CHEMICAL BONDING: IONIC BONDS

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMICAL BONDING IONIC BONDING AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

• CHEMICAL BOND • IONIC BOND
o Attractive force that o Chemical bond formed through the transfer
holds two atoms of one or more electrons.
together in a more
complex unit.
o Forms from the • ION
interactions o Atom or group of atoms that is electrically
between the charged as a result of loss of electrons
electrons found in (cation) or gain of electrons (anion) which
the combining destroys the proton-electron balance.
atoms. o MONATOMIC ION
o Linked to electron ▪ Formed from a single atom.
configuration. o POLYATOMIC ION
▪ Formed from a group of atoms (held
by covalent bonds).

Ionic Covalent Metallic bonds

✓ TWO FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN CHEMICAL

BONDING
1. Not all electrons in an atom participate in
bonding. Those that do are called valence
electrons. • The charge (sign and magnitude) on an ion depends
▪ Valence electron is an electron in on the number of electrons that are lost or gained.
the outermost electron shell of a • Metals in Group IA, IIA, and IIIA, tend to lose
representative element or noble-gas electrons to acquire a noble-gas electron
element. configuration.
▪ Lewis symbol is the chemical symbol • Elements in Group IVA would have to gain or lose
of an element surrounded by dots electrons to acquire a noble-gas electron
equal to the number of valence configuration.
electrons present in atoms of the
element. FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
2. Certain arrangements of electrons are more • Always neutral.
stable than others as explained by octet rule.
• Electron loss always equals electron gain in an
▪ Octet rule states that in forming
electron transfer process. Thus, the ratio in which
compounds, atoms of elements lose,
positive and negative ions combine is the ratio that
gain, or share electrons to produce a
achieves charge neutrality for the resulting
noble-gas electron configuration.
compound.
▪ The valence electron configurations
• The sum of the charges is
of noble gases are considered the
2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0 (neutral).
most stable with eight valence
Thus, the formula of
electrons, except Helium.
aluminum oxide is Al2O3

✓ THREE GENERAL RULES IN WRITING CHEMICAL

FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS
1. The symbol for the positive ion (cation) is
always written first.
 2. The charges on the ions that are present are ✓ RULES IN NAMING BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS
not shown in the formula. 1. The full name of the metallic element
3. The numbers in the formula (subscripts) give (cation) is given first.
the combining ratio for the ions. 2. Followed by a separated word containing the
stem of the nonmetallic element (anion)
✓ TWO CONVENTIONS IN WRITING CHEMICAL name and the suffix –ide.
FORMULAS CONTAINING POLYATOMIC IONS Compound Name
1. When more than one polyatomic ion of a NaCl Sodium chloride
given kind is required in a chemical formula, KI Potassium iodide
the polyatomic ion is enclosed in MgO Magnesium oxide
parentheses, and a subscript, placed outside
the parentheses, is used to indicate the ✓ In naming ionic compounds with metals with variable
number of polyatomic ions needed. charges, the charge on the metal ion must be
2. To preserve the identity of the polyatomic incorporated into the name using Roman numerals.
ions, the same elemental symbol may be ✓ If uncertain, use the charge of the nonmetal ion
used more than once in a chemical formula. (which does not vary) to calculate it.

NAMES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• CATIONS
o Formed from metal atoms have the same
✓ The naming of ionic compounds containing
name as the metal.
polyatomic ions is similar to that for binary ionic
o If a metal has variable charges, the charge in
compounds with few modifications.
the metal ion is incorporated into the name
1. If the polyatomic ion is NH4+ and Cl-
by a Roman numeral in parentheses
positive, its name is NH4Cl
following the name of the metal.
substituted for that of Ammonium chloride
the metal. If the
polyatomic ion is Mg2+ and NO3-
negative, its name is Mg(NO3)2
substituted for the ion Magnesium nitrate
name of nonmetal.
2. When both positive NH4+ and NO3-
and negative ions are NH4NO3
polyatomic, dual Ammonium nitrate
substitution occurs,
and the resulting NH4+ and PO43-
• ANION name includes just the
o The names of monatomic ions are formed by (NH4)3PO4
names of the Ammonium
replacing the ending of the name of the polyatomic atoms.
element with –ide. phosphate

STRUCTURE OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• A solid ionic compound is consisting of positive and
negative ions arranged in such a way that each ion is
surrounded by nearest neighbors of the opposite
charge and are bonded by electrostatic attractions
(positive-negative).
• The ions adopt an arrangement that maximizes the
attractions between ions of opposite charge and
minimizes repulsions between ions of the same
charge.
• Arrangements are usually very symmetrical and
result in crystalline solids.
• The alternating array of positive and negative ions
present in an ionic compound means that discrete
molecules do not exist in such compounds.
• Formula unit is the smallest whole-number
repeating ratio of ions present in an ionic compound
that results in charge neutrality.
• Used in equations and chemical calculations.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. They have very high melting points and boiling
points.
2. Compounds in solid state are nonconductors of
electricity.
3. In liquid or molten state, ionic compounds can
conduct electricity.
 CHEMICAL BONDING: COVALENT BONDS
COVALENT BONDING AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS FORMULAS AND NAMES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
• IONIC BONDS • The greater the attraction between
o Between a metal and nonmetal a given atom and an electron, the
o Electron transfer more negative the atom’s electron
o Do not contain discrete molecules. affinity will be.
• COVALENT BONDS • One major difference in naming
o Between nonmetals binary molecular and ionic
o Electron sharing compounds is the presence of
o Basic structural unit is a molecule. numerical prefixes.
• COVALENT BONDING • Al2O3 - Aluminum oxide
o From two nuclei attracting the same shared • CO2 - Carbon dioxide
electrons.
o When two H atoms combine, the orbitals ✓ BASIC RULES IN NAMING BINARY MOLECULAR
that contain the valence electrons overlap. COMPOUND
o Most favorable location for the shared 1. The full name of the nonmetal of lower
electrons is the area between the two electronegativity is given first.
nuclei. a. CO2 – Carbon dioxide
o Increased stability 2. It is followed by a separate word containing the
o Often possess both bonding and nonbonding stem of the name of the more electronegativity
electrons. nonmetal and the suffix –ide.
• OCTET RULE 3. Numerical prefixes, giving the number of atoms,
o Applicable to the formation of covalent precede the names of both nonmetals.
bonds.
o Many atoms attain complete octets by
sharing more than one pair of electrons.
o Single Covalent Bond

▪ Two atoms share one pair of

electrons.
▪ Represented by one line.
o Double Covalent Bond
✓ For binary covalent compounds, the number of
atoms of each element that is needed to form a
▪ Two atoms share two pairs of molecule can be determined with the following
electrons. steps:
▪ Represented by two lines. o Write the Lewis symbol of each atom.
o Triple Covalent Bond o Determine how many atoms of each element
are needed to complete the octet of the
atoms involved.
▪ Two atoms share three pairs of
electrons.
▪ Represented by three lines.
LEWIS STRUCTURE (DISTRIBUTING VALENCE ELECTRONS)
1. Calculate the total number of valence electrons
available in the molecule by adding together the
valence electron counts for all atoms in the
molecule.
2. Determine the central atom. Write the chemical EXCEPTIONS TO OCTET RULE
symbols of the atoms in the molecule in the order in • ODD NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
which they are bonded to one another, then place a o Complete pairing of
single covalent bond (two electrons) between each electrons in an atom is
pair of bonded atoms. impossible.
a. Appears only once in the formula (SO3); • LESS THAN AN OCTET OF
b. In molecular compounds containing H, O and VALENCE ELECTRONS
an additional element, that additional o Fewer than eight valence
element is the central atom (HNO3); electrons around an atom.
c. Carbon is the central atom in nearly all • MORE THAN AN OCTET OF VALENCE ELECTRONS
carbon-containing compounds (HCN, CH4) o More than eight valence electrons around an
d. Neither H nor F is ever the central atom. atom.
3. Add nonbonding electron pairs to the structure such
that each atom bonded to the central atom has an
octet of electrons.
4. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom of
the structure.
5. Count the total number of electrons in the completed
Lewis structure to make sure it is equal to the total
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
number of valence electrons available for bonding.

✓ Lewis structure of polyatomic ion is drawn using the

same procedures as for molecular compounds with
slight modification.
o The total number of electrons used in the
structure must be adjusted:
▪ Increase for negative charged ions
▪ Decrease for positively charged ions
• Low melting and boiling points
• Nonconductors of electricity
• Solids (glucose), Liquids (water), Gases (carbon
dioxide) at room temperature.

o In ionic compound with polyatomic ion, the

ions are treated separately to show that they
are not linked by covalent bonds.
o Formal charge is the charge a bonded atom
would have if its bonding electrons were
shared equally.
 STOICHIOMETRY
STOICHIOMETRY MOLECULAR MASS AND FORMULA MASS
• Examines the quantities of substances consumed and • Relative masses with the mass of the carbon-12
produced in chemical reactions. isotope as standard.
• Atomic masses, chemical formulas and the law of • Molecular mass is simply the sum of the masses of
conservation of mass. the atoms in the molecule of the substance.
• Formula mass is the term used for ionic compounds.
ATOMIC MASS Molecular mass is not the appropriate term since
• Extremely small particles, it is possible to determine there are no molecules in ionic compounds and their
the mass of one atom relative to another formulas merely indicate the ratio of the number of
experimentally with the use of a standard. cations and anions.
• Atomic weight
Cholesterol (C27H46O) plays a very important role in
• Mass of the atom in atomic mass unit (amu). the synthesis of important compounds in our body
• Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly such as hormones but, if present in excess, can lead
equal to 1/12 the mass of one carbon-12 atom. to cardiovascular disease. What is the molecular
• Setting the atomic mass of carbon-12 at 12.00 amu mass of cholesterol?
provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass Atom Atomic mass (amu) Mass
of the other elements. Number (amu)
• A H atom is only 8.400% as massive as the carbon-12 C 27 12.01 27
atom. If the mass of one carbon-12 atom is 12 amu, (12.01) =
then the atomic mass of H will be: 324.27
0.084 x 12.00 amu = 1.008 amu H 46 1.01 46 (1.01)
• An atom with a mass equal to 1/12 the mass of a = 46.46
carbon-12 atom would have a relative mass of 1 amu. O 1 16.00 1 (16.00)
• An atom with a mass equal to twice the mass of = 16.00
a carbon-12 atom would have a relative mass of 24 Molecular mass 386.73
amu.
• When you look up the atomic mass of C in the Hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, is the enamel that
periodic table, you will find that its value is not 12.00 forms the outer covering of our teeth. What is its
amu but 12.01 amu. formula mass?
o Most naturally occurring elements have Atom Number Atomic Mass
more than one isotope. mass (amu) (amu)
• When measuring the atomic mass of an element, we Ca 10 40.08 10 (40.08)
must generally settle for the average mass of the = 400.8
naturally occurring mixture of isotopes. P 6 30.97 6 (30.97) =
o For example, the percentage abundances of 185.82
carbon-12 (12.00000 amu) is 98.90% and for O 26 16.00 26 (16.00)
carbon-13 (13.00335 amu) is 1.10%. = 416.00
Calculate the average atomic mass of carbon. H 2 1.01 2 (1.01) =
o Average atomic mass of C = (0.9890) 2.02
(12.00000 amu) + (0.0110)(13.00335 amu) Molecular mass 1,004.6
= 12.01 amu
THE MOLE CONCEPT
• Mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that
contains as many particles as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12 isotope.
• The actual number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12 is
determined experimentally and this is the
Avogadro’s number (6.02 x 1023)
o 1 mole of Cu = 6.02 x 1023 Cu atoms
• When solving problems dealing with the number of o Acetaminophen (C8H9O2N) is the pain-killing
particles present in a given number of moles of a ingredients in Tylenol formulations.
substance, Avogadro’s number becomes part of the Calculate the mass, in grams, of a 0.30-mole
conversion factor. sample of this pain reliever. The molar mass
of acetaminophen is 151.18 g/mol.

• The mass of a mole (molar mass) varies and is o Vitamin C has the formula C6H8O6. Calculate
different for each chemical substances unlike the the number of vitamin C molecules present
molar number (Avogadro’s number) which is the in a 0.250-g tablet of pure vitamin C. The
same for all chemical substances. molar mass of Vit. C is 176.14 g/mol.
• Molar mass is the mass in grams of one mole of a
substance (g/mol). It is numerically equal to the
substance’s atomic mass, formula mass, or
molecular mass.
• The molecular mass of CO2 is 44.01
amu; therefore, 1 mole of CO2 weighs
44.01 g. From this equality, 1 mole = • When it is necessary to know the number of moles of
44.01 g, the two conversion factors can a particular element within a compound, the
be written and be used in problem subscript of that element’s symbol in the chemical
solving. formula becomes part of the conversion factor. Using
N2O4, as our chemical formula, we can write the
following conversion factors:

o Lactic acid, the substance that builds up in

muscles and causes them to hurt when they
• In solving chemical-formula-based problems are worked hard, has the formula C3H6O3.
(determining mass in grams, number of particles, How many moles of carbon atoms, hydrogen
and moles), you can use the figure below. The only atoms, and oxygen atoms are present in a 1.2
“transitions” allowed are those between quantities mole sample of lactic acid?
(boxes) connected by arrows.

PERCENT COMPOSITION AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS

• Law of definite proportion (law of constant
o How many objects/particles are there in 0.23
composition): elements in a compound are present
mole of aspirin molecules?
in a definite proportion by mass.
• The composition of the compound is commonly
expressed as the percent by mass of the elements.

Where n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound.

 o Washing soda, Na2CO3, is used in the • Molecular formula specifies both the relative and
manufacture of glass, pulp and paper. What the actual number of atoms in a molecule.
is its percentage composition? o What is the molecular formula of a
compound containing 24.27% C, 4.07% H
and 71.65% Cl by mass? The molar mass of
the compound is 98.96 g.
o Step 1: Assume that the sample is 100 g. The
given percentage composition of each
element is the mass in grams of the element.
C = 24.27 g, H = 4.07 g, Cl = 71.65 g
• If the percent composition of a compound can be o Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of
obtained using its chemical formula, the formula of each element. Grams of A to Moles of A, with
the compound can also be derived from its percent the use of molar mass.
composition by mass. C = 12.01 g/mol, H = 1.01 g/mol, Cl = 34.45
• Empirical formula specifies the smallest whole- g/mol
number ratio of atoms of the elements in a
compound.
o What is the empirical formula of a
compound containing 43.38% Na, 11.33% C,
and 45.29% O?

o Step 1: Assume that the sample is 100 g. The o Step 3: Get the ratio of the elements by
given percentage composition of each dividing the calculated moles by the smallest
element is the mass in grams of the element. quantity.
Na = 43.38 g, C = 11.33 g, O = 45.29 g
o Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of
each element. Grams of A to Moles of A, with The empirical formula is CH2Cl.
the use of molar mass. o Step 4: Get the empirical mass.
Na = 22.99 g/mol, C = 12.01 g/mol, O = C = 1 x 12.01 g = 12.01 g
16.00 g/mol H = 2 x 1.01 g = 2.02 g
Cl = 1 x 35.45 = 35.45 g
Empirical mass = 49.48 g
o Step 5: Get the value of n.
n = molar mass/empirical mass
n = 98.96 g/49.48 g
n=2
o Step 3: Get the ratio of the elements by o Step 6: Derive the molecular formula.
dividing the calculated moles by the smallest Empirical formula x n
quantity. (CH2Cl)2
The molecular formula is C2H4Cl2.

The empirical formula is Na2CO3.

 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND REACTIONS
• Chemical equation: a written statement that uses
chemical symbols and chemical formulas instead of
words to describe the changes that occur in a
chemical reaction.
o Decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in
which a single reactant is converted into two or more
simpler substances/products.
• The substances present at the start of a chemical o The products may be elements or
reaction are called reactants. compounds, but the reactant is always a
• As chemical reaction proceeds, reactants are compound.
consumed and new materials with new chemical
properties, called products, are produced.
• The following conventions are used when writing
chemical equations:
o The formulas of the reactants are always o Thermal decomposition is caused by a rise of
written on the left side of the equation and temperature.
the formulas of the products are always o Photochemical decomposition is caused by light.
written on the right side of the equation. Light-sensitive chemicals are usually stored in brown
o The reactants and products are always bottles.
separated by an arrow and the plus signs are o Electrolytic decomposition is caused by the
used to separate the different reactants or presence of electricity. This is used in industrial
different products. manufacture or purification of many elements and
compounds.
• A valid chemical equation must satisfy two o Single-replacement reaction (Substitution
conditions: reaction): a chemical reaction in which an atom or
o It must be consistent with experimental molecule replaces an atom or group of atoms from a
facts. Only the reactants and products that compound.
are actually involved in a reaction are shown o There are always two reactants and two
in an equation and these must have accurate products in this type of reaction:
formula.
o There must be the same number of atoms of
each kind on both sides of the chemical
equation (balanced chemical equation).
o A more active
• Five Major Categories of Chemical Reactions element replaces a
less active element.
The activity series is
a list of elements
arranged in
decreasing order of
reactivity.
• Double-replacement reaction: two substances
exchange parts with one another and form two
different substances.
o When the reactants are ionic compounds in
o Combination reaction: a chemical reaction in which solution, the parts exchanged are the
a single product is produced from two or more positive and negative ions of the
reactants. compounds present.
o The reactants can be elements or
compounds or an element and a compound.
The product is always a compound.
• Combustion reaction: chemical reaction between a o Step 4: As a final check on the correctness of
substance and oxygen (usually from air) that the balancing procedure, count atoms on
proceeds with the evolution of heat and light. each side of the equation.
o The combustion of hydrocarbon will
produce CO2 and H2O. Other products can be
produced as well in a combustion reaction.

BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• To conform with the law of conservation of mass, • Stoichiometry: quantitative study of the
there must be the same number of each type of relationships among reactants and products in a
atom on both sides of the arrow. This can be done chemical reaction.
by adding coefficients. o Involves the molar relationships between
• Coefficient is a number reactants and products and thus is given by
placed to the left of a the coefficients in the balanced equation.
chemical formula in a
chemical equation.
o The coefficient changed the amount but not
the identity of the substance. A coefficient is
applicable to the whole formula while
subscripts affect only parts of a formula. • Example 1: The human body converts the glucose
• Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a (C6H12O6) contained in foods to carbon dioxide and
chemical reaction. The production of new water. Assume a person eats a candy bar containing
substances in a chemical reaction result from the 14.2 g of glucose. How many grams of water will the
rearrangement of the existing groupings of atom body produce from the ingested glucose, assuming
into new groupings. The mass of the reactants and all of the glucose undergoes reaction?
the mass of the products are the same.
• The following are the mechanics used in balancing Molar mass of HCl: 36.46 g/mol
the chemical equation below: Molar mass of Mg (OH)2: 58.33 g/mol
• When two substances are allowed to react, one of
o Step 1: Examine the equation and pick one them usually reacts completely while the other is not
element to balance first. Start with the all used up because it is present in excess.
compound that contains the greatest • Limiting reactant: reactant that is completely used
number of atoms, whether a reactant or a up in the reaction and determines the amounts of
product, and focus on the element in that products formed.
compound that has the greatest number of • Excess reactant: reactant that is not completely
atoms. consumed in the reaction.
o Step 2: Next a second element is picked to • Example 2: In an experiment, 5.00 g of aluminum is
balance. It is always a wise to pick, as the heated with 25.0 g of sulfur to form aluminum
second element to balance, one whose sulfide. How many grams of aluminum sulfide will be
amount is already set on one side of the formed?
equation by a previously determined
coefficient. With this, iron will be balanced
next. Molar mass of Al: 26.98 g/mol
o Step 3: Next pick a third element to balance. Molar mass of S: 32.07 g/mol
Only one element is left to balance. Molar mass of Al2S3: 150.17 g/mol
• In chemical calculations, it is always assumed that
the reaction goes to completion. However, in reality,
this seldom happens. The expected amount of
product is not usually obtained.
• Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product
which could be produced by the complete reaction
of the limiting reactant.
• Actual yield is the amount of product formed from
the actual chemical reaction and is usually less than
the theoretical yield.
• Percent yield = actual yield/theoretical yield x 100
o Wine is produced by the fermentation of
fruit sugar, fructose, to alcohol. If 938 g of
fructose was used in the preparation of
wine, what is the percent yield if, after the
fermentation, 327g of ethanol was
produced?

Molar mass of C6H12O6: 180.18 g/mol

Molar mass of C2H6O: 46.08 g/mol