FIG. 12. Objective maps of horizontal distributions of tempera-
through the horizontal surface enclosed by the 4400-m
ture (8C) at the depths and periods as indicated in the inset labels in
each panel. Arrows indicate the locations where horizontal diffu- depth contour. The u/S changes at depths 4800 m and
sivities are estimated. Bold dots indicate the stations of the tem- 5100 m are small with respect to the u/S uncertainties
perature input data, crosses indicate the outer limits of the (Fig. 13). In the period June–October 2006 they stand
rectangular domain of objective mapping.

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1270 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

TABLE 2. Estimates of horizontal heat diffusivities (KHT) at sites NESTOR 5.2 and NESTOR 4.5.
21
U (m s ) V (m s21) ›T/›t ›T/›x (8C m21) ›T/›y (8C m21) ›2T/›x2 (8C m22) ›2T/›y2 (8C m22) KHT
(31022) (31022) (8C s ) (310210)
21
(31027) (31027) (310211) (310211) (m2 s21)
NESTOR 5.2, May 2007, Depth: 2900 m
20.5 0.05 24.7 1.74 24.2 29.50 27.69 9 6 25
NESTOR 5.2, April 2008, Depth: 2900 m
0.87 21.9 27.4 5.5 2.7 22.60 27.40 11 6 93
NESTOR 4.5, May 2007, Depth: 3200 m
0.27 1.2 24.7 17 28.7 21.70 23.40 883 6 11480

above the uncertainties, while the combined change on respectively, the mean temperature and the mean
the u/S diagram is nearly perpendicular to the s3 iso- vertical heat diffusivity over the area A enclosed by the
pycnal of 41.99. Apparently it is dominated by vertical 4400-m depth contour; and (›TA/›z)j4400 indicates the
mixing. The u/S changes due to vertical mixing in the respective vertical derivative at 4400 m (Axell 1998;
deepest part of the trough weaken substantially in the Zervakis et al. 2003). The corresponding relationship
period from October 2006 to October 2008; this obser- for salinity and mean vertical salt diffusivity KZSA over
vation is in accord with the weakening of the vertical the area A emerges when the temperature T in (3) is
gradients in salinity and temperature at those depths substituted by the salinity S.
during the same period (Fig. 11) that determine the ver- The existing relationships can be utilized for the sa-
tical exchanges. In the period October 2008–May 2009 linity and temperature changes in the periods June–
the direction of the change is again nearly perpendicular October 2006 and October 2008–May 2009 in order to
to the s3 isopycnals, but only the temperature change determine the vertical diffusivities KZSA and KZTA for
stands above the uncertainty. salt and heat at 4400 m. The volume-mean temperatures
We consider the cross-isopycnal u/S changes in the and salinities, TV and SV, are approximated by the tem-
deepest part of the trough during the periods June– perature and salinity vertical means from 4400 m to the
October 2006 and October 2008–May 2009 (Fig. 13), bottom at station NESTOR 5.2, whereas the horizontal
which are determined predominantly by vertical pro- means TA and SA by the temperature and salinity values
cesses. If we further assume that in these near-bottom at 4400 m at NESTOR 5.2. The above relationships can
layers the mean vertical velocities are negligible, then the be applied if, in the respective periods (Dt) of salinity
dominant balance in the heat/salt equation is between the (DSV) and temperature (DTV) changes, there are no
local temporal change and the vertical diffusion, that is, processes, other than vertical diffusive transfer, that alter
the salinity/temperature of the water above the deepest
›T/›t ; ›/›z[KZT (›T/›z)] , (2) part of the trough. Apparently this did not happen in the
period June–October 2006 when higher-density venti-
where KZT is the vertical eddy diffusivity for heat. In lated water masses entered the study area. In this case,
the deep trough, if we integrate the above balance there was an extra salinity increase in the deepest part of
horizontally and vertically, from 4400 m to the bot- the trough in comparison to the salinity increase driven
tom, we obtain the relation by the vertical salinity gradient at 4400 m in June 2006
and the resulting vertical diffusivity is an overestimate of
›TV /›t ; (A/V)KZTA (›TA /›z)j4400 , (3) equal percentage as the extra salinity increase. For the
same reason the time rate of change (DTV/Dt) has an
where TV is the mean temperature over the entire opposite sign from the vertical gradient of temperature
volume V of the deep trough; TA and KZTA are, (›T/›z) at 4400 m in the aforementioned period. For the

TABLE 3. Estimates of horizontal salt diffusivities (KHS) at sites NESTOR 5.2 and NESTOR 4.5.

U (m s21) V (m s21) ›S/›t (8C s21) ›S/›x (8C m21) ›S/›y (8C m21) ›2S/›x2 (8C m22) ›2S/›y2 (8C m22) KHS
(31022) (31022) (310210) (31027) (31027) (310211) (310211) (m2 s21)
NESTOR 5.2, May 2007, Depth: 2900 m
20.5 0.05 21.5 0.286 20.920 22.50 21.92 8 6 62
NESTOR 5.2, April 2008, Depth: 2900 m
0.87 21.9 22.1 0.320 0.221 20.490 20.751 24 6 612
NESTOR 4.5, May 2007, Depth: 3200 m
0.27 1.2 21.5 26.11 23.21 20.360 21.52 480 6 8160

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1271

evolution at the deep lens. Assuming that these u/S values

and particularly their time changes are representative of
the entire volume of water below 4400 m, a vertical salt
flux for the deepest part of the Calypso Deep in the pe-
riod June–October 2006 is ;6.4 3 104 kg s21 (FS ; 1.8 3
1024 kg s21 m22) and the corresponding heat flux is
;4.1 3 108 W (FH ; 1.2 W m22). The same calculations
for the period October 2008–May 2009 result in a salt flux
of ;2.2 3 104 kg s21 (FS ; 6.3 3 1025 kg s21 m22) and a
heat flux of ;1.3 3 108 W (FH ; 0.4 W m22). The salt and
heat vertical fluxes for the period June–October 2006 are
higher than the corresponding fluxes of the period Oc-
tober 2008–May 2009 by a factor of ;3, evidently due to
the intrusion of the oxygenated, cold, and saline mass in
the bottom layers as shown in Fig. 3. Table 5 summa-
rizes the heat and salt flux calculations for the deep lens
and for the deepest part of the Calypso Trough. Horizontal
fluxes after October 2006 at the deep lens are higher than
FIG. 13. u/S changes at the depths of 4800 m (crosses) and 5100 m the corresponding vertical fluxes in the deepest part of the
(circles) at site NESTOR 5.2 from June 2006 to May 2009, along trough by a factor of ;25–30 on average.
with u/S measurement error bars.

6. Summary and discussion

period June–October 2006 we will not estimate the heat
vertical diffusivity, whereas for the period October 2008– A saline and warm water lens with a 50-km diameter is
May 2009 we will not estimate the salt vertical diffusivity identified between depths of ;2200 and 3600 m. It is
since the salinity change was less than the salinity uncertainty locked over the Calypso Trough and contains, pre-
(Fig. 13). The resulting value (overestimate) of vertical dif- dominantly, higher-oxygen ventilated Cretan water. In
fusivity for salt in June–October 2006 is on the order of October 2006, there is a salinity increase and temperature
;1022 m2 s21, whereas the value for heat diffusivity during decrease in the Cretan lens and in all the layers below it
the period October 2008–May 2009 is on the order of down to the bottom that are occupied predominantly by
;1023 m2 s21 (Table 4). In our data there is no evidence that water of Adriatic origin. Simultaneously, the oxygen
in the period October 2008–May 2009 the water mass above maxima are shifted to the bottom, indicating an episodic
the interface at 4400 m is influenced by processes other than deep-bottom oxygen increase by admixtures of higher-
vertical diffusion as it was during June–October 2006. oxygen Adriatic water that spread into the Calypso Deep;
Therefore the vertical diffusivity of ;1023 m2 s21 is consid- densities below ;3 km increase and a deep bottom-
ered to be a more accurate estimate, despite the fact that the intensified cyclone appears below ;2500 m. After Janu-
estimate of ;1022 m2 s21 is in agreement with results of a ary 2007, this cyclone is also established in the shallower
previous study in the same area, as presented in the section layers, at least up to 700 m. The changes of the local cir-
of summary and discussion. culation from anticyclonic in June 2006 to cyclonic after
A volume consideration similar to the one for the January 2007 appear to be linked with the near-bottom
deep lens can be applied for the salinity and temperature dense water intrusion in October 2006.
changes below ;4400 m. Figure 14 shows the evolution The particular phenomenology of October 2006 gen-
of the mean salinity and temperature at depths below erates questions with respect to a scenario that could
4400 m at NESTOR 5.2. The u/S evolution at the deepest justify these observations. We can present only some ev-
part of the trough is even slower compared to the idence for a possible scenario based on the existing

TABLE 4. Estimates of vertical diffusivities for salt and heat in the deepest part of the trough at the depth of 4400 m. The volume V and the
area A, used in the computations, are ;1.2 3 1011 m3 and ;3.5 3 108 m2 respectively.

June–October 2006 October 2008–May 2009

21 21 21
›SV/›t (s ) (›SA/›z)j4400 (m ) ›TV/›t (8C s ) (›TA/›z)j4400 (8C m21)
4.580 3 10210 2.387 3 1025 2.553 3 10210 1.038 3 1025
KZSA 5 (1.5 6 2.5) 31022 m2 s21 KZTA 5 (3.7 6 2.7) 31023 m2 s21

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1272 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

evidence, not presented in this study, can be drawn from

the winter (January/February) heat losses over the Adri-
atic and the Cretan Sea that are available in reanalysis
datasets (e.g., at www.cdc.noaa.gov). These fluxes are
strong for the entire period 2003–06, whereas they weaken
drastically afterward. No dedicated field expeditions took
place in the water formation areas in the east Mediterra-
nean in 2006; no proof, based on direct observations, can
be presented with respect to the water formation.
After October 2006, no deep salt addition occurs and
the Cretan lens decays in salt and heat content mostly due
to lateral mixing caused, seemingly, by lateral intrusions.
FIG. 14. Variation with time of mean salinity (dashed lines) and
mean potential temperature (solid lines) for the depth ranges of The lateral diffusive fluxes at the lens are ;3 3
4400–4800 m (crosses) and 4400–5100 m (circles) at site NESTOR 1023 kg s21 m22 for salt and ;25 W m22 for heat, whereas
5.2 from June 2006 to May 2009. the vertical diffusive fluxes at the deepest part of the
trough are lower by 1 to 2 orders of magnitude (i.e., 1024–
literature. Being in the offshore vicinity of the continental 1025 kg s21 m22 for salt and 1–0.4 W m2 for heat).
slope to the southwest of Greece, our study area is located Estimates of horizontal eddy diffusivities which include
near the north-westward spreading path of the CDW, as is the associated errors indicate ranges between ;10 and
reported on the basis of observational (Roether et al. 102 m2 s21 near the center of the lens, where the activity of
2007) and modeling studies (Beuvier et al. 2010a,b) for the lateral intrusions is less, and ;102 to 104 m2 s21 at the
decade of the 1990s. In the observational study, the CDW periphery of the lens, where mixing is higher. To our
was spreading at greater depths than in the 2000s, whereas knowledge, there have been no other estimates of hori-
in the modeling results the CDW vein spreads at depths zontal diffusivities in the literature of the eastern Medi-
around ;1500 m. Nevertheless, a CDW that spreads terranean, if not the entire Mediterranean, for the time
northwestward as a feature in the intermediate or in the and spatial scales we deal with in this study. Daniault
deeper layers is dynamically feasible. On the other et al. (1994) have calculated horizontal diffusivities
hand, a sketch of the spreading path of the Adriatic without error estimates by using an advection–diffusion
Deep (Bottom) Water in the Ionian Sea during winter balance in the area of the Mediterranean outflowing vein
of 2007 appears in the study by Rubino and in the Atlantic, west of the Iberian Peninsula, where there
Hainbucher (2007). The Adriatic water, after reaching is a prevalence of mesoscale lateral mixing. They report
the offshore vicinity of Sicily, loops to the east along diffusivity values between 69 and 825 m2 s21 with one
latitude ;368N and is directed toward the Calypso Deep. value as high as ;1500 m2 s21. The results of both studies
A strong temperature/salinity signature in a veinlike bot- appear to be in qualitative agreement.
tom structure with Adriatic Bottom Water is observed The computed values of the vertical eddy diffusivity at
on a hydrographic transect in the NEMO (Neutrino the deepest part of the trough are on the order of
Mediterranean Observatory) area offshore from Sicily ;1023 m2 s21 with one overestimate around ;1022 m2 s21.
(Fig. 1) in October 2006, with a subsequent weakening These vertical diffusivities are large in comparison to
toward 2009 (Kontoyiannis and Lykoysis 2011). One values estimated for the open ocean (Gregg 1998). How-
possibility is that deep water formation took place in the ever, similar estimates of vertical diffusivities in the deep
Adriatic and the Cretan Sea in 2006 and/or the immedi- Mediterranean waters appear in the studies by Cuypers
ately previous years, which then resulted in the strong et al. (2012) and by van Haren and Gostiaux (2011). The
presence of Adriatic and Cretan Water in the NESTOR former study reports values as high as 1023 m2 s21, while
and NEMO areas in October 2006. Further supporting the latter reports a value near ;1022 for the deep layers

TABLE 5. Salt and heat variation rates and fluxes due to horizontal transfer at the deep lens and due to vertical transfer at the deepest part
of the trough at depths greater than 4400 m. Positive (negative) values indicate gain (loss).

Lens Lens Deep trough Deep trough

Oct 2006–May 2007 May 2007–Apr 2008 Jun 2006–Oct 2006 Oct 2008–May 2009
Salt (kg s21) 29.5 3 105 23.3 3 105 16.4 3 104 22.2 3 104
Salt (kg s21 m22) 24.3 3 1023 21.5 3 1023 11.8 3 1024 26.3 3 1025
Heat (W) 26.8 3 109 23.7 3 109 24.1 3 108 11.3 3 108
Heat (W m22) 231 217 21.2 10.4

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1273

slightly north from our site NESTOR 4.5. Both studies square root of the total squared numerical error and the
argue that these high vertical diffusivities are likely to total squared statistical error.
exist very near the bottom and in cases with weak Centered finite differences with increments Dx 5 Dy 5
stratification (i.e., in conditions similar to the ones in 10 km are used for the spatial first and second derivatives
our study). of the temperature and salinity at the current-meter po-
The salt–heat aggregation and subsequent decay of the sitions. If (x0, y0) is the position of a current meter, the
present deep Cretan lens, which is observed in an area objective temperature/salinity map produced on a 5 km 3
close to the main spreading path of the Cretan outflow, 5 km grid is subsampled along x at y0 and along y at x0. A
have some similarities with the warm-saline lenses that spline fit is performed on each series of subsampled
originate from the Mediterranean outflow in the Atlantic points to produce a series of interpolated points at 1-km
(i.e., the Meddies; Armi et al. 1989). However, apart from spacing. Using finite differences on these interpolated
the differences in salinity and temperature anomalies points yields the series of the first spatial derivatives at
relative to ambient water that are much higher in the 1-km spacing. By performing the same procedure on the
Mediterranean lenses (0.6/2.58C), the basic difference is first derivatives we obtain the second spatial derivatives
that the present Cretan lens is trapped in space and does at 1-km spacing; in the same manner, higher-order de-
not transfer its salt and heat away from its source area. rivatives can be obtained.
The numerical error NTx in the estimate Tx[;(DT)x/Dx]
Acknowledgments. This work was partly funded of the first spatial derivative of temperature at a point (x0,
by the EU in the 6th Framework Program under Contract y0) is given by NTx ; (Dx2/24)Txxx, where Txxx represents
Number 011937 and by the Greek state. We thank the the maximum value of the third-order derivative in the
officers and the crew of the R/V Aegaeo. We also thank range from x0 2 (Dx/2) to x0 1 (Dx/2) (Ames 1977). Ap-
Mr. P. Renieris and Mr. A. Morfis, technicians of the plication of the same finite differencing scheme on Tx would
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, for supporting the produce the second spatial derivative of temperature (Txx)
field work with instrument preparation and cruise par- and similarly the numerical error of Txx would be NTxx ;
ticipation. Mike Spall suggested that we do the error (Dx2/24)Txxxx, where Txxxx is the fourth-order derivative.
analysis on the diffusivity estimates. The same procedure applies for the derivatives in the y
dependence of temperature and their numerical er-
APPENDIX A rors but also for both the x and y dependence of the
salinity field. The numerical error in the time rate of
temperature change Tt ; (DT )t/Dt, where Dt is up to
Errors on Estimates of Horizontal Eddy Diffusivities
;12 months, is computed by fitting an exponential
Calculating the horizontal diffusivities (KHT, KHS) re- curve on the CTD temperature values at the current
quires first- and second-order differentiation in space and meter position and comparing the finite-difference
first-order differentiation in time of the temperature and estimate to the analytic one. Similarly we compute the
salinity fields. Two types of error are introduced, which numerical error in the salinity temporal changes.
are (a) the numerical (N) or truncation error, since the According to Eq. (1), the formula that provides KHT
local spatial and time derivatives are approximated by in a finite difference approximation is KHT ; A/B, with
finite differences, and (b) the statistical error (s), since A 5 u(DT )x/Dx 1 y(DT )y/Dy 1 (DT )t/Dt and B 5
the quantities employed in the formula of the eddy dif- [D(DT )x]x/(Dx)2 1 [D(DT )y]y/(Dy)2. The uncertainty
fusivity have their own uncertainties due to mapping and/ d(ΚHT) in KHT, due to measurement and mapping errors
or measurements that propagate through the mathematic in the quantities appearing in the formula of KHT, can be
manipulations of the formula. The total error is the computed by the following relationships:

[d(KHT )/KHT ]2 5 (dA/A)2 1 (dB/B)2 , (A1)

(dA)2 5 [(DT)x /Dxd(u)]2 1 [u/Dxd(DT)]2 1 [u(DT)x /(Dx)2 d(Dx)]2 1 [(DT)y /Dyd(y)]2

1 [y/Dyd(DT)]2 1 [y(DT)y /(Dy)2 d(Dy)]2 1 [dt (DT)/Dt]2 , and (A2)

(dB)2 5 [2/(Dx)2 d(DT)]2 1 [2/(Dx)3 d(Dx)]2 1 [2/(Dy)2 d(DT)]2 1 [2/(Dy)3 d(Dy)]2 , (A3)

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1274 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 46

depths and the periods shown in Fig. B1. The results

are summarized in Table B1.

APPENDIX C

Errors on Estimates of Vertical Eddy Diffusivities

According to Eq. (3), the formula that provides KZTA
in a finite difference approximation is KZTA ; C/D, with
C 5 V(DTV)t/Dt and D 5 A(DTA/Dz)j4400. As in the case
of the horizontal eddy diffusivities, the truncation errors
FIG. B1. Variation with time of the total salt (dotted line) and in the vertical eddy diffusivities are much less than the
heat (solid line) in the warm saline lens at the depth range of 2200–
3600 m from June 2006 to April 2008.
statistical ones. The uncertainty d(KZTA) due to the
uncertainties in the quantities appearing in the for-
mula of KZTA, can be computed by the following
relationships:
where d(DT ) 5 21/2d(T), dt (DT) 5 21/2 dt(T), d(Dx) 5
2 1/2d(x), and d(Dy) 5 21/2d(y), with the positioning un-
certainty d(x) 5 d(y) 5 650 m, and the current mea- [d(KZTA )/KZTA ]2 5 (dC/C)2 1 (dD/D)2 , (C1)
surement uncertainty d(u) 5 d(y) 5 60.5 cm s21, while 2 2
(dC) 5 [(DTV )t /Dtd(V)] 1 [V/Dtd(DTV )] , 2
and (C2)
the temperature mapping uncertainty d(T) is provided by
2 2 2
the objective mapping routine (Watts et al. 2001) and the (dD) 5 [(DTA /Dz)j4400 d(A)] 1 [A/Dzd(DTA )] , (C3)
uncertainty dt(T) is the temperature measurement un-
certainty (60.0028C). where d(DT V) 5 2 / 2d(TV), d(DT A) 5 2 / 2d(TA), d(A) ;
1 1

In all cases of our horizontal diffusivity estimates, 10%A, and d(V) ; 15%V. The uncertainties d(TV) and
including the sensitivity tests described below, the total d(TA) are due to both (a) the uncertainty in the mea-
error ranges from ;10 to ;25 times the actual value of surement of T as it propagates through the volume and
each estimate whereas, for the given values of Dx, Dy, the area averaging and (b) the assumption that the
and Dt, the total numerical error has a contribution to volume average TV and the area average TA are ap-
the total error of 2%–3% at most. proximated by employing only the profile at NESTOR
5.2. An estimate of the uncertainties in TV and TA due to
APPENDIX B these approximations may be obtained if we further
assume that station NESTOR 4.5 is within the region
enclosed by the 4400-m depth contour and compute TV
Tests of KHT/KHS Sensitivity to the Objective
and DTA, used in the vertical derivative (DTA/Dz)j4400,
Analysis Temperature/Salinity Input
by employing both profiles at NESTOR 5.2 and NESTOR
The values of K HT and K HS at a site depend 4.5. The uncertainties due to the volume and area av-
strongly on the local temperature and salinity hori- eraging are d(TV) 5 d(T)/(NV)1/2, and d(TA) 5 d(T)/
zontal gradients. In the specific tests, we investigate (NA)1/2, with d(T) being the measurement uncertainty of
the changes in the horizontal diffusivities and their temperature and NV and NA the number of temperature
errors, which result from changes within measure- data points used in the vertical and area averaging re-
ment uncertainty of the temperature and salinity spectively. The combined uncertainties are d(TV) ;
values near sites NESTOR 4.5 and NESTOR 5.2 that 60.00248C, d(SV) ; 60.0035, d(TA) ; 60.00218C, and
are used as input to the objective mapping at the d(SA) ; 60.0032.

TABLE B1. Variation range of KHT and KHT in tests of sensitivity to changes, within measurement uncertainty, of the temperature and
salinity values near sites NESTOR 4.5 and NESTOR 5.2.

Site/month year/depth (m) Variation range of KHT (m2 s21) Variation range of KHS (m2 s21)
NES. 4.5/May 2007/2900 (10 6 29) to (13 6 27) (9 6 63) to (14 6 40)
NES. 5.2/Apr 2008/2900 (5 6 101) to (19 6 124) (8 6 75) to (35 6 140)
NES. 4.5/May 2007/3200 (10 6 84) to (1633 6 41 000) (357 6 3500) to (550 6 10 450)

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APRIL 2016 KONTOYIANNIS ET AL. 1275

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