: Chapter 1-3 :

Q. What is Kernel in Linux ?

Ans : The Kernel is the core program that runs programs and manages hardware
devices, such as disks and printers. It execute the commands which provide by
environment. Kernel provides an interface between shell and hardware.

Q2. Define the features of Linux ?

Ans : 1. Multi-tasking :

Linux supports true preemptive multi-tasking. All processes run entirely

independently of each other. No process needs to be concerned with making
processor time available to other processes.
Multi-user access :

A multi-user system is a computer that is able to concurrently and independently

execute several applications belonging to two or more users.

Multi-processing :

Linux also runs on multi-processor architectures. This means that the O. S. can
distribute several applications across several processors.

Architecture independence (Portability) :

Linux runs on several hardware platforms, from the Amiga to the PC to DEC
Alpha workstations. Such hardware independence is achieved by no other
serious O. S.

Demand load executables :

Only those parts of a program actually required for execution are loaded into
memory. When a new process is created using fork(), memory is not requested
immediately, but instead the memory for the parent process is used jointly by
both processes.

Paging :

Linux provide a very important concept of paging. Despite the best efforts to use
physical memory efficiently, it can happen that the available memory is fully
taken up.

Dynamic cache for hard disk :

Linux dynamically adjusts the size of cache memory in use to suit the current
memory usage situation.

Shared Libraries :

1
 Libraries are collections of routines needed by a program for processing data.
There are a number of standard libraries used by more than one process at the
same time.

Memory protected mode :

Linux uses the processor’s memory protection mechanisms to prevent the

process from accessing memory allocated to the system kernel or other
processes.

Support for national keyboards and fonts :

Under Linux, a wide range of national keyboards and character sets can be
used : for example, the Latin1 set defined by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) which also includes European special characters.

Different file systems :

Linux supports a variety of file systems. The most commonly used file system at
present is the Second Extended (Ext2) File system. This supports filenames of
up to 255 characters and has a number of features making it more secure than
conventional Unix file systems.

Q. Define the file structure of Linux ?

Ans: The file structure of any O. S. is includes the arrangement of files & folders.
Linux organizes files into a hierarchically connected set of directories. Each
directory may contain either files or other directories. Because of the similarities
to a tree, such a structure is often referred to as a tree structure and also called
parent-child structure.

The Linux file structure branches into several directories beginning with a root
directory, /. Within the root directory several system directories contain files and
programs that are features of the Linux system. These system directories as
follows :-
/ root : Begins the file system structure, called the root
/fs : The virtual file system interface in in the fs directory. The
implementations of the various file systems supported by
LINUX are
held in the respective subdirectories.
/home : Contains users’ home directories
/bin : Holds all the standard commands and utility programs
/usr : Holds those files and commands used by the system; this
directory
breaks down into several sub-directory
/usr/bin : Holds user-oriented commands and utility programs
/usr/sbin : Holds system administration commands
/usr/lib : Holds libraries for programming languages
/usr/doc : Holds Linux documentation
/usr/man : Holds the online manual Man files

2
 /usr/spool : Holds spooled files, such as those generated for printing
jobs and
network transfers
/sbin : Holds system administration commands for booting the
system
/var : Holds files that vary, such as mailbox files
/dev : Holds file interfaces for devices such as the terminals and
printers
/etc : Holds system configuration files and any other system
files.
/init : contains all the functions needed to start the kernel. Like
start_kernel().
/net : contains the implementations of various network protocols
and the
code for sockets to the UNIX and Internet domains.
/arch : architecture -dependent code is held in the subdirectories
of arch/
/mm : contains Memory management sources for the kernel.

Q2. Define the Kernel Architecture ?

Ans : Most Unix kernels are monolithic : each kernel layer is integrated into the whole
kernel program and urns in Kernel Mode on behalf of the current process.
Microkernel operating systems demand a very small set of functions from the
kernel, generally including a few synchronization primitives, a simple scheduler,
and an interprocess communication mechanism. Although Microkernels oriented
O. S. are generally slower than monolithic ones, since the explicit message
passing between the different layers of the O. S. might have some theoretical
advantages over monolithic ones.

Define the process and task_structure ?

Ans : The concept of a process is fundamental to any multiprogramming operating
system. A process is usually defined as an instance of a program in execution;
thus, if 16 users are running vi at once, there are 16 separate processes
( although they can share the same executable code).

Each & every process have some unique information, which store in task_struct
type process descriptor, which is the object of task_struct.

Struct task _struct

{
volatile long state;
long counter;
long priority;
unsigned long signal;
unsigned long blocked;
unsigned long flags;
int errno;
int debugreg[8];
struct task_struct *next_task;

3
 struct task_struct *prev_task;
struct mm_struct mm;
int pid, uid,gid;
struct fs_struct fs;
long utime, stime, cutime, cstime, start_time;

state field of the task_struct describes what is currently happening to the

process. The following are the possible process states :

TASK_RUNNING : The process is either executing on the CPU or waiting to be

executed.
TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE : The process is suspended (sleeping) until some
condition becomes true. Raising a hardware interrupt, releasing a system
resource the process is waiting for, or delivering a signal are examples of
conditions that might wake up the process, that is put its state back to
TASK_RUNNING.
TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE: In this state process is uninterruptible of any
hardware interrupt, or any signal.
TASK_STOPPED: Process execution has been stopped : the process enters
this state after receiving a SIGSTOP, SIGTSTP, SIGTTIN, or SIGTTOU signal.
TASK_ZOMBIE : Process execution is terminated, but the parent process has
not stopped. The kernel cannot discard the data contained in the dead process
task_struct because the parent could need it.

The counter variable holds the time in ‘ticks’ for which the process can still run
before a mandatory scheduling action is carried out. The schedular uses the
counter value to select the next process.

The priority holds the priority of a process.

The signal variable contains a bit mask for signals received for the process.

The bolcked contains a bit mask for all the signals the process plans to handle
later.

flags contains the system status flags.

errono contains the error code if generated.

debugreg[8] assigns the debugger to that err code.

*next_task and *prev_task all processes are entered in a doubly linked list with
the help of these two components.

mm_struct mm the data for each process needed for memory management are
collected, mm_struct store those data.

Every process has its own process ID number , pid, user ID, uid, goup ID, gid.

4
 The file-system-specific data are stored in fs_struct fs.

The utime and stime variables hold the time the process has spent in User
Mode and System Mode, cutime and cstime contain the totals of the
corresponding times for all child processes, start_time contains the time at
which the current process was generated.

Q. What is process table in Linux kernel ?

Ans : Every process occupies exactly one entry in the process table. In Linux, this is
statically organized and restricted in size to NR_TASKS. NR_TASKS denotes
the maximum number of process.

Struct task_struct *task [NR_TASKS] ;

In older versions of the Linux kernel, all the processes present could be traced
by searching the task[ ] process table for entries. In the newer versions this
information is stored in the linked lists next_task and prev_task, which can be
found in the task_struct structure. The external variable init_task points to the
start of the doubly linked linked circular list.

The entry task[0] has a special significance in Linux. Task[0] is the INIT_TASK
mentioned above, which is the first to be generated when the system is booted
and has something of a special role to play.

Q. What is inode? How it is used for storage of regular files?

Ans : All enitities in Linux are trated as files. The information related to all these files
(not the contents ) is stored in an Inode Table on the disk. For each file, there is
an inode entry in the table. Inodes contain information such as the file’s owner
and access rights.

The inode structure-

struct inode
{
dev_t idev;
unsigned long i_ino;
umode_t i_mode;
uid_t i_uid;
gid_t i_gid;
off_t i_size;
time_t i_mtime;
time_t i_atime;
time_t i_ctime;
}

The component :

i_dev is a description of the device on which the file is located.

i_ino identifies the file within the device.

5
 i_mode mode which file is open
i_uid user id
i_gid group id
i_size the size in bytes
i_mtime times of the last modification
i_atime times of last access
i_ctime time of last modification to the inode

The component dev, ino pair thus provides an identification of the file which is
uniquely identified the file in entire file system.

Q. What is Interrupts ? Define the slow and fast interrupts ?

Ans: Whenever a special signal is generated by any hardware is called interrupt.

Interrupts are used to allow the hardware to communicate with the O. S.

There are two types of interrupt in Linux slow and fast-

Slow Interrupts :

Slow interrupts are the usual kind. After a slow interrupt has been processed,
additional activities requiring regular attention are carried out by the system - for
example, the timer interrupt.

Fast Interrupts :

Fast interrupts are used for short, less complex tasks. While they are being
handled, all other interrupts are blocked, unless the handling routine involved
explicitly enables them. A typical example is the keyboard interrupt.

Q. What is the Booting process of Linux system?

Ans : There is something magical about booting a Linux system. First of all LILO ( The
LInux LOader ) finds the Linux kernel and loads it into memory. It then begins at
the entry point start : as the name suggests, this is assembler code
responsible for initializing the hardware. Once the essential hardware
parameters have been established, the process is switched into Protected Mode
by setting the protected mode bit in the machine status word. Then initiates a
jump to the start address of the 32 bit code for the actual operating system
kernel and continues from startup_32: . Once initialization is complete, the first
C function start_kernal() is called.

The first saves all the data the assembler code has found about the hardware
up to that point. All areas of the kernel are then initialized. The process now
running is process 0. It now generates a kernel thread which executes the init()
function.

The init() function carries out the remaining initialization. It starts the bdflush
and kswap daemons which are responsible for synchronization of the buffer
cache contents with the file system and for swapping.

6
 Then the system call setup is used to initialize file systems and to mount the
root file system. Then an attempt is made to execute one of the programs
/etc/init, /bin/init or /sbin/init. These usually start the background processes
running under Linux and make sure that the getty program runs on each
connected terminal - thus a user can log in to the system.

If none of the above-mentioned programs exists, an attempt is made to process

/etc/rc and subsequently start a shell so that the superuser can repair the
system.

Q Define the system calls getpid, nice, pause, fork, execve, exit, wait.

Ans : getpid:

The getpid call is a very simple system call - it merely reads a value from the
task structure and returns it :

asmlinkage int sys_getpid(void)

{
return current->pid;
}

nice :

The system call nice is a little more complicated : nice expects as its argument a
number by which the static priority of the current process is to be modified. Only
the superuser is allowed to raise his/her own priority. Note that a large argument
for sys_nice() indicates a lower priority.

pause :

A call to pause interrupts the execution of the program until the process is
reactivated by a signal. This merely amounts to setting the status of the current
process to TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE and then calling the scheduler. This results
in another task becoming active.

fork:

The system call fork is the only way of starting a new process. This is done by
creating a identical copy of the process that has called fork. Fork is a very
demanding system call. All the data of the process have to be copied, and these
can easily run to a few megabytes.

execve :

The system call execve enables a process to change its executing program.
Linux permits a number of formats for executable files. Linux supports the
widely used executable file format COFF(Common Object File Format) and
ELF(Executable and Linkable Format).

exit :

7
 A process is always terminated by calling the kernel function do_exit. This is
done either directly by the system call _exit or indirectly on the occurrence of a
signal which cannot be intercepted. It merely has to release the resources
claimed by the process and, if necessary, inform other processes.

wait :

The system call wait enables a process to wait for the end of a child process
and interrogate the exit code supplied. Depending on the argument given, wait4
will wait for a specified child process, a child process in a specified process
group or any child process.

Q. What is the output of command ps ?

Ans : ps command output which processes are running at any instant. Linux assigns a
unique number to every process running in memory. This number is called
process ID or simply PID.

PID TTY TIME COMMAND

2269 tty01 0:05 sh
2396 tty01 0:00 ps

PID : Process ID
TTY : Terminal Id Which The Processes Were Launched
TIME : The Time That Has Elapsed since the Processes Were
Launched
COMMAND : The Names Of The Processes.

What is links ? What is the difference between Hard links & Symbolic links ?

Ans : If you might want to reference a file using different different filenames to access
it from
different directories then you create a link of that file with the help of ln
command.

$ ln original-file-name link-name

Hard links & Symbolic links :

Links within one disk & one user environment is called Hard links. A hard link
may in some situations fail when you try to link to a file on some other user’s
directory. A file in one file system can’t be linked by a hard link to a file in
another file system. If you try to link to a file on another user’s directory that is
located on another file system, your hard link will fail. To overcome this
restriction, you use symbolic links. A symbolic link holds the pathname of the file
to which it is linking.

8
 Chapter 4 : Memory Management
Q Define the architecture - independent memory model in Linux ?

Ans : Memory Management is primarily concerned with allocation of main memory to

requests processes. Two important features of memory management function
are : Protection and Sharing. Memory management activity in a Linux kernel.
Some of main issues related to memory management are :

Pages of Memory :

The physical memory is divided into pages. The size of a memory page is
defined by the PAGE_SIZE macro. For the x86 processor, the size is set to 4
KB, while the Alpha processor uses 8 KB.

Virtual address space :

A process is run in a virtual address space. In the abstract memory model, the
virtual address space is structured as a kernel segment plus a user segment.
Code and data for the kernel can be accessed in the kernel segment, and code
and data for the process in the user segment. A virtual address is given by
reference to a segment selector and the offset within the segment. When code
is being processed, the segment selector is already set and only offsets are
used. In the kernel, however, access is needed not only to data in the kernel
segment but also to data in the user segment, for the passing of parameters.
For this purpose, the put_user() and get_user() functions are defined.

Programmers casually refer to a memory address as the way to access the

contents of a memory cell. In x86 Micro processors, we have three kind of
address.

(i) Logical Addresses :

Included in the machine language instructions to specify the address of

an operand or of an instruction. Each logical addresses consists of a
segment and an offset that denotes the distance from the start of the
segment to the actual address.

(ii) Linear Address :

A single 32 bit unsigned integer that can be used to address upto 4 GB,
that is upto 232 memory cells. Linear addresses are usually represented
in hexa decimal notation; Their values ranges from 0x00000000 to
0xffffffff.

(iii) Physical Address :

Physical address is used to address memory cells included in memory

chips. They correspond to the electrical signals sent along the address

9
 pins of the microprocessor to the memory bus. Physical Address are
represented as 32 bit unsigned integer.

Converting the Linear address :

Linux adopted a three - level paging model so paging is feasible on 64 bit

architectures. The x86 processor only supports a two - level conversion of the
linear address. While Alpha processor supports three-level conversion because
the Alpha processor supports linear addresses with a width of 64 bits.

Three level paging model defines three types of paging table :

Page (Global) directory

Page middle directory
Page Table

Page Global Directory :

Page Global Directory includes the addresses of several page middle directory.
It is of 12 bit length. Different functions available for modification of Page Global
directory are :

(i) pgd_alloc () : Allocates a Page Directory and filles with 0.

(ii) pgd_bad() : Can be used to test whether the entry in Page
Directory is valid. (iii) pgd_clear() : Delete the entry in page directory.
(iv) pgd_free() : Releases the page of memory allocate to page
directory.
(v) pgd_none() : Tests whether the entry has been initialized.

Page Middle Directory :

It includes the address of several Page Tables. It is of 13 bit length. Functions

used for handling Page Middle directory are :

(i) pmd_alloc() : Allocates a Page Middle directory to manage

memory in
user area.
(ii) pmd_bad() : Test whether the entry in the Page Middle directory
is valid.
(iii) pmd_clear() : Deletes the entries in the page middle directory is
valid.
(iv) pmd_free() : Releases a Page Middle Directory for memory in
user segment. (v) pmd_offset(): Returns the address of an entry in the page middle
directory to
which the address in argument is allocated.
(vi) pmd_none() : Tests whether the entry in the page middle directory has
been
set.

Page Table :

10
 Each Page Table entries points to page frames. It is of 25 bits length. The ‘dirty’
attribute is set when the contents of the memory page has been modified. A
page table entry contains a number of flags which describe the legal access
modes to the memory page and their state :

PAGE_NONE : No physical memory page is referenced by page table

entry.
PAGE_SHARE : All types of Access are permitted.
PAGE_COPY : This macro is historical & identical to PAGE_READONLY.
PAGE_READONLY: Only read and execute access is allowed to this Page of
memory.
PAGE_KERNEL : Access to this page of memory is only allowed in
the kernel
segment.

Following are some functions have been defined to mainpulate the page table
entries and their attributes :

(i) mk_pte() : Returns a page table entry generated from the

memory address
of a page and a variable of the pgprot_t type.
(ii) pte_alloc() : Allocates new page table.
(iii) pte_clear() : clears the page table entry.
(iv) pte_dirty() : checks whether ‘dirty’ attributes is set.
(v) pte_free() : Releases the page table.

Q Define the Virtual Address Space for a process in LINUX ?

Ans : The Virtual Address Space of a Linux process is segmented : a distinction is

made between the kernel segment and the user segment. For the x86
processor, two selectors along with their descriptors must be defined for each of
these segments. The data segment selector only permits data to be read or
modified, while the code segment selector allows code in the segment to be
executed and data to be read. The user process can modify its local descriptor
table, which holds the segment descriptors.

The user segment :

In User Mode, a process can access only the user segment. As the user
segment contains the data and code for the process, this segment needs to be
different from those belonging to other processes, and this means in turn that
the page directories, or at least the individual page tables for the different
processes, must also be different. In the system call fork, the parent process’s
page directories and page tables are copied for the child process. An exception
to this is the kernel segment, whose page tables are shared by all the
processes.

The system call fork has an alternative : clone. Both system calls genrate a new
thread, but in clone the old thread and the thread generated by clone can fully
share the memory. Thus, Linux regards threads as tasks which share their
address space with other tasks. The handling of additional task - specific

11
resources, such as the stack, can be controlled via parameters of the system cal
clone.

Virtual memory :

All Linux systems provide a useful abstraction called virtual memory. Virtual
memory acts as a logical layer between the application memory requests and
the hardware Memory management Unit (MMU). Virtual memory has many
purposes and advantages:
 Several processes can be executed concurrently.
 It is possible to run applications whose memory needs are larger than the
available physical memory.
 Processes can execute a program whose code is only partially loaded in
memory.
 Each process is allowed to access a subset of the available physical
memory.
 Processes can share a single memory image of a library or program.
 Programs can be relocatable, that is, they can be placed anywhere in
physical memory.
 Programmers can write machine-independent code, since they do not need
to be concerned about physical memory organization.

A virtual memory area is defined by the data structure vm_area_struct. The

structure vm_operations_struct defines the possible function pointers enabling
different operations to be assigned to different areas.

System call brk :

At the start of a process the value of brk field in the process table entry point to
the end of the BSS (Bash memory segment) segment for non-statically
initialized data. By modifying thus pointer the process can allocate and release
dynamic memory.

The system call brk can be used to find the current value of the pointer or to set
it to a new value. If the argument is smaller than the pointer to the end of
process code, the current value of brk will be returned. Otherwise an attempt
will be made to set a new value.

The kernel function sys_brk() calls do_mmap() to map a private and

anonymous area between the old and new values of brk, corrected to the
nearest page boundary and returns new brk value.

The kernel segment :

A Linux system call is generally initiated by the software interrupt 0x80 being
triggered. The processor then reads the gate descriptor stored in the interrupt
descriptor table. The processor jumps to this address with the segment
descriptor in the CS register pointing to the kernel segment. The assembler
routine then sets the segment selectors in the DS and ES registers in such a
way that memory accesses will read or write to data in the kernel segment.

12
 As the page tables for the kernel segment are identical for all processes, this
ensures that any process in system mode will encounter the same kernel
segment. In the kernel segment, physical addresses and virtual addresses are
the same except for the virtual memory areas mapped by vmalloc().

In an x86 processor, the next step involves loading to the segment register FS a
data segment selector pointing to the user segment. Accesses to the user
segment can then be made using the put_user() and get_user() functions
mentioned earlier. This may cause a general protection error, if the referenced
address is protected. And occur a page fault error, if page can’t be access. To
avoid these problems, system routines have to call the verify_area() function
before they access the user segment. This checks whether read or write access
to the given area of the user segment is permitted, investigating all the virtual
memory areas affected by the area involved.

Q Define the static & Dynamic memory allocation in the kernel segment ?

Ans : Static memory allocation in the kernel segment :

In the system kernel, it is often necessary to allocate memory for kernel process.
Before a kernel generates its first process when it is run, it calls initialization
routines for a range of kernel components. These routines are able to reserve
memory in the kernel segment. The initialization routine is start_kernel(). The
initialization function reserves memory by returning a value higher than the
parameter memory_start.

Dynamic memory allocation in the kernel segment :

The functions used for Dynamic memory allocation are kmalloc() and kfree().
The kmalloc() function attempts to reserve the extent of memory specified by
size. The memory that has been reserved can be released again by the function
kfree(). The function _get_fee_pages() may be called and, if no free pages are
available and other pages therefore need to be copied to secondary storage,
this may block.

In the Linux kernel, the _get_free_pages() function can only be used to reserve
contiguous areas of memory. As kmalloc() can reserve far smaller areas of
memory, however, the free memory in these areas needs to be managed. The
central data structure for this is the table sizes[ ], which contains descriptors for
different sizes of memory area.

One page descriptor manages each contiguous area of memory. This page
descriptor is stored at the beginning of every memory area reserved by
kmalloc(). Within the page itself, all the free blocks of memory are managed in a
linear list. All the blocks of memory in a memory area collected into one list are
the same in size.

The block itself has a block header, which in turn holds a pointer to the next
element if the block is free, or else the actual size of the memory area allocated
in the block.

13
 Structures for kmalloc

Kmalloc provided the only facility for dynamic allocation of memory in the kernel.
In addition, the amount of memory that could be reserved was restricted to the
size of one page of memory . The situation was improved by the function
vmalloc() and its counterpart vmfree(). The advantage of the vmalloc() function
is that the size of the area of memory requested can be better adjusted to actual
needs than when using kmalloc(), which requires 128 KB of consecutive
physical memory to reserve just 64 KB. Besides this, vmalloc() islimited only by
the size of free physical memory and not by its segmentation, as kmalloc() is.
Since vmalloc() does not return any physical addresses and the reserved areas
of memory can be spread over non-consecutive pages, this function is not
suitable for reserving memory for DMA.

Q Define the update and bdflush processes ?

Ans : The update process is a Linux process which at periodic intervals calls the
system call bdflush with an appropriate parameter. All modified buffer blocks that
have not been used for acertain time are writeen back to disk, together with all
superblock and inode information. The interval used by update as a default
under Linux is five seconds.

bdflush is implemented as a kernel thread and is started during kernel

initialization. In an endless loop, it writes back the number of block buffers
marked ‘dirty’ given in the bdflush parameter ( default is 500). Once this is
completed, a new loop starts immediately it the proportion of modified block
buffers to the total number of buffers to the total number of buffers in the cache
becomes too high. Otherwise, the process switches to the
TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE state.

The kernel thread can be woken up using the wakup_bdflush() function.

Q Define the paging under Linux ?

Ans : The RAM memory in a computer has always been limited and, compared to fixed
disks, relatively expensive. Particularly in multi-tasking operating systems, the
limit of working memory is quickly reached. Thus it was not long before
someone hit on the idea of offloading temporarily unused areas of primary
storage(RAM) to secondary storage.

The traditional procedure for this used to be the so-called ‘swapping’ which
involves saving entire processes from memory to a secondary medium and
reading them in again. This approach does not solve the problem of running
processes with large memory requirements in the available primary memory.
Besides this, saving and reading in whole processes is very inefficient.

When new hardware architectures (VAX) were introduced, the concept of

demand paging was developed. Under the control of a memory management
unit (MMU) the entire memory is divided up into pages, with only complete
pages of memory being read in or saved as required. As all modern processor

14
architectures, including the x86 architecture, support the management of paged
memory, demand paging is employed by Linux. Pages of memory which have
been mapped directly to the virtual address area of a process using do_mmap()
without write authorization are not saved, but simply discarded. Their contents
can be read in again from the files which were mapped. Modified memory
pages, in contrast, must be written into swap space.

Pages of memory in the kernel segment cannot be saved, for the simple reason
that routines and data structures which read memory pages back from
secondary storage must always be present in primary memory.

Linux can save pages to external media in two ways. In the first, a complete
block device is used as the external medium. This will typically be a partition on
a hard disk. The second uses fixed-length files in a file system for its external
storage. The term ‘swap space’ may refer to either a swap device or a swap file.

Using a swap device is more efficient than using a swap file. In a swap device, a
page is always saved to consecutive blocks, whereas in a swap file, the
individual blocks may be given various block numbers depending on how the
particular file system fragmented the file when it was set up. These blocks then
need to be found via the swap file’s inode. On a swap device, the first block is
given directly by the offset for the page of memory to be saved or read in.

15
 Chapter 5 ( IPC-INTER PROCESS COMMUNICATION)
Q Define the IPC ?

Ans : There are many applications in which processes need to cooperate with each
other. The Linux IPC (Inter Process communication) facility provides many
methods for multiple process to communicate with each other.

A variety of forms of inter-process communication can be used under Linux.

These support
 resource sharing
 synchronization
 connectionless and
 connection oriented data exchance

Resource sharing :

If processes have to share a resource (such as printer). It is important to make

sure that no more than one process is accessing the resource- that is, sending
data to the printer-at any given time. If different process send data on same time
the race condition is fired, and communication between process must prevent it.
Eliminating race condition is only one possible use of inter-process
communication.

Synchronization in the kernel :

As the kernel manages the system resources, access by processes to these

resources must be synchronized. A process will not be interrupted by the
scheduler so long as it is executing a system call. This only happens it it locks or
itself calls schedule() to allow the execution of other process. Whenever a
process is running in its critical section no other process running in its critical
section, for achieving this different schronization methods are provided by Linux
IPC.

Connection less data exchange :

In connection less data exchange a process simply sends data packets, which
may be given a destination address or a message type, and leaves it to the
infrastructure to deliver them. For example : - we send a letter we rely on a
connection less model.

Connection oriented data exchange :

In connection-oriented data exchange, the two parties to the communication

must set up a connection before communication can start. For example :- we
make a telephone call, and an client application give the request for server by
client socket and server socket receive the request and create the connection,
we are using a connection - oriented data exchange.

16
Q How Linux implements all the forms of interprocess communication explain
briefly?

Ans : Linux implements the Interprocess communication in different forms :-

Communication by files :

Communication via files is in fact oldest way of exchanging data between

programs. Program A writes data to a file and program B reads the data out
again. In a multi-tasking system, however both programs could be run as
processes at least quasi-parallel to each other. Race conditions then usually
produce inconsistencies in the file data, which result from one program reading
a data area before the other has completed modifying it, or both processes
modifying the same area of memory at the same time. Avoiding the race
conditions in files different types of locking mechanisms used in Linux :-

Mandatory Locking : -

Mandatory locking blocks read and write operations throughout the entire area.

There are two methods for locking entire files.

In addition to the file to be locked there is an auxiliary file known as a Lock file is
created, which refuses access to the file when it is present. The system call
link, create, open used for this locking. link system call create the lock file if
lock file does not yet exist. create aborts with an error code if the process
which is being called does not possess the appropriate access right. In open
the lock file is opened if it does not already exist.

The drawback to all three of these is that after a failure the process must
repeat its attempt to set up a lock file. Usually, the process will call sleep()
to wait for one second and then try again.

Lock the entire file by means of fcntl system call. This functions is invoked
either
through flock() or lock() system call.

2. Advisory Locking : -

With advisory locking, all processes accessing the file for read or write
operations have to set the appropriate lock and release it again.

Locking file areas is usually refereed as record locking. Advisory locking of file
areas can be achieved with the system call fcntl. The prototype of fcntl() is

Int sys_fcntl(unsigned int fd, unsigned int cmd, unsigned long arg);

fd : The parameter fd is used to pass a file descriptor.

cmd : command for locking purpose it can be F_GETLK, F_SETLK,
FSETLKW

17
arg : arg must be a pointer to an flock structure which store the lock
type ( F_RDLCK, F_WRLCK, F_UNLCK, F_SHLCK, or
F_EXLCK), start position, length, process id.

Semantics of fcntl locks.

Existing Locks Set read lock Set write

lock

None Possible Possible

More than one Possible Not legal

read lock

One write lock Not legal Not legal

List of locked file are managed by a Doubly linked list file_lock_table.

Pipes : -

A PIPE is a one-way flow of data between processes : all the data written by a
processes to the Pipe is routed by the kernel to another process, which can thus
read it.

In UNIX shells, pipes can be created by means of | operator. For example the
following statement instructs the shell to create two processes connected by a
pipe.

$ ls | more

The standard output of the first process, which executes the ls program, is
redirected to the pipe; the second process, which executes the more program,
reads its input from the pipe.

Another varient of pipes consists of named pipes, also known as FIFOs. They
can be set up in a file system using the command

$ mkfifo filename

pipes are special type of files in Linux, which file type is p.

The system call pipe creates a pipe, which involves setting up a temporary
inode and allocating a page of memory. The call returns one file descriptor for
reading and one for writing.

System V IPC : -

IPC is an abbreviation that stands for interprocess communication. The classical

forms of inter-process communication-

18
, message queues and shared memory-were implemented in a special variant of
UNIX. These were later integrated into System V and are now known as System
V IPC. It denotes a set of system calls that allows a user mode process to :

Synchronize itself with either process by means of semaphores.

Send messages to other processes or receive messages from them.
Share a memory area with other process.

IPC data structures are created dynamically when a process requests an IPC
resource ( a semaphore, a message queue, or a shared memory segment). An
IPC resource may be used by any process, including those that do not share the
ancestor that created the resource.

Since a process may require several IPC resources of same type, each new
resource is identified by a 32 bit IPC key, which is similar to the file pathname in
the system’s directory tree. IPC identifiers are assigned to IPC resources by the
kernel and are unique within the system, while IPC keys can be freely chosen
by programmers.

Access permissions are managed by the kernel in the structure ipc_perm .

Semaphores :

Semaphores are counters used to provide controlled access to shared data

structures for multiple processes. The semaphore value is positive if the
protected resource is available, and negative or zero if the protected resource is
currently not available. A process that wants to access the resource
decremented by 1 the semaphore value. It is allowed to use the resource only it
the old value was positive; otherwise the process waits until the semaphore
becomes positive. Depending on no of resources. An array of semaphores can
be set up using system calls.

Struct semaphore
{
int count;
struct wait_queue *wait;
};

A semaphore is taken to be occupied if count has value less than or equal to 0.

All the process wishing to occupy the semaphore enter themselves in the wait
queue. They are then notified when it is released by another process. There are
two auxiliary functions to occupy or release semaphore, up() and down() .

Message queues :

Process can communicate with each other by means of IPC messages. Each
message generated by a process is sent to an IPC message queue where it
stays until another process reads it.

A message is composed of a fixed sized header and a variable length text; it

can be labeled with an integer value ( the message type), which allows a

19
 process to selectively retrieve messages from its message queue. Once a
process has read a message from the IPC message queue, the kernel destroys
it; therefore, only one process can retrieve a given message.

In order to send a message, a process invokes the msgsnd() function, passing

as parameters :

 The IPC identifier or the destination message

 The site of message text
 The address of a user mode buffer that contains the message type
immediately followed by the message text.

To retrieve a message, a process invokes the msgrcv() function, passing to it :

 The IPC identifier of the IPC message queue resource.

 The pointer to a user mode buffer to which the message type and
message text should by copied
 The site of this buffer
 A value t that specifies what message should be retrieved

Shared Memory :

The most useful IPC mechanism is shared memory, which allows two or more
processes to access some common data structures by placing them in a shared
memory segment. Each process that wants to access the data structures
included in a shared memory segment must add to its address space a new
memory region, which maps the page frames associated with the shared
memory segment. Such page frames can thus be easily handled by the kernel
through demand paging.

Shmget() function is invoked to get the IPC identifier of a shared memory

segment, optionally creating it if it does not already exist.

The drawback to shared memory is that the processes need to use additional
synchronization mechanisms to ensure that race conditions do not arise.

Q What are pipes? How FIFO’s are different from pipes? What are the two types of
pipes available in Linux?

Ans: A PIPE is a one-way flow of data between processes : all the data written
by a processes to the Pipe is routed by the kernel to another process, which can
thus read it.

In UNIX shells, pipes can be created by means of | operator. For example the
following statement instructs the shell to create two processes connected by a
pipe.

$ ls | more

20
 The standard output of the first process, which executes the ls program, is
redirected to the pipe; the second process, which executes the more program,
reads its input from the pipe.

Another varient of pipes consists of named pipes, also known as FIFOs. They
can be set up in a file system using the command

$ mkfifo filename

pipes are special type of files in Linux, which file type is p.

The system call pipe creates a pipe, which involves setting up a temporary
inode and allocating a page of memory. The call returns one file descriptor for
reading and one for writing.

There are 2 types of pipes:

unnamed pipes
named pipes

Unnamed pipes
● The examples we seen at the shell command (third) line are unnamed. They are created,
used and destroyed within the life a set of processes. Each end of the pipe has it’s own file
descriptor. One end is for reading and one end is for writing. When you are done with a
pipe, it is closed like any other file.

● Unnamed pipes cannot be used by process that don't have some common ancestry (eg
parent-child).

● Unnamed Pipes cannot exist after the process which create the unnamed pipe exit

● Unnamed is unidirectional

Creating unnamed pipes

#include <unistd.h>

int pipe(int fd[2]);

Returns 2 file descriptors in the fd array.

fd[0] is for read

fd[1] write

Returns 0 on successful creation of pipe, 1 otherwise.

Each end of the pipe is closed individually using normal close() system call. Pipes are only
available the process that creates the pipe and it’s descendants.

Named pipes
● Named pipes are also called FIFO’s (first in first out). They have “names” and exist as
special files within a file system. (file type p) They exist until they are removed with rm or

21
 unlink() They can be used with unrelated process not just descendants of the pipe creator.

● Named pipe ( is commonly known as FIFO) can be used between 2 totally unrelated
processes to communicate.

● Named Pipes will still exist even after the process which create the named pipe exit

● Named pipe is bidirectional flow

Creating named pipes

From the shell

$ mknod mypipe p

From a C program
mknod ( “mypipe”, SIFIFO, 0 );

Either way you create it you, it will result in a special file being created on the file system.

FIFO’s and Pipes use the same read and write operations. The memory is stored as circular buffer
for read and write operations. If the number of bytes to be written does not exceed the internal
buffer size for the pipe, the write operation must be carried out atomically. If number of processes
are writing to the pipe or FIFO, byte sequences for the individual write operation are nit
interrupted.

Q Define the system call ptrace ?

Ans : Execution Tracing is a technique that allows a program to monitor the execution
of another program. The traced program can be executed step-by-step, until a
signal is received, or until a system call is invoked. Execution tracing is widely
used by debuggers, together with other techniques like the insertion of
breakpoints in the debugged program and run-time access to its variables. In
Linux, execution tracing is performed through the ptrace() system call, which
can handle the following commands :

PTRACE_TRACEMEStart execution tracing for the current

processPTRACE_ATTACHStart execution tracing for another
processPTRACE_DETACHTerminate execution tracingPTRACE_KILLKill the
traced processPTRACE_PEEKTEXTRead a 32 bit value from the text
segmentPTRACE_PEEKDATARead a 32 bit value from the data
segmentPTRACE_POKETEXTWrite a 32 bit value from the text
segmentPTRACE_POKEDATAWrite a 32 bit value from the data
segmentPTRACE_CONTResume execution
Several monitored events can be associated with a traced program :

 End of execution of a single assembly instruction

 Entering a system call
 Exiting from a system call
 Receiving a signal

22
When a monitored event occurs, the traced program is stopped and a SIGCHLD
signal is sent to its parent. When the parent wishes to resume the child’s
execution, it can use one of the PTRACE_CONT.
A process can also be traced using some debugging features of the Intel
Pentium processors. For example, the parent could set the values of the dr0,
….dr7 debug registers for the child by using the PTRACE_POKEUSR
command. When a monitored event occurs, the CPU raises the “Debug”
exception; the exception handler can then suspend the traced process and
send the SIGCHLD signal to the parent.

23
 Chapter 6 : The Linux file system

Q The Explain the representation of file systems in the kernel of Linux?

Ans: The file system is the most visible aspect of an operating system. It provides
the mechanism for on-line storage of and access to both data and programs of
the operating system. A central demand made of a file system is the purposeful
structuring of data. When selecting a purposeful structure, however, two factors
not to be neglected are the speed of access to data and a facility for random
access.

Each file system starts with a boot block. This block is reserved for the code
required to boot the operating system.

The range of file systems supported is made possible by the unified interface to
the Linux kernel. This is the Virtual File System Switch (VFS). The virtual file
system is a kernel software layer that handles all system calls related to a
standard Linux filesystem. Its main strength is providing a common interface to
several kinds of filesystems.

For instance, let us assume that a user issues the shell command:

$ cp /mnt/floppy/TEST /tmp/test

Where /mnt/floppy is the mount point of an MS-DOS diskette and /tmp is a

normal EXT2 directory. The cp program is not required to know the filesystem
types of /mnt/floppy/TEST and /tmp/test. Instead, cp interacts with the VFS by
means of generic system calls well known to anyone who has done Linux
programming.

24
 Whenever a different filesystem is used, first register the filesystem. This is the
responsibility of the VFS, which call the register_filesystem(). This functions
fills the information of file_system_type structure, which store the information
about the filesystem.

Once a file system implementation has been registered with the VFS, file
system of this type can be administered.

The common file model consists of the following structure types :

Mounting
The superblock structure
The inode structure
The file structure

Mounting :

Before a file can be accessed, the file system containing the file must be
mounted. This can be done using either the system call mount or the function
mount_root(). The mount_root function takes care of mounting the first file
sytem. It is called by the system call setup after all the file system
implementations permanently included in the kernel have been registered. The
setup call itself is called just once, immediately after the init process is created
by the kernel function init().

The superblock :

All the information which is essential for managing the file system is held in the
superblock. Every mounted file system is represented by a super_block
structure. These structures are held in the static table super_block[ ]. The
superblock is initialized by the function read_super() in the Virtual File System.
The superblock contains information on the entire file system, such as block
size, access rights and time of the last change. The superblock also holds
references to the file system’s root inode.

Some important possible operations on super_block structure are as follows :

write_super() : The write_super function is used to save the information of the

superblock.

put_super() : The VFS calls this function when unmounting file systems,
when it should
also release the superblock and other information buffers.

read_inode() : The inode structure is initialized by this function like read_super()

fills
super_block structure.

25
 notify_change() : The changes made to the inode via system calls are
acknowledged by
notify_change().
write_inode() : This function saves the inode structure, analogous to
write_super().

The inode :
Click here

Some important possible operations on inode structure are as follows :

Create() : creates a new disk inode for a file.

Lookup() : searches a inode for given file.
Link() : This function sets up a hard link.
Unlink(): This function deletes the specified file in the directory specified.
Symlink() : create a symbolic link.
The file structure :

The file structure describes how a process interacts with a file it has opened.
The structure is created when the file is opened and consists of a file structure.
The structure contains information on a specific file’s access rights f_mode, the
current file position f_pos, the type of access f_flags and the number of
accesses f_count. The file structures are managed in a doubly linked list via the
pointers f_next and f_prev. This file table can be accessed via the pointer
first_file.

Some important possible operations on inode structure are as follows :

Lseek() : The job of the lseek function is to deal with positioning within the
file.
Read(): This function copies count bytes from the file into the buffer buf in
the user address space.
Write(): The write function operates in an analogous manner to read()
and copies data from the user address space to the file.
Select(): This function checks whether data can be read from a file or
written to one.
Ioctl(): The ioctl() function sets device-specific parameters.

Q Explain the proc filesystem ?

Ans : Linux supports different filesystem so in this place explain the process file
system(proc) of system V Release 4. Each process in the system which is
currently running is assigned a directory /proc/pid, where pid is the process
identification number of the relevant process. This directory contains files
holding information on certain characteristics of the process.

26
 When the Proc file system is mounted, the VFS function read_super() is called
by do_mount(), and in turn calls the function pror_read_super() for the Proc
file system in the file_system list.

iget() generate the inode for the proc root directory, which is entered in the
superblock. parse_options() function then processes the mount options data
that have been provided and sets the owner of the root inode.

Accessing the file system is always carried out by accessing the root inode of
the file system. The first access is made by calling iget(). If the inode does not
exist, this function then calles the proc_read_inode() function entered in the
proc_sops structure.

This inode describes a directory with read and execute permissions for all
processes. The proc_root_inode_operations only provides two functions: the
component readdir in the form of the proc_readroot() function and the
component lookup as the proc_lookuproot() function. Both function operate
using the table root_dir[ ], which contains the different entries for the root
directory.

The individual structures contain the inode number, the length of the filename,
and the name itself. Proc_lookuproot(), which determines the inode of a file by
reference to the inode for the directory and the name of a file contained in it.

The function proc_read_inode(), the inode for most normal files is assigned the
function vector proc_array_inode_operations. All that is implemented in this,
however, is the function array_read() in the standard file operations to read the
files.

Q Explain the Linux filesystem (ext2)?

Ans : As Linux was initially developed under MINIX, it is hardly surprising that the first
LINUX file system was the MINIX file system. However, this file system restricts
partitions to a maximum of 64 MB and filenames to no more than 14 characters,
so the search for a better file system was not long in starting. The result was the
Ext file system - the first to be designed especially for LINUX. Although this
allowed partitions of up to 2 GB and filenames up to 255 characters. It included
several significant extensions but offered unsatisfactory performance. The
second Extended Filesystem (Ext2) wasintroduced in 1994 : besides including
several new features, it is quite efficient and robust and has become the most
widely used LINUX file system.

The most significant features are :

Block fragmentation :

System administrators usually choose large block sizes for accessing recent
disks. As a result, small files stored in large blocks waste a lot of disk space.
This problem can be solved by allowing several files to be stored in different
fragments of the same block.

27
Access Control Lists :

Instead of classifying the users of a file under three classes - owner, group, and
others - an access control list (ACL) is associated with each file to specify the
access rights for any specific users or combinations of users.

Handling of compressed and encrypted files :

The new option, which must be specified when creating a file, will allow users to
store compressed and / or encrypted versions of their files on disk.

Logical deletion :

An undelete option will allow users to easily recover, if needed, the contents of
previously removed file.

The structure of the Ext2 file system :

The first block in any Ext2 partition is never managed by the Ext2 filesystem, since
it is reserved for the partition boot sector. The rest of the Ext2 partition is split into
block group. Block groups reduce file fragmentation, sice the kernel tries to keep
the data blocks belonging to a file in the same block group if possible. Each block in
a block group contains one of the following pieces of information :

 A copy of the filesytem’s superblock

 A copy of the group of block group descriptors
 A data block bitmap
 A group of indoes
 An inode bitmap
 A chunk of data belonging to a file; that is, a data block

An Ext2 disk superblock is stored in an ext2_super_block structure, which contains

the Total number of inodes, Filesystem size in blocks, number of reserved blocks,
free blocks counter, Free inodes counter, block size, fragement size and other
important information.

Each block group has its own group descriptor, an ext2_group_desc structure and
contains the inode table.

Directories in the Ext2 file system

In the Ext2 file system, directories are administered using a singly linked list. Ext2
implements directories as a special kind of file whose data blocks store filenames
together with the corresponding indoe numbers. In particular, such data blocks contain
structres of type ext2_dir_entry2. The structure has a variable length, since the last
name field is a variable length array of up to EXT2_NAME_LEN characters (usually
255). The name_len field stores the actual file name length. The rec_len field may be
interpreted as a pointer to the next valid directory entry : it is the offset to be added to
starting address of the directory entry to get the starting address of the next valid
directory entry.

28
 Block allocation in the Ext2 file system

A problem commonly encountered in all file systems is the fragmentatation of files- that
is, the ‘scattering’ of files into small pieces as a result of the constant deleting and
creating of new files. The Ext2 file system uses two algorithms to limit the fragmentation
of files.

Target-oriented allocation :

This algorithm always looks for space for new data blocks in the area of a ‘target block’.
If this block is itself free, it is allocated. Otherwise, a free block is sought within 32
blocks of the target block, and if found, is allocated. If this fails, the block allocation
routine tries to find a free block which is at least in the same block group as the target
block. Only after these avenues have been exhausted are other block groups
investigated.

Pre-allocation :

If a free block is found, up to eight following blocks are reserved (if they are free).
When the file is closed, the remaining blocks still reserved are released. This also
guarantees that as many data blocks as possible are collected into one cluster.

29
 Chapter 7 : Device drivers under Linux
Device drivers is an interface between device and O. S. Device driver is a
software which operate the hardware. There is a wide variety of hardware
available for LINUX computers. Each hardware have an own device driver.
Without these, an operating system would have no means of input or output
and no file system. Device drivers are uniquely identified by their major
numbers. A device driver may be controlling a number of physical and virtual
devices, for example a number of hard disks and partitions; thus, the individual
device is accessed via its minor number, an integer between 0 and 255. Each
individual device can thus be uniquely identified by the device type (block or
character), the major number of the device driver and its minor number.

Q Explain character and block devices under Linux. ?

Ans : Block devices :

Block devices are those to which transfer the data in block wise and provide
the facility of random access. Block devices are divided into a specific number
of equal - sized blocks and each block have a unique number. So file system
define the address system with the help of these block number. Using this
address you can access any data random whenever you want at any location
directly. for read and write from block device, Linux maintain a buffer area in
RAM. Random access is an absolute necessity for file systems, which means
that they can only be mounted on block devices. RAM, Hard disk, Floppy disk,
CD-ROM all are block devices.

Character devices :

Character devices on the other hand processed data character by character

and sequentially. And Linux doesn’t maintain the buffer area for that. Some
character devices maintain its own buffer for its internal operation for block
transferring but These blocks are sequential in nature, and cannot be accessed
randomly. For example - a ink printer and laser printer print the character in line
and page wise respectively so all characters stores in buffer and when a
required limit is reach, device send whole block of data to printing. Some
character devices are : Printer, Scanner, sound cards, monitor, PC speaker.

Q In the context of LINUX device drivers, write short notes of the following :

Polling Interrupt
Interrupt Sharing Bottom Halves
Task Queues DMA

Ans : Polling :

In polling, the driver constantly checks the hardware. The driver defines a
timeout (jiffies + waiting time), and driver continuously check the hardware until
timeout limit is not reach. Whenever a timeout limit is over the timeout error

30
handling will then give the appropriate error messages in case of printer like
printer is out of paper, offline. In polling mode results pointless wasting of
processor time; but it is sometimes the fastest way of communicating with the
hardware. The device driver for the parallel interface works by polling as the
default option.

Interrupt :

The use of interrupt, on the other hand, is only possible if these are supported
by the hardware. Here, the device informs the CPU via an interrupt channel
(IRQ) that it has finished an operation. This breaks into the current operation
and carries out an interrupt service routine (ISR). Further communication with
the device then takes place within the ISR.

In the serial mouse, every movement of which sends data to the serial port,
triggering an IRQ. The data from the serial port is read first by the handling ISR,
which passes it through to the application program.

IRQs are installed using the function :

Request_irq() in which pass different parameters like irq number, address of

handling routine, device name, device id, and irqflags.

Irqflags specifies the type of interrupt. If irqflags is off (NULL) then interrupt is
slow interrupt, if is set the value SA_INTERRUPT then interrupt is a fast
interrupt, if SA_SHIRQ then it is a sharable interrupt.

Interrupt sharing :

Various hardware is used the same irq number. If different hardware which used
same interrupt, are used in same PCI board then hardware are conflict each
other. In this case interrupt sharing provides the facility to use both device in
same PCI board. For this if one device is used the PCI buses the second device
wait for freeing that buses. If an ISR capable of interrupt sharing is installed, this
must be communicated to the request_irq() function by setting the SA_SHIRQ
flag. If another ISR also capable of interrupt sharing was already installed on
this interrupts, a chain is built.

Bottom Halves :

It frequently happens that not all the functions need to be performed

immediately after an interrupt occurs; although ‘important’ actions need to be
taken care of at once, others can be handled later or would take a relatively long
time and it is preferable not to block the interrupt. A bottom half is a low-priority
function, usually related to interrupt handling, that is waiting for the kernel to find
a convenient moment to run it.

Before invoking a bottom half for the first time, it must be initialized. This is done
by invoking the init_bh() function, which inserts the routine address in the nth
entry of bh_base. bh_base table to group all bottom halves together. It is an

31
 array of pointers to bottom halves and can include up to 32 entries, one for each
type of bottom half.

Some Linux Bottom Halves are as follows:

CONSOLE_BH : Virtual console

KEYBOARD_BH : Keyboard
NET_BH : Network Interface
SCSI_BH : SCSI interface
SERIAL_BH : Serial port
TIMER_BH : Timer

Task Queues :

Task queue is a dynamic extension of the concept of bottom halves. Use of

bottom halves is somewhat difficult because their number is limited to only 32,
and some tasks are already assigned to fixed numbers. Task queue allow a
number of functions to be entered in a queue and processed one after another
at a later time.

A queue element is described by the tq_struct which holds :

- the pointer to next entry in *next

- synchronization flag sync
- function to be called
- argument passed to the function at call time in *data.

Before a function can be entered in a task queue, a tq_struct structure must be

created and initialized.

DMA mode :

Direct memory access or DMA, is the hardware mechanism that allows

peripheral components to transfer their I/O data directly to and from main
memory without the need for the system processor to be involved in the transfer.
Use of this mode is ideal for multi-tasking, as the CPU can take care of other
tasks during the data transfer. The device will generally trigger an IRQ after the
transfer, so that the next DMA transfer can be prepared in the ISR handling the
procedure.

In a DMA operation the data transfer takes place without CPU intervention : the
data bus is directly driven by the I/O device and the DMAC(Direct Memory
Access controller). Therefore, when the kernel sets up a DMA operation, it must
write the bus address of the memory buffer involved in the proper I/O ports of
the DMAC or I/O device.

Q How a driver can be implemented explain with following functions :

setup init
open release

32
 read write
IOCTL select

Ans : setup () :

The setup() function must initialize the hardware devices in the computer and
set up the environment for the execution of the kernel program. Although the
BIOS already initialized most hardware de4vices, Linux does not rely on it but
reinitializes the devices in its own manner to enhance portability and
robustness. Sometimes it is desirable to pass parameters to a device driver or to
the Linux kernel in general. These parameters will come in the form of a
command line from the Linux loader LILO. This command line will be analyzed
into its component parts by the function parse_options(). The checksetup()
function is called for each of the parameters and compares the beginning of the
paramerer with the string stored in the bootsetups[ ] field, calling the
corresponding setup( ) function whenever these match. The checksetup()
function will attempt to convert the first ten parameters into integer numbers. If
this is successful, they will be stored in a field.

Init() :

The init() function is only called during kernel initialization, but is responsible for
important tasks. This function tests for the presence of a device, generates
internal device driver structures and registers the device.

The call to the init function must be carried out in one of the following functions,
depending on the type of device driver:

For

Character devices : chr_dev_init()

Block devices : blk_dev_init()
SCSI devices : scsi_dev_init()
Network devices : net_dev_init()

Before Linux can make use of the driver, it must be registered using the
functions register_chrdrv().

The init() function is also the right place to test whether a device supported by
the driver is present at all. This applies especially for devices which cannot be
connected or changed during operation, such as hard disks.

Open ():

The open function is responsible for administering all the devices and is called
as soon as a process opens a devices file. If only one process can work with a
given device. -EBUSY should be returned if other device wants to open the
device. If a device can be used by a number of processes at the same time,
open() should set up the necessary wait queues. If no device exists it should
return -ENODEV. The open() function is also the right place to initialize the
standard settings needed by the driver.

33
Release() :

The release() function is only called when the file descriptor for the device is
released. The tasks of this function comprise cleaning-up activities global in
nature, such as clearing wait queues. For some devices it can also be usefule to
pass through to the device all the data still in the buffers.

Read() & write() :

The read() and write() functions perform a similar task, that is, copying data from
and to application code. Whenever a input device is used read() function is fired
and for output devices write() function is fired, because only read operation is
possible by input device like mouse, keyboard and only write operation is
possible by output devices like printer, monitor.

IOCTL() :

Each device has its own characteristics, which may consist in different operation
modes and certain basic settings. It may also be that device parameters such as
IRQs, I/O addresses and so on need to be set at run-time. IOCTL usually only
change variables global to the driver or global device settings.
Select () :

The select () function checks whether data can be read from the device or
written to it. If the device is free or argument wait is NULL, the device will only
be check. If it is ready for the function concerned, select() will return 1,
otherwise a 0. If wait is not NULL, the process must be held up until the device
becomes available.

34
 Chapter 8 : Network Implementation

Q Define The Socket Structure ?

Ans : Sockets are used to handle communication links between application over the
network. Communication between the client and the server is through the
socket. To communicate client and server programs establish a connection and
bind a socket. The socket programming interface provides for communication
via a network as well as locally on a single computer. The Client socket sends a
request for server socket, server socket receive this request and send an
acknowledgement for client, client receive this ACK and send a concluding ACK
for server. Now connection is established.

A socket is represented in the kernel by the data structure socket.

Struct socket
{
short type;
socket_state state;
Long flags;
Struct proto_ops *ops;
Void *data;
Struct *inode;
Struct fasync_struct *fasync_list;
Struct file *file;
};

type determines the type of protocol used in connection. Valid entries for type
are SOCK_STREAM, SOCK_DGRAM and SOCK_RAW. Sockets of the type
SOCK_STREAM are used for TCP connections, SOCK_DGRAM for the UDP
protocol and SOCK_RAW for sending and receiving IP packets.

In state, the current state of the socket is stored. The most important states are
SS_CONNECTED and SS_UNCONNECTED.

flags are used to store the additional value for socket like SYN_SENT when a
client send a SYN to server.

The ops pointer points to the operation vector proto_ops, where the specific
operations for this protocol are entered.

The data pointer points to the substructure of the socket corresponding to the
protocol family.

There is also an inode for each BSD socket. A reference to the corresponding
inode is stored in inode, whereas file holds a reference to the primary file
structure associated with this node.

35
 If different clients want to communicate with this socket then all the client
request stored in fasync_list.

Q Define the Network devices under Linux?

Ans : There is a great variety of hardware that can be used to connect computers. The
data structure device controls an abstract network device. This structure
element describes the hardware device. The some devices used in network are
as follows :

Ethernet :
Linux supports two groups of adaptors for Ethernet. These include on the one
hand the classic Ethernet cards connected to the PC bus, and on the other
adaptors linked to the PC via the PCMCIA bus.

The network devices for Ethernet cards are named ‘eth0,….,eth3. Whenever a
computer is started, the network card is detected. The kernel outputs a message
on the cards detected and there allocation to the network devices. Two types of
card are popular in network, WD8013 and NE2000. In case of WD8013, these
cards doesn’t compatible with some hardware but NE 2000 generally supported
most of the hardware.

Every Ethernet adaptor has a completely unique address. These addresses are
6 bytes long. Ethernet card supports the various types of protocol like IP, ARP,
IPX, TCP. The type determine which types of packets are send or receive.

Q Difference between SLIP and PLIP devices?

SLIP and PLIP :

The difference between SLIP and PLIP is that the one protocol uses the
computer’s serial interface for data transfer while the other transfers data via the
parallel port. In SLIP devices data sends in 1 bit at a time, on the other hand
PLIP devices sends data 8bits or 16 bits at a time depending on devices, either
device is 8 bit or 16 bit. PLIP enables a very powerful link to be set up between
two computers. SLIP is the simplest way of connecting a computer or a local
network to the Internet via a serial link. For example : a modem connection to a
telephone network. SLIP and PLIP both differ from Ethernet in that they can only
transmit IP packets.

The loopback device :

The loopback device provides the facilities of communication to applications on

the local computer using sockets. Suppose you have a modem and create a
applications using the modem. How can you check the application communicate
with other computer by modem so you can use the NULL modem, which
provides the facilities of return the sending data to this computer.

36
 The dummy device :

In case of dummy device no real hardware device is present. If you want to use
the all facilities of network, just load the device driver of the network device. For
example : whenever you wish to connect the internet, you want to load the
network card so you can load the device driver of the network card which enable
the all services of network.

Q Define the following :

IP TCP
UDP ARP

Ans : IP (Internetwork Protocol) :

The IP layer provides a packet transfer service - that is, it can be given a packet
and the addressees and it will take care of the transfer. It is an unreliable and
connectionless datagram protocol- a best-effort delivery service. The term best-
effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. IP assumes the
unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a transmission
through to its destination, but with no guarantees. Transmissions along physical
networks can be destroyed for a number of reasons. Noise can cause bit errors
during transmission across a medium; a congested router may discard a
datagram if it is unable to relay it before a time limit runs out.

The following much simplified picture describes the tasks of the IP layer.

The schematic flow of the outgoing packet stream of IP is as follows :

 Receipt of a packet.

 Option handling.

 Routing to the destination address.

 Generating the hardware header.

 Creating the IP packet. This involves generating an IP header, which is

simply added to the hardware header along with the data packet.

 Fragmenting the IP packet, if the IP packet is too large for the device.

 Passing the IP packet to the appropriate network device.

The schematic flow of the incoming packet stream of IP is :

 Checking the IP header.

 Comparing destination address with local address.

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 Decrementing the ttl (which holds the no. of sending packets) field.

 Defragmenting the IP packet.

 Forwarding the packet to the next protocol.

Q Define the FIB (Forwarding Information Base) ? (5)

A route must be established by the IP for every packet that is sent. The decision
on whom the packet is sent to, and via which network device, is made by
reference to the Forwarding Information Base (FIB). In FIB use the struct
fib_zone, which are responsible for one zone each. A zone denotes all routes
that have the same route mask. Thus, all host routes are in the same zone.

Fib_node and fib_info structure hold all information for a determined route. The
information is divided into two structures because much of the information for
different routes is identical. For continuous fast access, there is yet another
hash table of the struct rtable, which holds the all routes references.

When a network device is deactivated, the transfer of packets via this device is
no longer possible. This means that routes in the table which refer to this device
are no longer operable, and they are therefore automatically deleted from the
table when a device is taken off the network.

Q Define the IP packet filters & IP accounting and IP firewalling ?

(5)

IP packet filters, a very powerful tool has been placed in the hands of network
administrators. Using these filters, they can specify very precisely which IP
packets are to be send or receive. In a big organizations, in which no. of
computers are used, administrator restrict all the user with the help of IP packet
filter for sending or receiving unnecessary data. A filter consists of a list of
packet patterns. If a packet matches a pattern in the list it will be recognized by
the corresponding filter.

The characteristics of IP packet filters are used by IP accounting and IP

firewalling. In IP accounting, the complete network is traced. The administrator
check it which data are sent or received by network. In firewalling, a firewall
machine is always located at a geteway, the checking mechanisms can be
implemented relatively easily. Call_in_firewall() and call_out_firewall() restrict
receiving and sending of IP packets, respectively.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) :

38
The transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport layer services to
applications. TCP is a reliable stream transport port-to-port protocol. The term
stream, in this context, means connection-oriented : a connection must be
established between both ends of a transmission before either may transmit
data. By creating this connection, TCP generates a virtual circuit between
sender and receiver that is active for the duration of a transmission. Reliability is
ensured by provision for error detection and retransmission of damaged frames;
all segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered complete and the virtual circuit is discarded.

TCP protocol to be implemented with correct timing behavior. For this purpose
reset_timer(), delete_timer(), net_timer() functions are used.

In a TCP connection, client uses the function connect() to set up a connection

to the server. The function send a SYN to the server and then goes over to the
SYN_SENT state. The process now blocked until it receives the SYN/ACK from
the server. Server receive the SYN by listen() function and send a SYN/ACK for
client. Client receive this SYN and again send a concluding ACK, and the
connection is now established.

By calling close() function client sends a FIN to server. Server receive this FIN
and release the all information related to that particular client, and send the ACK
to client, and now connection is terminated.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) :

UDP are not reliable and are, therefore, used only when there is little data to be
transmitted, and there is not much distance between the sender and the
receiver. In UDP, there is no guarantee that the data packet sent will reach its
destination. If the network traffic is high, or the receiving program is handling
multiple requests from other programs, there is a chance of the datagram
packet being lost.

The UDP protocol does not make the use of a checksum mandatory. If does not
provide any sequencing or reordering functions and cannot specify the
damaged packet when reporting an error. It does not have an ability to specify
which packet has been lost.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) :

The address resolution protocol (ARP) associates an IP address with the

hardware address. The task of the ARP is to convert the abstract IP addresses
into real hardware addresses. This conversion is required because a hardware
network cannot do anything with IP addresses. The Linux ARP is capable of
mapping Ethernet addresses, arcnet addresses and AX.25 addresses to the
corresponding IP addresses.

The reverse function is handled by RARP (reverse ARP). Unlike, ARP, the
RARP in Linux can at present only convert Ethernet addresses into IP
addresses.

39
The central element in address resolution is the ARP table, which consists of a
field of pointers to structures of the type arp_table. A further facility offered by
Linux is ‘proxy’ ARP. This enables subnetworks which should really be directly
interconnected by hardware to be separated.

40
 Chapter 9 : Modules and debugging
Q What are modules? How implemented in the kernel ?

Ans : Modules are components of the Linux kernel that can be loaded and attached to
it as needed. To add support for a new device, you can now simply instruct a
kernel to load its module. In some cases, you may have to recompile only that
module to provide support for your device. The use of modules has the added
advantage of reducing the size of the kernel program. The kernel can load
modules in memory only as they are needed. For example, the module for the
BLOCK devices, and FILE SYSTEM, whenever you use the device and use the
file system.

Implementation in the kernel :

Linux provides three system calls : create_module, init_module and

delete_module for implementation of Linux modules. A further system call is
used by the user process to obtain a copy of the kernel’s symbol table.

The administration of modules under Linux makes use of a list in which all the
modules loaded are included. This list also administers the modules’ symbol
tables and references.

As far as the kernel is concerned, modules are loaded in two steps

corresponding to the system calls create_module and init_modules. For the user
process, this procedure divides into four phases.

The process fetches the content of the object file into its own address space. To
get the code and data into a form in which they can actually be
executed, the actual load address must be added at various points. This
process is known as relocating.

The system call create_module is now used, firstly to obtain the final address of
the object module and secondly to reserve memory for it. To do this, a
structure module is entered for the module in the list of modules and the
memory is allocated. The return value gives us the address to which the
module will later be copied.

The load address received by create_module is used to relocate the object file.
This procedure takes place in a memory area belonging to the process-if
process is a user process then load in user area, and if kernel process
load in kernel segment.

When a module is already use in a process and other process wish to

use this then it uses the module which earlier loaded. This mechanism is
known as module stacking.

41
 Once the preliminary work is complete, we can load the object module. This
uses the system call init_modules. cleanup() function is called when the
module is deinstalled.

By using the system call delete_module, a module that has been loaded
can be removed again. Two preconditions need to be met for this : there
must be no references to the modules and the module’s use counter
must hold a value of zero.

Q Define the Kenel Daemon ?

Ans : The kernel daemon is a process which automatically carries out loading and
removing of modules without the system user noticing it. For example :
whenever a file is accessed by floppy, so kernel daemon load the block device
module for handling the block device and load the file system modules for
particular file system. But how does the kernel daemon know that modules need
to be loaded ?

Communication between the Linux kernel and the kernel daemon is carried out
by means of IPC. The kernel daemon opens a message queue with the new flag
IPC_KERNELD. The kernel sends the messages to the kernel daemon by
kerneld_send function. Request is stored in kerneld_msg struct, which
includes different information :

mtype : component contains the message

ld : indicates whether the kernel expects an answer
pid : component holds the PID of the process that triggered the kernel
request.

Responsibility for loading and releasing modules lies with the functions :

request_module : kernel requests the loading of a module

and waits until
the operation has been carried out.

release_module : removes a module

delayed_release_module : allows a module to be removed with a
specified delay.
cancel_release_module : allows a module to be removed with a
specified condition.

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Q Define the Debugging ?

Ans : Debugging is the process in which find out the errors and also whenever an
error is occurred at run time, rectify that error and warn for that. Only few cases
a section of program code be free of bugs as soon as it is written. Usually the
program will need debugging, for which it will be loaded into a debugger such as
gdb and run step by step until the error has been found.

The most common debugging techinque is monitoring. When you are

debugging kernel code, you can accomplish this goal with printk.

Printk :

In printk debugger, code is checked and an error occurred create the check
points and print an appropriate alarm message. For example : whenever a
kernel segment process wish to call the data and code of user segment
process, verify_area () functions is fired, which check all area related to process
and if any error is occurred, call the printk debugger, which print the appropriate
message.

Gdb - GNU debugger :

Execution Tracing is a technique that allows a program to monitor the execution

of another program. The traced program can be executed step-by-step, until a
signal is received, or until a system call is invoked. Execution tracing is widely
used by debuggers, together with other techniques like the insertion of
breakpoints in the debugged program and run-time access to its variables. In
Linux, execution tracing is performed through the ptrace() system call. Gdb
debugger works on ptrace () system call. Check the code and data, if any error
is occurred, try to repair this error if error is repaired then relocating the control
otherwise print an appropriate message.

Chapter 10 : Multi-processing
43
Q Define the SMP ?

Ans : Most systems are single processor systems; that is, they have only one main
CPU. But sometimes applications require more processors power. So in this
situation use the multiple processor for close communication, sharing the
computer bus, the clock, and sometimes memory and peripheral devices. The
most common multiple-processor systems now use the symmetric-
multiprocessing (SMP) model, in which each processor runs an identical copy
of the operating system, and these copies communicate with one another as
needed.

Most of the currently available multi-processor main boards for PCs use i486,
Pentium or Pentium Pro processors. The Pentium already has some internal
functions which support multi-processor operation, such as cache
synchronization, inter-processor interrupt handling.

It defines a highly symmetrical architecture in terms of :

Q Difference between Memory symmetry and I/O symmetry ?

Memory Symmetry :
All processors share the same main memory; in particular, all physical
addresses are the same. This means that all processors execute the same
operating system, all data and applications are visible to all processors and can
be used or executed on every processor.

I/O Symmetry :

All processors share the same I/O subsystem (including the I/O port and the
interrupt controller). I/O symmetry allows reduction of a possible I/O bottleneck.
However, some MP systems assign all interrupts to one single processor and on
the other hand use the I/O APIC (Advanced Programmable Interrupt
Controller). All CPU are connected by ICC (Interrupt Controller
Communications) bus.

One processor is chosen by the BIOS; it is called the boot processor (BSP)
and is used for system initialization. All other processors are called application
processors (AP) and are initially halted by the BIOS.

Problems with multi-processor systems :

For the correct functioning of a multi-tasking system it is important that data in

the kernel can only be changed by one processor so that identical resources
cannot be allocated twice. For this use coarse grained locking; sometimes even
the whole kernel is locked so that only one process can be present in the kernel.
And also use the finer grained locking which, normally used only for multi-
processor and real-time operating system.

In the Linux kernel implementation, various rules were established :

44
No process running in kernel mode is interrupted by another process running in
kernel mode, except when it releases control and sleeps.

Interrupt handling can interrupt a process running in kernel mode, but that in the
end control is returned back to this same process. A process can block
interrupts and thus make sure that it will not be interrupted.

Interrupt handling cannot be interrupted by a process running in kernel mode.

This means that the interrupt handling will be processed completely, or at
most be interrrupted by another interrupt of higher priority.

In the development of the multi-processor LINUX kernel a decision was made to

maintain these three basic rules. All processes to monitor the transition to kernel
mode use one single semaphore. This semaphore is used to ensure that no
process running in kernel mode can be interrupted by another process.
Furthermore, it guarantees that only a process running in kernel mode can block
the interrupts without another process taking over the interrupt handling.

Changes to the Kernel :

In order to implement SMP in the LINUX kernel, changes have to be made :

Kernel Initialization :

The first problem with the implementation of multi-processor operation arises

when starting the kernel. Initially BIOS running the boot processor and
halted all Aps. Only this processor enters the kernel starting function
start_kernel(). After it has executed the normal LINUX initialization,
smp_init() is called. This function activates all other processors by calling
smp_boot_cpus().

Scheduling :

The LINUX scheduler, which responsibility is allocated the processor to

running process. The Linux scheduler shows only slight changes. First of all,
the task structure now has a processor component which contains the
number of the running processor. The last_processor component contains
the number of the processor which processed the task last.

Message exchange between processors :

Messages in the form of inter-processor interrupts are handled via interrupts

13 and 16. Interrupt 13 is defined as a fast interrupt which, however does
not need the kernel lock and can thus always be processed. Interrupt 16 is a
slow interrupt which waits for the kernel lock and can trigger scheduling. It is
used to start the schedulers on the other processors.

Entering kernel mode :

45
 The kernel is protected by a single semaphore. All interrupt handlers, syscall
routines and exception handlers need this semaphore and wait in a
processor loop until the semaphore is free.

Interrupt Handling :

Interrupts are distributed to the processors by the I/O APIC. At system start,
however, all interrupts are forwarded only to the BSP. Each SMP operating
system must therefore switch the APIC into SMP mode, so that other
processors too can handle interrupts.

Linux does not use this operating mode, that is, during the whole time the
system is operating, interrupts are only delivered to the BSP. This
compromises the latency time.

46
Question no. 36- What are the various steps involved in kernel recompilation?
Answer- The Linux kernel is an operating system kernel used by the Linux family of UNIX
like operating system. It is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source
software. The Linux kernel is developed under open and distributed conditions. “Open”
means that anyone can become involved if they are able to do so. Kernel is the central part
of most of the operating systems. The main functions of kernel include process
management, resource management etc. It is the first part of operating system that is
loaded in to the RAM when the machine is booted and it will remain in the main memory.
Recompilation means compile the kernel in more compact manner. It means to upgrade or
add or remove certain features of kernel so as of your liking. In simple terms
recompilation is done for optimization and makes it more resourceful.
We need to recompile the kernel to
● Reduce its size
● Add or remove support for devices
● Modify system parameters
STEPS INVOVLED IN KERNEL RECOMPILATION ARE AS FOLLOWS:
Step 1- Verify and update the packages required
This step is to be performed only when one wants to upgrade the kernel version. The main
packages to be checked and upgraded are: binutils, e2fsprogs, procps, gcc and module-
init-tools. You should take extreme care while upgrading module-init-tools. A module is a
piece of code that can be inserted into the kernel on demand. Module-init-tools provide
utilities for managing Linux kernel modules - for loading, unloading, listing and removing
modules.
The main utilities available are:
● insmod
● rmmod
● modprobe
● depmod
● lsmod
Configure it.

cd module-init-tools-3.2.2
./configure --prefix=/
Rename the existing version of this utility as utility. Old

make moveold

Build and install.

make
make install
Run the script generate-modprobe.conf to convert the entries in the module configuration
file for kernel version 2.4 ( /etc/modules.conf ) to a file used by kernel version 2.6
(/etc/modprobe.conf)

47
 ./generate-modprobe.conf /etc/modprobe.conf

Check the version of current module-init-tools

depmod –V

Step 2- Obtain the Kernel Source

For example if one is planning to recompile your kernel to version 2.6.19.2, the steps
would be:
root]#cd /usr/src/kernels
[root]#wget http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/linux-2.6.19.2.tar.gz
[root]#tar zxf linux-2.6.19.2.tar.gz
[root]#cd linux-2.6.19.2

Step 3- Obtain the Current Hardware Details

The current Hardware details can be obtained using the following commands:

lspci
This utility gives the details about the network card and all devices attached to the
machine.
cat /proc/cpuinfo
The processor details can be obtained from the file /proc/cpuinfo

modinfo
Another useful tool to obtain hardware information is modinfo. It gives detailed
description about modules. Before using modinfo, you may need to find out currently
loaded modules. lsmod is the utility that lists currently loaded modules.

Step 4- Configure the Kernel

You can configure the kernel using any of the following:
1. make config - This is a text based command line interface that will ask each and
every configuration question in order.
2. make xconfig - This is a graphical editor that requires x to be installed in the
system. Hence it is not used in servers.
3. make oldconfig - A text based interface that takes an existing configuration file
and queries for any variable not enabled in that configuration file.

48
 4. make menuconfig - A text based menu configuration based on cursor-control
libraries. This is the most commonly used method for configuring kernels in
servers.
Steps for configuring your kernel are:

Copy the current kernel configuration to your new kernel source. Example-

[root@XXXXX ~]#pwd
/usr/src/kernels/linux-2.6.19.2
[root@XXXXX ~]#cp /boot/config-<current_kernel_version> .config
[root@XXXXX ~]#make oldconfig

make menuconfig.
[root@XXXXX ~]#make menuconfig

For writing a new driver

# make drivers is used, which will cause the drivers to be compiled.

Step 5- Build the kernel

The next step is to build the Kernel. You can use the command make bzImage to do this.
This command will create a compressed file bzImage inside arch/i386/boot in the Linux
source directory and that is the newly compiled kernel.
The next step is to compile and link the modules. This can be done using the command
make modules.
After this you have to copy the modules to /lib/modules/. And this is done using the
command make modules_install.
The command sequence is as follows:
make -j<Number> bzImage
make -j<Number> modules
make -j<Number> modules-Install

Step 6- Configure Boot Loader

Boot loader is the first program that runs when a computer boots. There are two types of
boot loader :
● GRUB
● LILO
Check for grub first:
# dd if=/dev/hda bs=512 count=1 2>&1 | grep GRUB

49
 Check for lilo if it did not match:
# dd if=/dev/hda bs=512 count=1 2>&1 | grep LILO

Step 7- Reboot the Server

Reboot the server using the command reboot.

50