Vol. 14, No. 4, 534-542, https://doi.org/10.22712/susb.
20230041
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
SUSTAINABLE Building Technology and Urban Development
pISSN 2093-761X ･ eISSN 2093-7628
Quality characteristics of glass fiber reinforced polymer
(GFRP) rebar products based on curing agents, heating
temperature and production speed
Seungjun Roh1, Mina Seong2, Hyeongseok Cho3, Seungyoup Lee1, Byeongyeob Kim4* and Hyunman Lee5
1
Assistant Professor, School of Architecture, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
2
Master’s Course Student, Department of Architectural Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi,
Gyeongbuk, South Korea
3
Undergraduate Student, School of Architecture, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
4
Director of Research Institute, PMC Global Co., LTD., Chilgok, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
5
President, PMC Global Co., LTD., Chilgok, Gyeongbuk, South Korea
ABSTRACT
Received: 4 December 2023 Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) rebar has the potential to contribute to the durability of
Accepted: 15 December 2023 various construction structures, including bridges, buildings, and tunnels. The manufacturing process
of GFRP rebar involves a high-temperature heating stage, and the impact of such elevated temperature
on the properties and performance of GFRP rebar has not been extensively studied. Therefore, this
study aims to analyze the quality characteristics of GFRP rebar products based on the usage of curing
agents, heating temperature, and production speed. In this regard, various GFRP rebar products were
produced by varying the curing agent dosage, heating temperature across six zones, and production
speed. Visual inspections focused on the presence of indentation marks, carbonization, generation of
bubbles, and occurrence of bending. Additionally, to estimate the interrelation between product quality
and strength, flexural strength was measured and analyzed. The results revealed distinct variations in
indentation marks, generation of bubbles, and occurrence of bending based on curing agent conditions.
Furthermore, carbonization was observed to occur when the heating temperature exceeded 220°C.
Keywords: GFRP rebar; quality; curing agent; heating temperature; production speed
Introduction
In the modern construction industry, the development of sustainable and innovative materials is a crucial factor
in enhancing the safety, durability, and economic efficiency of structures. For instance, the collapse of a 12-story
apartment building in Florida in June 2021 was attributed to the corrosion of steel reinforcement due to seawater
infiltration in coastal structures. Furthermore, the pre-wetted salt spreading for de-icing road facilities has led to
increased chloride usage, causing chloride attack and raising maintenance costs while compromising aesthetics
[1-4]. To address these challenges, the utilization of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) rebar, a construction
material with enhanced durability, has gained attention [5-7].
Ⓒ International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-
commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
S. Roh et al. ∙ 535
GFRP rebar, being lightweight compared to tradi- production speed. Various GFRP rebar products were
tional steel reinforcement, exhibits excellent tensile produced by varying curing agent dosage, heating
strength, low thermal conductivity, and high corrosion temperature across six zones, and production speed.
resistance. Consequently, it has the potential to con- Visual inspections focused on the presence of inden-
tribute to the longevity of various construction tation marks, carbonization, generation of bubbles,
structures such as bridges, buildings, and tunnels, and occurrence of bending. Furthermore, flexural
particularly enhancing the durability of structures strength was measured and analyzed to estimate the
exposed to seawater and chemical substances. interrelation between product quality and strength.
Advanced nations, including the United States, have
actively applied GFRP rebar, and Korea is also GFRP Rebar Product System and
preparing national design and construction standards Quality Standards
[2, 5, 7].
GFRP Rebar Product System
However, to expand the application of GFRP rebar,
it is crucial to ensure the quality of the material, which Figure 1 illustrates the manufacturing equipment
precedes structural design and construction technology constructed for GFRP rebar in this study. GFRP rebar
considerations. GFRP rebar must satisfy quality stan- is formed by combining glass fibers with polymer,
dards such as tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, primarily using vinylester resin or epoxy resin as the
thermal conductivity, and corrosion resistance. These matrix. The production process of GFRP rebar can be
properties can be influenced by various factors during broadly categorized into (1) the strand process, (2) the
the manufacturing process. Particularly, the high- curing agent immersion process, (3) the heating and
temperature heating process during GFRP rebar curing process, (4) the cutting process, and (5) the
production has not been extensively studied for its quality inspection process.
impact on the material’s properties and performance. The strand process involves shaping the rebar using
Additionally, there is a lack of research on the multiple strands of glass fibers, and it is related to the
interrelation between production speed and these fiber content of GFRP. The curing agent immersion
factors [8-10]. process entails immersing the glass fibers created in
Therefore, this study aims to analyze the quality the strand process in a mixture of polymer resin and
characteristics of GFRP rebar products based on the curing agent. Subsequently, the material enters the
usage of curing agents, heating temperature, and curing process after passing through a total of six
Figure 1. GFRP rebar manufacturing facilities.
536 ∙ International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development Vol. 14, No. 4, 2023
heating zones. The produced GFRP rebar is then cut nominal cross-sectional area. Choosing dimensions
into various lengths according to user requirements between D6 (nominal diameter 6.35 mm) and D32
and undergoes visual or physical quality inspections (nominal diameter 31.8 mm) is recommended to avoid
before being considered finished. potential performance degradation issues during the
manufacturing process associated with smaller or
Quality Standards of FRP Rebar Material larger dimensions.
In the case of Korea, the ‘FRP Reinforcement Additionally, tensile strength and modulus of
Structure Design Guidelines’ specify quality criteria elasticity tests are conducted for understanding the
for FRP rebar materials, including fiber content, glass properties, quality assurance, and management of FRP
transition temperature of the resin, dimensions, tensile rebar. Tensile strength tests, according to KS F ISO
strength, and modulus of elasticity [11]. The tensile 10406-1 [13], calculate tensile strength and ultimate
strength and modulus of elasticity of FRP rebar are strain, while modulus of elasticity is tested following
predominantly governed by the fibers. To ensure KS F ISO 10406-1.
satisfactory mechanical properties, a minimum fiber
content of over 55% by volume is specified, as lower Material and Methods
fiber content may compromise the mechanical
Material
characteristics of FRP rebar.
Resin, in a rigid state, becomes softer as the This study constructed manufacturing equipment
temperature increases. The temperature at which such for GFRP rebar, as shown in Figure 1, to analyze the
a property change occurs is referred to as the glass quality characteristics of GFRP rebar products based
transition temperature. To prevent a degradation in the on the usage of curing agents, heating temperature, and
heat resistance performance of FRP rebar, a glass production speed. Additionally, a total of 47 test
transition temperature of over 100°C is required. The conditions (T01~T47), as outlined in Table 1, were
dimensions of FRP rebar adhere to the specifications designed for the investigation.
of Korean Industrial Standard (KS) D 3504 [12], For all test conditions, vinylester resin with pro-
including nominal size, nominal diameter, and perties outlined in Table 2 was utilized, and the
Table 1. Test conditions for GFRP rebar based on ratio of hardener, heating temperature and production speed
Ratio of curing agents (%) Heating temperature (°C)
Production
Code Size Resin Type Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Speed (mm/min)
High Moderate Low
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6
T01 140 160 180 200 180 150 600
T02 140 160 180 200 180 150 800
T03 150 160 170 180 190 150 600
T04 150 160 170 180 190 150 800
D13 Vinylester
T05 150 170 190 190 170 150 600
(12.7 resin 0.50 0.50 0.50
T06 150 170 190 190 170 150 800
mm) (100)
T07 150 170 190 190 170 150 1,000
T08 150 170 200 180 160 140 600
T09 150 170 200 180 160 140 800
T10 155 165 170 175 180 185 600
S. Roh et al. ∙ 537
Table 1. Test conditions for GFRP rebar based on ratio of hardener, heating temperature and production speed (Continued)
Ratio of curing agents (%) Heating temperature (°C)
Production
Code Size Resin Type Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Speed (mm/min)
High Moderate Low
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6
T11 155 165 170 175 180 185 800
T12 160 165 170 180 185 190 600
T13 160 165 170 180 185 190 600
T14 160 165 170 180 185 190 800
T15 160 165 170 180 185 190 1,000
T16 160 165 170 180 185 190 1,200
T17 160 165 170 190 165 150 600
T18 160 165 170 190 165 150 800
T19 160 170 180 190 200 210 600
T20 160 170 180 190 200 210 800
T21 160 175 190 190 175 160 600
T22 160 175 190 190 175 160 800
T23 160 180 200 220 180 160 600
T24 160 180 200 220 180 160 800
T25 160 180 200 220 180 160 1,000
T26 160 180 200 220 235 250 600
T27 160 180 200 220 235 250 800
T28 160 180 200 220 235 250 1,000
T29 170 180 190 200 180 150 600
T30 170 180 190 200 180 150 800
T31 150 150 175 175 200 200 400
T32 150 150 175 175 200 200 600
T33 150 150 175 175 200 200 800
T34 150 170 200 210 220 220 400
T35 150 170 200 210 220 220 600
T36 155 165 175 185 195 210 400
T37 155 165 175 185 195 210 600
T38 155 165 175 185 195 210 800
T39 1.00 0.00 0.50 160 165 170 175 180 185 400
T40 160 165 170 175 180 185 600
T41 160 165 170 175 180 185 800
T42 160 175 185 195 210 220 400
T43 160 175 185 195 210 220 600
T44 160 175 185 195 210 220 800
T45 165 170 175 185 195 200 400
T46 165 170 175 185 195 200 600
T47 165 170 175 185 195 200 800
dimensions of GFRP rebar targeted D13 (nominal temperature, moderate-temperature, and low-temperature
diameter 12.7 mm). The glass fiber roving, which is curing agents, were used in fixed proportions (0.5%,
related to fiber content, had a tex of 4800, with 44 1.0%) based on the resin quantity (100) to uniformly
strands, and the spacing between nodes of GFRP rebar induce curing throughout the cross-section of GFRP
was set at 13.8 mm. Curing agents, including high- rebar. Additionally, a small amount of pigment was
538 ∙ International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development Vol. 14, No. 4, 2023
Table 2. Properties of vinylester resin used in this study Figure 2 illustrates the strand process of GFRP rebar,
Classification Unit Properties while Figure 3 depicts the temperature control and
Specific Gravity (25°C) - 1.03~1.07 production speed control devices for the heating zones,
Viscosity (25°C) Poise 3.5~4.0 and Figure 4 provides sample photos of the produced
Gelation Time min 10~12 items.
Minimum Curing Time min 14~17
Maximum Exothermic Temperature °C 190~220 Methods
Tensile Strength MPa 80
Following the test conditions specified in Table 1,
Tensile Elasticity Modulus GPa 3.5
GFRP rebar products were produced, and the appea-
Elongation at Break % 2.6
Flexural Strength MPa 145 rance of each product was inspected to determine the
Flexural Elasticity Modulus) GPa 4.0 presence of (1) indentation marks, (2) carbonization,
Deflection Temperature °C 110 (3) generation of bubbles, and (4) occurrence of bending.
Indentation marks occur when sufficient drying is
added for color representation of the product. The not achieved in the heating zone during the pull-out
temperature of the heating zones, consisting of a total production process. Carbonization is the phenomenon
of six segments, was adjusted from 140°C to a maxi- where the product surface becomes darkened due to
mum of 250°C, and the production speed was varied excessively high heating temperatures. Bubbles occur
from 400 mm/min to a maximum of 1200 mm/min. when the surface of GFRP rebar solidifies first during
Figure 2. Strand process of GFRP rebar.
Figure 3. Control device for heating temperature and production speed of GFRP rebar.
S. Roh et al. ∙ 539
Figure 4. Samples of GFRP rebar product produced in this study.
the curing process, while internal curing lags, leading temperature curing agents were used at 1.0% and
to the formation of bubbles within the GFRP rebar. 0.5%, respectively, no indentation marks, bubbles, or
Bending is a phenomenon where GFRP rebar products bending were observed. Carbonization occurred in
are not smoothly cured during the heating process of some production conditions of T26, T27, T28, T34,
production or when the product bends due to tem- T35, T42, and T43, irrespective of the curing agent’s
perature differences with the surrounding air. conditions, indicating that it happens when the heating
Furthermore, this study measured and analyzed the temperature is above 220°C during the heating and
flexural strength of products under the test conditions curing process after the curing agent is applied.
T13, T14, T15, and T16 from Table 1 to provide a However, T44, which showed no defects in all visual
simple estimation of the interrelation between product inspections, had the same heating temperature as T42
quality and strength. and T43. T44’s production speed was 800 mm/min,
faster than T42 (400 mm/min) and T43 (600 mm/min),
suggesting that the impact of high-temperature heating
Results and Discussion
was minimal, resulting in no carbonization. Overall,
Table 3 presents the results of the quality charac- all four visual inspection criteria are associated with
teristics analysis of GFRP rebar products conducted in the curing agent’s conditions, heating temperature, and
this study based on various test conditions. According production speed of GFRP rebar. Therefore, to ensure
to Table 3, significant variations in quality were high-quality products, appropriate curing agent use, as
observed depending on the curing agent’s conditions, well as the adjustment of heating temperature and
such as indentation marks, generation of bubbles, and production speed, is crucial.
occurrence of bending. For T01~T30, where high- Figure 5 illustrates the heating temperature of
temperature, medium-temperature, and low-temperature non-defective products identified in the previous four
curing agents were used at 0.5% resin content, all visual inspections. Non-defective products were
products exhibited indentation marks, and T08, T09, produced at heating temperatures ranging from 150 to
T21, and T22 showed bubbles. Additionally, bending 220°C for all sections. It can be observed that as the
occurred in 17 conditions, including T01, T02, T05, production moved from zone #1 to zone #6, the
T06, and T07, among the total 30 conditions. However, heating temperature slightly increased or remained the
for T31~T47, where high-temperature and low- same in two consecutive zones.
540 ∙ International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development Vol. 14, No. 4, 2023
Table 3. Test results for GFRP rebar based on ratio of Figure 6 depicts the results of the flexural strength
hardener, heating temperature and production speed test of GFRP rebar products according to the
Code Indentation Marks Carbonization Bubbles Bending production speed and curing days. According to Figure
T01 O - - O 6, under the same curing agent and heating tem-
T02 O - - O
T03 O - - - perature conditions, the flexural strength of products
T04 O - - - produced at different speeds showed a partial increase
T05 O - - O depending on the curing days at room temperature.
T06 O - - O
T07 O - - O However, no clear correlation was observed. Therefore,
T08 O - O - in the studied scope, GFRP rebar undergoes gradual
T09 O - O -
curing at room temperature even after the curing
T10 O - - O
T11 O - - O process in the product manufacturing process, and the
T12 O - - O strength does not exhibit a consistent increase,
T13 O - - O
contrary to the initially hypothesized scenario.
T14 O - - O
T15 O - - O
T16 O - - O
T17 O - - - Conclusions
T18 O - - -
T19 O - - - This study aimed to analyze the quality charac-
T20 O - - - teristics of GFRP rebar products based on curing agent
T21 O - O -
T22 O - O - usage, heating temperature, and production speed. The
T23 O - - O following conclusions were drawn:
T24 O - - O
T25 O - - O
T26 O O - - 1. The manufacturing equipment for GFRP rebar was
T27 O O - - established, and a total of 47 test conditions
T28 O O - -
(T01~T47) were designed based on curing agent
T29 O - - O
T30 O - - O usage, heating temperature, and production speed.
T31 - - - - 2. In the scope of this study, T01~T30, which used
T32 - - - -
T33 - - - -
high-temperature, medium-temperature, and low-
T34 - O - - temperature curing agents at 0.5% resin content,
T35 - O - - exhibited indentation marks in all products, and
T36 - - - -
T37 - - - - some products experienced bubbles and bending.
T38 - - - - However, T31~T47, which used high-temperature
T39 - - - -
and low-temperature curing agents at 1.0% and
T40 - - - -
T41 - - - - 0.5%, respectively, showed no indentation marks,
T42 - O - - bubbles, or bending.
T43 - O - -
3. Carbonization occurred irrespective of the curing
T44 - - - -
T45 - - - - agent’s conditions. This phenomenon was observed
T46 - - - - during the heating and curing process after the
T47 - - - -
Remark: ‘O’ indicates the occurrence of a defect, while ‘-’
curing agent application when the heating tem-
indicates the absence of a defect. perature was above 220°C.
S. Roh et al. ∙ 541
Figure 5. Analysis results of heating temperature for good GFRP rebar products.
Figure 6. Flexural strength test results of GFRP rebar based on production speed and curing time.
4. Non-defective products were produced at heating 6. All four visual inspection criteria conducted in this
temperatures ranging from 150 to 220°C for all study were associated with the curing agent’s
sections. It was noted that non-defective products conditions, heating temperature, and production
were produced when the heating temperature speed of GFRP rebar. Therefore, to ensure high-
slightly increased as production moved from zone quality products, it was recognized that appropriate
#1 to zone #6 or when the same temperature was curing agent use, along with the adjustment of
maintained in two consecutive zones. heating temperature and production speed, is
5. Under the same curing agent and heating tem- crucial. Further testing under diverse conditions is
perature conditions, the flexural strength of deemed necessary for future research.
products produced at different speeds exhibited a
partial increase depending on the curing days at
Acknowledgments
room temperature in the studied scope. However,
no clear correlation was observed. This work was supported by project for ‘Industry-
542 ∙ International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development Vol. 14, No. 4, 2023
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