RAFFLES INSTITUTION

Y4 PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
15
Content • Electric Current
• Conventional Current and Electron Flow
• Potential Difference
• Resistance

Learning Candidates should be able to:

Outcomes (a) State that current is a rate of flow of charge and that it is measured in amperes
(b) Distinguish between conventional current and electron flow
(c) Recall and apply the relationship charge = current × time to new situations or to
solve related problems
(d) Define electromotive force (e.m.f.) as the work done by a source in driving unit
charge around a complete circuit
(e) State that the e.m.f. of a source and the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit
component are measured in volts
(f) Define the p.d. across a component in a circuit as the work done to drive unit
charge through the component
(g) State the definition that resistance = p.d. / current
(h) Apply the relationship R = V/I to new situations or to solve related problems
(i) Describe an experiment to determine the resistance of a metallic conductor using
a voltmeter and an ammeter, and make the necessary calculations
(j) Recall and apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the
length and cross-sectional area of a wire to new situations or to solve related
problems
(k) State Ohm’s Law
(l) Describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a metallic
conductor
(m) Sketch and interpret the I/V characteristic graphs for a metallic conductor at
constant temperature, for a filament lamp and for a semiconductor diode

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15.1 Electric Current

What is electric In the previous topic on static electricity, you have learnt the existence of charges.
current? When charges move, we say there is an electric current. This movement of charges
allows electrical energy to be harnessed and converted into useful forms that kindle
our daily lives.

Definition of Since electric current, I, consists of moving electric charges, we measure electric
electric current current by determining the amount of electric charge, Q, that passes through a point in
Q
the conductor per unit time t, I =
t

Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge with respect to time.

The S.I. unit for current is the ampere (A). A current of one ampere means that one
coulomb of charge passes a point in a conductor in one second.

Example 1
A current of 5.00 A is flowing through a circuit. Calculate the total charge flowing
through any point in the circuit in 2.00 minutes.

(600 C)

Conventional An electric current in a metal wire is usually formed by moving electrons. In other
current direction materials, like semiconductors, fluorescent lamps, etc. the charge carriers can be
positive, or negative, or both. As such, the convention for the direction of an electric
current was established to be in the direction that positive charges would move.
Hence, conventional current flow is in the opposite direction to electron flow, as shown
in the diagram below.

battery
+ -
conventional electron
current flow flow
resistor

Measuring An ammeter can be used to measure current in a circuit. It registers the current that

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electric current passes through it, hence it must be connected in series to the circuit, as shown in the
diagram below. Ideally, an ammeter should have zero resistance to the current flow,
such that the presence of the ammeter does not affect the quantity that it is
measuring.

What causes When placed on a slope, a ball naturally rolls towards a

charges to lower level. The ball is responding to the Earth’s
move? gravitational force acting on it, and moves from a greater
height to a lower height.

In a similar way, a positive charge shown in the diagram below would be repelled from
the positively-charged plate, and attracted towards the negatively-charged one. The
positive charge is responding to the electric force acting on it, and moves from a
higher electric potential region to a lower electric potential region.
+ -

+ + -

+ -

Similar to how a ball placed on level ground would remain stationary, charges would
not move if they do not experience any difference in electric potential. Potential
difference drives the movement of charges.
Electric symbols We use electric symbols to simplify the drawing of electric circuits.

Symbol Device Symbol Device Symbol Device

Fixed
Switch Ammeter
resistor

Variable
Cell Voltmeter
resistor

Variable
resistor
Battery Galvanometer
(potentiom
eter)

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Power
Fuse Lamp
supply

LDR
Wires (Light
transformer
joined Dependent
resistor)

Wires Earth
Thermistor
crossed connector

LED
2 way (Light-
switch emitting
diode)

15.2 Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

Electromotive First things first – electromotive force is not a force! To understand electromotive force
Force (e.m.f.) more clearly, even though we know it is the flow of electrons that drive a
circuit, we will stick with the direction of conventional current (think in terms of the
movement of positive charges).

A battery-powered electric circuit has locations of high and low electric potential. The
positive terminal of the battery has higher potential, whilst the negative terminal has a
lower potential. Hence a positive charge would naturally flow from the positive terminal
to the negative, via A-B-C-D. But within the battery, to bring the positive charge from
the negative (lower potential) terminal to the positive (higher potential) terminal, work
has to be done on the positive charge. This is analogous to doing work in lifting an
object against gravity, from a lower level to a higher level. In a battery, this energy is
supplied by converting its chemical energy into electrical energy.

B C

A D
+
-

The e.m.f., ε, of an electrical source is the work done by the source in driving a unit
W
charge around a complete circuit. In equation form, ε = .
Q

The S.I. unit for e.m.f. is the volt (V) or joule per coulomb (J C -1).

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Potential In the same circuit above, as the positive charge passes through the light bulb, from B
Difference to C, it loses electrical energy. This electrical energy has been converted into other
useful forms of energy, like light and heat energy in this instance. Since electrical
energy is lost, work is said to have been done to drive the charge through the
component (i.e. light bulb).

Potential difference across a component in a circuit is the work done to drive a unit
W
charge through the component. In equation form, V = .
Q

Since there is a potential difference across B and C, there must be a drop in electric
potential between B and C.

The S.I. unit for potential difference is the volt (V) or joule per coulomb (J C -1). This is
the same unit as that for e.m.f.

Example 2
A resistor has a potential difference of 2.50 V across it.
Calculate the total work done to drive 3.00 C of charge across the resistor.

(7.50 J)

Volt One volt is the potential difference between two points in a circuit in which one joule of
energy is converted when one coulomb of charge passes from one point to the other.
Thus, 1 V = 1 J C-1.

Measuring To measure the potential difference across two points in a circuit, a voltmeter is used.
potential The voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the component, so that the potential
difference difference across the component is measured. Ideally, a voltmeter should have infinite
resistance, so that no current passes through it. Otherwise, the voltmeter would affect
the quantity that it is measuring.
battery
+ -

resistor

V
+ -
voltmeter

Difference In a certain sense, an electric circuit is essentially an energy conversion system. It is

between e.m.f. about the movement of charges between varying locations and the corresponding loss

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and potential and gain of energy that accompanies this movement.

difference
In a battery, energy is supplied through chemical reactions to do work on a unit
charge, to move it from one terminal to the other. This relates to the e.m.f. of the
electrical source, in the conversion of other types of energy to electrical energy. When
a charge flows through the wires and across a component, it loses electrical energy,
which converts to other forms of energy. This relates to potential difference across the
component.

15.3 Resistance

Resistance Resistance can be understood as the hindrance to the flow of charge. Resistors are
components or devices placed in circuits designed to hinder the flow of charge so that
electrical energy is lost, which is converted into other forms of energy (for instance,
light energy in a light bulb, heat energy in a kettle, or mechanical energy in a fan).

The resistance of a conductor is a measure of the opposition an electric current

experiences when it flows through it.

The electrical resistance, R, of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the

potential difference, V, across it to the current, I, flowing through it. In equation
V
form, R = .
I

The S.I. unit for resistance is the ohm (Ω).

One ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor in which a current of one ampere
passes through it when the potential difference across it is one volt. (1 Ω = 1 V A-1)

In circuits, connecting wires are usually made of conductors with very low resistance
(e.g. copper and aluminium). Hence in most calculations, we can safely take the
resistance of the connecting wires to be negligible and potential difference across
them to be negligible.

Example 3
When a resistor has a potential difference of 2.50 V across it, the current flowing
through it is 2.00 A. Calculate the resistance of the resistor in this instance.

(1.25 Ω)
Resistors Resistors may be fixed or variable.

Electrical symbol for a fixed resistor:

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Electrical symbol for a variable resistor:

A rheostat (shown on the right) is a variable resistor.

It allows the resistance to be altered by turning a
shaft or sliding a contact. This in turn allows current to
be controlled too. Variable resistors are commonly
used as brightness controls for lights, or volume
controls on radio and television sets.

Factors affecting The resistance of a conductor is dependent on its length, l, cross-sectional area, A,
resistance and the resistivity, ρ, of the material used.

l
In equation form, R = .
A

Length: it is quite intuitive that the greater the length of the conductor, the more
resistance there will be. Resistance occurs as a result of collisions between charge
carriers and the atoms of the conductor. As there is likely to be more collisions in a
longer conductor, hence the greater resistance.

Cross-sectional area: at any instant, charges are able to flow through a conductor with
a larger cross-sectional area more easily, hence its lower resistance.

Resistivity: this is inherent of the material used, depending on its ability to conduct
electricity. Silver is one of the best conductors, but never used in connecting wires of
household circuits due to its high cost. Copper and aluminium are among the least
expensive materials with suitably low resistivity to permit their use in connecting wires
of household circuits. On the other hand, nichrome is commonly used in the heating
coil of electric kettles due to its high resistivity. The resistivity of a material depends on
its microscopic structure and its temperature. For most (but not all) materials,
resistivity increases with increasing temperature. The table below lists the resistivity of
various materials at about room temperature.

Example 4
A copper wire has a length of 15.0 cm and a diameter of 2.00 mm. Calculate the
resistance of the wire, leaving your answer in standard form.
You may refer to the table of resistivity on the following page.

(8.12 x 10-4 Ω)
Resistivity
Material
ρ/ Ωm
Silver 1.5 x 10-8
Copper 1.7 x 10-8
Aluminium 2.8 x 10-8

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Tungsten 5.3 x 10-8

Iron 9.8 x 10-8
Mercury 95 x 10-8
Nichrome 100 x 10-8
Graphite 350 x 10-8
Diamond about 1012
Polythene about 1016

Experiment to Objective: To determine the resistance of a metallic conductor using a voltmeter and
determine the an ammeter.
resistance of a
metallic Apparatus: Voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, 2 x 2 V dry cells, metallic conductor
conductor

A metallic
conductor

V
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus according to the circuit diagram above
2. As a safety precaution, adjust the rheostat to the maximum resistance so that a
small current flows in the circuit initially
3. Record the ammeter reading I and the voltmeter reading V
4. Adjust the rheostat to allow a larger current to flow in the circuit. Again record
the values of I and V
5. Repeat Step 4 for at least 6 sets of I and V readings
6. Plot a graph of V (y-axis) against I (x-axis).
7. Determine the gradient of the graph.

Ohm’s Law Ohm’s Law deals with the relationship between potential difference and current in an
ideal conductor.
Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference, V, across an ideal conductor is directly
proportional to the current, I, through it, provided temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant.

Ohm’s Law is given by:

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V = IR

The constant of proportionality is thus the resistance, R.

Ohmic conductors are conductors that obey Ohm’s Law. It also means they have
constant resistance.

Conductors that do not obey Ohm’s Law are known as non-ohmic conductors. The
potential difference across non-ohmic conductors does not increase proportionally
with the current flowing through it. This means that its resistance can vary.

In a more generic case, resistance is the ratio of the potential difference across a
conductor to the current flowing through it.

Effect of When temperature increases in a metallic conductor, the atomic vibrations within the
temperature on conductor increase. Since resistance occurs due to collision of the charge carriers with
resistance of the atoms, this causes greater hindrance to the flow of electrons, and hence larger
metallic resistance.
conductor
At extremely low temperatures, some materials have no measurable resistance. This
is called superconductivity.

Formula triangle

V Q

R I t

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I-V characteristic Metallic conductor

graphs for some For a metallic conductor at constant I
components temperature that obeys Ohm’s Law,
the I-V characteristic graph
is shown on the right.
V
It has a constant resistance.

Filament lamp I
For a typical filament lamp, as current increases,
the heating effect on the lamp also increases.
This causes its resistance to increase,
hence the shape of its I-V characteristic V
graph as shown on the right.

Semiconductor diode
A diode ideally allows current to flow
only in one direction,
like the electrical version of valves. I
As shown on the right, when a diode forward-biased
is in forward-biased mode,
current flows through it easily V
and resistance is low.

When a reverse potential difference

reverse-biased
is applied, negligible current flows
through it and resistance is high.

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Supplementary Q1. Fig below shows how the electric current flow in a circuit varies with time.
Questions
current / mA

10

time / ms
250.4 250.6 500.4 500.6

Calculate the total amount of charge that flows through a point in the circuit during the

first 500.6 ms

(Ans: 2.0 x 10-6 C)

Q2. The
0 potential difference across an electrical component in a circuit may be
defined by the following equation:
W
V=
Q
Identify and explain the meanings of the physical quantities represented by the
symbols W and Q.

W:__________________________________________________________________

Q: __________________________________________________________________

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Q3. The figure below shows the relationship between the current I in a certain
conductor and the potential difference V across it. When V is less than 1.6 V, the
current is negligible.

(a) Explain if the conductor obeys Ohm’s law.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

(b) Calculate the resistance of the conductor when V = 2.5 V. (12.5 Ω)

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Q4. Two squares, X and Y are cut from the same sheet of metal of thickness t. The
lengths of the sides of X and Y are l and 2l respectively.

RX
What is the ratio RY of the resistances between the opposite shaded faces of X and
Y? 2l
l 2l (1/1)
l

t t
Square X Square Y

Q5. The e.m.f. of a dry cell is 3.0 V as shown in the diagram below. The charge that
passes through the circuit in 100 s is 25 C.

What is the energy drawn from the dry cell in 100 s?

A 0.12 J B 0.75 J C 8.3 J D 75 J

END

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