Cross-Connection

Control

CEU 326
December 2023

Continuing Education from the

American Society of Plumbing Engineers
education.aspe.org/RLE
 READ, LEARN, EARN: Cross-Connection Control

Note: In determining your answers to the CE questions, use only the material presented in the corresponding continuing education article. Using information from other
materials may result in a wrong answer.

Cross-Connection Control
Reprint from PEDH Volume 4 – Chapter 9
All rights reserved.

Protecting potable water is an important aspect of plumbing engineering, and cross-connection control is the primary means used in the
plumbing profession to accomplish this. The importance of cross-connection control, or backflow protection, was brought to light in the
early part of the 20th century when major outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as dysentery occurred. By not ensuring that every opening,
outlet, and connection to the potable water supply is protected, backflow from nonpotable sources can contaminate the potable water supply.
For this reason, the plumbing engineer must evaluate every opening, outlet, and connection to a nonpotable source for proper protection
against backflow. Whatever the source of potable water, protection against cross-connections is imperative.

TYPES OF BACKFLOW
Backflow occurs through either siphonage or backpressure. Siphonage, also called backsiphonage, is the reversal of water flow when the
pressure on the inlet side of the water supply is lower than that on the outlet side. Siphonage can occur due to a water main break, a fire
pumper connected to the water main, or poor design in the water distribution system, among other reasons.
The other backflow occurrence is backpressure. Backpressure occurs when a higher pressure is applied on the outlet or connection side
of the water distribution side than on the inlet. Examples of backpressure occurrences include an elevated column of water, such as in a
multistory building, a pumped connection that pressurizes the water supply, or a pressurized nonpotable system.
Examples of potential cross-connections include plumbing fixtures, faucets, fixture fittings, hose bibbs, appliance connections, hydronic
water supply connections, fire sprinkler and standpipe water supply connections, water supply connections to industrial processes, laundries,
medical equipment, food service equipment, carbonated beverage dispensers, filters for beverage dispensers, HVAC equipment, swimming
pool water makeup, water treatment equipment, trap primers, irrigation taps, dispensers that dilute their product with water, pressure-relief
valve discharge piping, and drain-flushing water supplies.
The potential for backflow can occur at any opening, outlet, or connection to the potable water supply. Opening and outlet are words often
used interchangeably to identify a point where potable water is discharged. Examples of openings and outlets include faucets, fixture fittings,
hose bibbs, fill valves, and relief valves.
Connections are piping systems that interconnect a potable water supply to a nonpotable water system. Not all piping connections are to
a hazardous source, but all of the sources can contaminate the potable water supply.

HYDROSTATIC FUNDAMENTALS
To derive the pressure relationship in a hydrostatic fluid, consider the volume of the fluid at a given depth. The pressure of a 1-foot (305-mm)
column of water can be calculated using Equation 9-1. The pressure at the base of a water column can be determined using Equation 9-2.
Equation 9-1
p1 = ρ/A

Equation 9-2
p = h × p1
where
p1 = Pressure (gauge) per unit of head, 0.433 pounds per square inch (psi) per ft (9.79 kPa/m) of wc
ρ = Density of water, 62.4 lb/ft3 (1,000 kg/m3 = 102 N/m3)
A = Area, 144 in.2/ft2 (m2/m)
p = Pressure at the base of a column of water
h = Static head, ft (m)

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Figure 9-1 Maximum Figure 9-2 Siphon Action The maximum density of water is 62.434 pounds per cubic foot (1.000
Rise of Water from a Lifting Water from a Tank kg/L) at a temperature of 39.2°F (4.0°C). When the temperature of water is
Vacuum increased or decreased, the density decreases. At 212°F (100°C), the density
of water is 59.843 pounds per cubic foot (0.9586 kg/L). Assuming a density
Vacuum pump of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot (1.00 kg/L) and applying Equation 9-1, the
pressure at the base of a 1-foot column of water is 0.433 psi (62.4 divided by
20 ft
8.66 psi 144 square inches per square foot). For SI, water is 1,000 kg/m , except that
3
14.7 psi
(101.4 kPa) (6.1 m 1 kPa = 1,000 Pa and 1,000 Pa = 1,000 N/m . To convert kg to N, multiply
2

59.7 kPa) 1,000 kg by 9.79 m/s2 (gravity) to get 9,790 N/m3, so at 1 meter head, the
pressure is 9,790 N/m2 = 9.79 kPa.
If a column of water is 10 feet (3.048 m) in height, the pressure at the
base of the column is 4.33 psi (69.4 kPa). The pressure is identified as gauge
pressure, assuming atmospheric pressure to be 0 psi (0 kPa). At sea level,
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (101.4 kPa).
A perfect vacuum would be 0 psi (0 kPa) absolute, or -14.7 psi (-101.3
kPa) gauge. Any vacuum or negative pressure would result in a column of
water rising in the piping. With a perfect vacuum, a column of water would
33.9 ft rise against atmospheric pressure (-14.7 psi [-101.3 kPa]), which equates to
(10.35 m) 33.9 feet (10.35 m). Hence, for a perfect vacuum, water can only rise 33.9 feet
(10.35 m) in a pipe (see Figure 9-1).
14.7 psi
(101.4 kPa) Water will rise in a pipe up to 33.9 feet (10.35 m) and return to the source
under a vacuum or siphon action (see Figure 9-2). When the upstream pressure
is lower than the outlet or connection pressure, flow will be reversed in the
piping system. The reversal of water flow can contaminate the potable water supply by introducing nonpotable
water or contaminants into the system.
Backflow protection is based on preventing the reversal of flow that may occur when the upstream pressure
drops lower than the outlet or connection pressure. A means must be provided to prevent the reversal of flow
under all possible conditions.

CAUSES OF REVERSE FLOW

The most common cause of flow reversal in a water piping system is a fire department pumper truck connected to a hydrant and drawing
water from the public main. In many cases, the size of the pump on the fire truck can create a negative pressure throughout the piping systems
in adjoining buildings.
Many other situations can also result in flow reversal:
• When a water main breaks, the pressure in the public main drops. Thus, the lower pressure upstream in the piping system leads to
flow reversal.
• Flow reversal can occur when a piping system is not properly designed or when fixtures are added to an existing system. If a fixture
has a high demand for flow on a lower floor of a building, a reversal of flow may occur from the upper floors of that building. An
example would be the flushing of a water closet. The flushometer valve can lower the pressure by 35 psi (241 kPa). Another fixture
could be open, resulting in the reversal of water flow.
• A nonpotable system may have a pump that elevates the pressure of that system. If it was connected to a potable system, the pressure
in the nonpotable system could become higher than the potable water supply pressure, resulting in the reversal of flow.
• If the water is elevated in a piping system, such as a fire sprinkler system, a change in pressure in the public main can cause a reversal
of flow. This type of flow reversal can occur on a regular basis since the pressure in a public main will vary throughout the day.
• At the connection to a boiler, when the water is heated, the pressure increases as the temperature increases, resulting in the reversal
of flow.
Whenever a reversal of flow is possible, a means of backflow protection must be provided to keep the potable water system safe.
Other pressure interruptions include broken pipes, broken outlets, air lock, pressure caused by thermal energy sources, malfunctioning
pumps, malfunctioning pressure-reducing valves, and uncommon water discharges such as a major firefighting event.
Because it cannot be predicted where a valve may close or where another type of pressure interruption may occur, each water connection
point becomes a potential point for reverse flow. Thus, every fixture, every connected piece of equipment, and every connected non-plumbing
system becomes a point of reverse flow. Containers of any liquid that receive water from a hose or even a spout of inadequate elevation
potentially may flow in a reverse direction. Submerged irrigation systems or yard hydrants with a submerged drain point potentially may flow
soil contaminants into the water supply system. Hence, the safety of a water supply distribution system depends on effective control at each
connection point. The safety is not ensured if the effectiveness of one point is unknown despite controls at all other points.
A manually closed water supply valve is not considered a cross-connection control, even if the valve is bubble-tight and well supervised.
Ordinary check valves also are not considered a cross-connection control.

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HAZARDS IN WATER DISTRIBUTION

Table 9-1 on the next page lists some of the common hazards to a potable water system. This is not an exhaustive list but is representative of
the types of hazards that exist. The potable water supply must be protected against backflow from these and similar hazards.
Risks are more common since they are associated with every plumbing fixture, many types of equipment, and various connections with
non-plumbing systems. The nature of the risk ranges from mere objections such as water color or odor to varying exposure levels of nuclear,
chemical, or biological material. The exposure levels range from imperceptible to mildly toxic to generally lethal in healthy adults. The current
list of drinking water contaminants and their maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) can be found on the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency’s website.

Table 9-1 Plumbing System Hazards

Direct Connections Potential Submerged Inlets
• Air-conditioning, air washer • Coffee maker • Baptismal font • Pull-out spray faucet
• Air-conditioning, chilled water • Cooling system • Bathtub • Sewer flushing manhole
• Air-conditioning, condenser • Dishwasher • Bedpan washer, flushing rim • Service sink, flushing rim
water • Fire standpipe • Bidet • Service sink, threaded supply
• Air line • Fire sprinkler system • Brine tank • Steam table
• Aspirator, laboratory • Fountain, ornamental • Cooling tower • Shower
• Aspirator, medical • Heat exchanger • Cuspidor • Sillcock
• Aspirator, herbicide and • Hydraulic equipment • Drinking fountain • Urinal
fertilizer sprayer • Hydropneumatic drain cleaner • Floor drain • Vegetable peeler
• Autoclave and sterilizer • Juice dispenser • Garbage can washer • Water closet
• Auxiliary system, industrial • Laboratory equipment • Handheld shower • Water conservation system,
• Auxiliary system, surface • Lubrication, pump bearings • Hose bibb onsite
water • Process piping system • Hospital fixtures
• Auxiliary system, unapproved • Pump, pneumatic ejector • Ice maker
well supply • Pump, prime line • Laboratory sink
• Boiler system • Pump, water-operated ejector • Laundry machine
• Carbonated beverage • Sewer, sanitary • Lavatory
dispenser • Sewer, storm • Lawn sprinkler system
• Chemical feeder, pot type • Swimming pool or spa • Outlets with hose connections
• Chlorinator equipment • Photo laboratory sink

Classification of Hazards
The potential hazards from a cross-connection are identified as low hazard and high hazard. A high hazard is any contamination that can
cause sickness, disease, long-term health effects, or death. Examples are sewage, chemicals, body fluids, lubricants, and fertilizers. A low hazard
impacts the aesthetics of the potable water, but the pollutant will not immediately cause sickness, disease, or death. Examples are juices, coffee,
tea, and humidifier water. Some of the identified pollutants are drinks that are consumed by humans. However, if the drink enters the potable
water system, the water does not remain potable.

METHODS OF PROVIDING BACKFLOW PROTECTION

The plumbing codes identify the acceptable means of providing protection against cross-connections, including acceptable piping methods
and the installation of a backflow preventer. All backflow preventers must be listed by a third-party agency to one of the standards identified
in Table 9-2 on the next page.
Depending on the regulating standard governing the backflow device, it may be a testable or a non-testable backflow preventer. A testable
backflow preventer is typically installed at the point of supply and allows the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) to monitor the effectiveness
of the backflow preventer and ensure public health by requiring owners to test their devices annually and submit reports. Testable devices
require inlet and outlet shutoff valves for isolation and will incorporate four access points in their design to allow the backflow function to
be tested while in service. The test points are typically a FNPT test cock or ball valve ranging from ¼ to ¾ inch (DN-8 to 20) depending on
the size of the main valve. They are located upstream of the inlet shutoff, upstream of the first check, between the first and second check
(zone), and downstream of the second check. Testable valves are also required to be designed in such a way as to be repairable without being
removed from line.
Non-testable valves provide similar backflow protection for high or low hazards at the point of use, depending on the standard, but do
not feature the four test points mentioned above, so their function cannot be validated inline. They are typically smaller and less expensive,
and cannot be repaired inline. If a failure is detected, the entire backflow preventer will need to be replaced. Non-testable valves may be
called out in plumbing codes at the point of use and are not monitored by the authority having jurisdiction. Since they are not testable, they
are considered less reliable by the backflow protection industry.

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Table 9-2 Application of Cross-Connection Control Devices

Level of Backflow Protected Device
Means of Backflow Protection Regulating Standard
Hazard Against Size
High or low
Air gap Siphonage or backpressure ASME A112.1.2
hazard
Air gap fittings for use with plumbing High or low
Siphonage or backpressure ASME A112.1.3
fixtures, appliances, and appurtenances hazard
Barometric loop (35 foot [10.67 m] rise High or low
Siphonage
in piping) hazard
Reduced pressure principle backflow High or low 3/8–16 in. ASSE 1013, AWWA C511,
Backpressure or siphonage
prevention assembly hazard DN-10–400 CSA B64.4, CSA B64.4.1
Reduced pressure detector fire High or low Backpressure or siphonage (fire 1–16 in.
ASSE 1047
protection backflow prevention assembly hazard sprinkler systems) DN-25–400
Double check backflow prevention 3/8–16 in. ASSE 1015, AWWA C510,
Low hazard Backpressure or siphonage
assembly DN-10–400 CSA B64.5, CSA B64.5.1
Double check detector fire protection Backpressure or siphonage (fire 2–16 in.
Low hazard ASSE 1048
backflow prevention assembly sprinkler systems) DN-50–400
High or low ½–2 in.
Pressure vacuum breaker assembly Siphonage ASSE 1020, CSA B64.1.2
hazard DN-15–50
High or low ¼–2 in.
Spill-resistant vacuum breaker assembly Siphonage ASSE 1056, CSA B64.1.3
hazard DN-8–50
Anti-siphon fill valves for gravity water
High hazard Siphonage ASSE 1002, CSA B125.3
closet flush tanks
Backflow preventer for carbonated High and ¼–3/8 in.
Backpressure or siphonage ASSE 1022
beverage machines low hazard DN-8–10
Backflow preventer with intermediate ¼–¾ in.
Low hazard Backpressure or siphonage ASSE 1012, CSA B64.3
atmospheric vents DN-8–20
¼–1 in. ASSE 1024, CSA B64.6,
Dual check valve backflow preventer Low hazard Backpressure or siphonage
DN-8–25 ASSE 1032
High or low Low-head backpressure or ½–1 in. ASME A112.21.3, ASSE 1052,
Hose connection backflow preventer
hazard siphonage DN-15–25 CSA B64.2.1.1
Hose connection vacuum breaker (with High or low Low-head backpressure or ½–1 in. ASME A112.21.3, ASSE 1011,
manual drain) hazard siphonage DN-15–25 CSA B64.2, CSA B64.2.1
High or low Low-head backpressure or
Laboratory faucet backflow preventer ASSE 1035, CSA B64.7
hazard siphonage
Pipe-applied atmospheric vacuum High or low ¼–4 in.
Siphonage ASSE 1001, CSA B64.1.1
breaker hazard DN-8–100
Vacuum breaker wall hydrant, frost- High or low Low-head backpressure or ¾–1 in. ASME A112.21.3, ASSE 1019,
resistant, automatic draining hazard siphonage DN-20–25 CSA B64.2.2
Low-head backpressure or
High or low ¾–1 in.
Freeze-resistant sanitary yard hydrant siphonage (Type 1 and 2 ASSE 1057
hazard DN-20–25
backpressure)

Air Gap
An air gap is a space between the outlet of the potable water supply and the flood level rim of the fixture or device being supplied with water.
The flood level rim is defined as the point where water overflows the fixture or device.
An air gap is considered the highest level of protection against backflow. An air gap provides a physical separation between the opening or
outlet and the water in the fixture, vessel, or pipe. An air gap is the most common method of backflow protection. The water supply to most
sink faucets, lavatory faucets, shower valves, bathtub fillers, and drinking fountains is protected against backflow by an air gap.
Since the physical separation is by means of air, an air gap is considered to protect against siphonage only. No backpressure can occur
with an air gap since any physical connection that creates backpressure would defeat the air gap.
Table 9-3 identifies the minimum air gap spacing requirements between the opening or outlet and the flood level rim. The table identifies
the minimum spacing based on whether or not the air gap is affected by a side wall. The side wall will affect the air gap when it is located
within three times the effective opening diameter. For example, if the opening was ½ inch (13 mm) in diameter, the side wall would have to
be located a minimum of 1½ inches (38 mm) from the opening. Where two walls intersect, the distance increases to four times the opening
to not be affected by the side wall.

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The distances in Table 9-3 are consistent with the provisions in ASME Fixture flood Air gap
A112.1.2: Air Gaps in Plumbing Systems (For Plumbing Fixtures and Water- level rim
Connected Receptors). When these minimum distances are maintained, any Table 9-3
Minimum Air
vacuum pressure created by the siphon on the inlet to the water supply would Gaps for Water
result in air entering the piping. The siphon would not have enough energy to Distribution Systems
draw the water back into the piping system. Effective opening
In addition to the physical air gap created by the distance between an outlet Not Affected Affected by
or opening and the flood level rim, air gap devices provide an equivalent level Effective Fixture by Side Walls, Side Walls, in.
of protection. These devices must comply with ASME A112.1.3: Air Gap Opening Size in. (mm) (mm)
Fittings for Use with Plumbing Fixtures, Appliances, and Appurtenances. Not greater than ½ inch
Certain appliances are equipped with internal air gaps to protect the water (13 mm) in diameter 1 (25) 1½ (38 mm)
supply. The types of appliances that may have an internal air gap include Not greater than ¾ inch
residential dishwashers, laundry machines, humidifiers, ice makers, iced tea (20 mm) in diameter 1½ (38) 2¼ (57)
dispensers, juice dispensers, and coffee makers. However, an engineer cannot
Not greater than 1 inch
assume that a given appliance has an internal air gap. Each appliance or device (25 mm) in diameter 2 (51) 3 (76)
must be individually evaluated for backflow protection.
Greater than 1 inch (25 2x diameter of 3x diameter of
The plumbing codes recognize that not all air gaps qualify as an air gap for mm) in diameter effective opening effective opening
providing protection against backflow. If the air gap can be easily defeated, it
cannot be used as a means of backflow protection. The most common means Figure 9-3 Barometric Loop Providing
of defeating an air gap is a threaded end on the opening or outlet. A hose can be attached Backflow Protection
to the threaded end, thus removing the air gap as a means of backflow protection. The
same would apply to an opening that has a quick disconnect or a barbed end for hose Water
attachment. Wherever a threaded end, quick disconnect, or barbed connection is present, supply
another means of backflow protection must be provided.
Another device that cannot rely on an air gap to provide backflow protection is a pull- 35 ft min.
out spray faucet. With this style of faucet, the spout is connected to the faucet body, and (10.67 m min.)
the spout end is connected by a hose to the water supply. With a slight tug of the spray
Barometric
end, the spout disengages from the faucet body and can be used as a hose-connected spray. loop
The spray end can be lowered into the sink or vessel, thus defeating the air gap. Faucets
with hose-connected outlets (pull-out spray spouts) are protected against backflow by Flood level rim
internal backflow components. These faucets are regulated by ASME A112.18.1/CSA
B125.1: Plumbing Supply Fittings. Vat
Barometric Loop/Hydrostatic Loop
A barometric loop is a configuration of piping whereby the water supply pipe rises a
minimum of 35 feet above the flood level rim of the fixture, device, or vessel being
supplied with water. Under ideal conditions at sea level, the maximum rise of water from a siphon Figure 9-4 Reduced Pressure
or vacuum is 33.9 feet (10.35 m). Thus, by having a 35-foot (10.67-m) rise in piping, nonpotable Principle Backflow Preventer
water cannot be siphoned back into the potable water supply. ASSE 1013
A barometric loop is often shown as a pipe rising 35 feet (10.67 m) in the air and then
descending 35 feet (10.67 m) to the outlet or opening. This would be a very ineffective means
of providing backflow protection since more than 70 feet (21.33) of piping is used. The more
common application of a barometric loop is in factory and industrial settings where the water
supply piping is installed at an elevated location and the water is supplied to a nonpotable tank,
vat, vessel, or fixture by a drop of more than 35 feet (10.67 m) (see Figure 9-3).
Outlet
While a barometric loop is similar to an atmospheric vacuum breaker, the main difference
Inlet
is that pressure can be continuous in the barometric loop. However, a barometric loop shall Re
lief
only be utilized as an atmospheric-type or pressure-type vacuum breaker. Because a barometric
loop uses basic physics to protect against siphonage and backflow, any valve or controller can
be located in the piping.

Reduced Pressure Principle Backflow Preventer

A reduced pressure principle backflow preventer (see Figure 9-4) provides the highest level of protection of a backflow preventer. The reduced
pressure principle backflow device is typically referred to as an “RP” but may also be referred to as a reduced pressure zone device “RPZD”
or reduced pressure zone “RPZ” (zone is in reference to the intermediate chamber of the device). These devices are required to carry a
permanent mark identifying them as an “RP.” A reduced pressure principle backflow preventer has two independent-acting check valves and
an intermediate relief valve. The backflow preventer must also have two shutoff valves, one on the inlet to the assembly and one on the outlet.
The two check valves provide redundancy for protecting the water supply against backpressure or siphonage. The first check is spring-
biased to at least 5 psi (34.5 kPa) greater than the intermediate area of the valve. The first check is designed to maintain an initial buffer of 3
pounds per square inch differential (psid) (20.7 kPa) above the drip point of the intermediate zone, which is required to be 2 psid (13.8 kPa)

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minimum. Most RPs have a minimum pressure drop well above 5 psid (34.5 kPa) to ensure that these values are maintained. Once the RP is
installed, field test procedures no longer require a 3-psid (20.7-kPa) buffer, so as long as the buffer is not zero, the RP is preventing backflow
and functioning properly. If there is higher pressure on the outlet of the first check valve than on the inlet, the check valve is required to seal
tight, thus preventing backflow. The second check valve is spring-biased to at least 1 psi (6.9 kPa) greater than the outlet pressure. The second
check valve must seal drip-tight when there is a pressure differential of less than 1 psi (6.9 kPa) between the intermediate zone pressure and
the outlet pressure.
The intermediate chamber of the valve, sometimes referred to as the intermediate zone, has a relief valve that opens to discharge water to
prevent any backflow. The relief valve must open when the pressure in the intermediate chamber is 2 psi (13.8 kPa) or less than the pressure
on the inlet of the first check valve. This opening point is usually referred to as the drip point. If either check valve fails to seal tight, the
intermediate chamber is vented to atmosphere. Even when the check valves seal tight, the intermediate chamber is vented to atmosphere
when a lowering of the inlet pressure or a siphon of the inlet supply occurs.
The relief valve is required to discharge at a high rate if either check valve fails to close liquid tight. The high rate of water discharge from
the relief port must be considered in the design of the water distribution system. A large drain, either a floor drain or a drain to the outdoors,
must be provided in the immediate area of a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer. The manufacturer will provide a table identifying
the maximum rate of discharge from the relief port.
Reduced pressure principle backflow preventers are considered active valves. They are designed to be installed in systems that are actively
flowing water to the nonpotable supply. They are not designed for static systems, such as a fire sprinkler or standpipe system. When no
water is flowing in the system on a regular basis, the backflow preventer will constantly discharge water when the inlet pressure to the system
fluctuates. For static systems, the plumbing engineer should attempt to design the system so the inlet pressure to the backflow preventer does
not experience constant swings in supply pressure. It is typically recommended to install a soft-seated single check device upstream of the RP
to mitigate inlet pressure fluctuations and prevent nuisance discharge.
When installed on a connection to a sprinkler or standpipe system, a detector valve is available, identified as a reduced pressure detector fire
protection backflow prevention assembly. These backflow preventers have a smaller-diameter bypass for a water meter with a reduced pressure
principle backflow preventer on the bypass. These detector valves are designed to monitor the possible theft of water through the sprinkler
system or leakage. The detector assemblies are also rated for the higher flow rates that are anticipated with sprinkler and standpipe systems.
Reduced pressure detector assemblies are referred to as an “RPDA” and will have a permanent mark with that lettering for identification.
A reduced pressure principle backflow preventer is a testable valve. Four test cocks are located on the valve. Before the valve is placed
in operation, a test must be performed on the valve to ensure that it is in working condition. The test determines that the first check has
the proper bias, the second check is drip tight, and the relief valve opens at the required pressure. After the initial test, an annual test of the
backflow preventer is required.
Figure 9-5 Double Check Valve Assembly, ASSE
Double Check Valve Assembly 1015
A double check valve assembly (see Figure 9-5) is similar to a reduced pressure
principle backflow preventer but does not have a relief valve in the intermediate
chamber. The double check valve assembly is typically referred to as a “DC” or
“DCVA.” The valve is required to be permanently marked with the lettering “DC”
for identification.
This backflow preventer has two independent check valves. Both check valves
are spring-biased and must be drip tight with a minimum pressure differential of Inlet Outlet
1 psid. The first check valve is not spring-biased for as high a pressure drop as a
reduced pressure principle backflow preventer. As a result, the pressure drop across
a double check valve assembly is less than the pressure drop across a reduced
pressure principle backflow preventer. The double check valve assembly must also
have two shutoff valves, one on the inlet to the assembly and one on the outlet.
Double check valve assemblies are only intended to be used for low-hazard, Inlet Outlet
continuous-pressure, non-health-hazard backflow protection. The valves were
specifically developed for fire sprinkler and standpipe systems. The double check
valve assembly protects against contamination when the sprinkler system is filled
with water only. Other applications for a double check valve assembly are lawn
sprinkler systems and fill valves for boilers or cooling towers that do not contain
chemicals. Some authorities require double check valves when only the hot water system is softened.
When installed on a connection to a sprinkler or standpipe system, a detector valve is available, identified as a double check detector fire
protection backflow prevention assembly. These backflow preventers have a smaller-diameter bypass for a water meter with a double check
valve assembly on the bypass. These detector valves are designed to monitor the possible theft of water through the sprinkler system or leakage.
The detector assemblies are also rated for the higher flow rates that are anticipated with sprinkler and standpipe systems. These devices are
referred to as a “DCDA” and will carry this mark for identification.
Double check valve assemblies are testable valves. Test cocks are located on the valve to measure the pressure differential across the check
valves. Before the assembly is placed in operation, a test must be performed to ensure that it is in working condition. The test determines that
the two checks are drip tight. After the initial test, an annual test is required.

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Backflow Preventer with an Intermediate Atmospheric Vent Figure 9-6 Backflow Preventer with an
Intermediate Atmospheric Vent, ASSE 1012
A backflow preventer with an intermediate atmospheric vent (see Figure 9-6) has two
independently acting check valves and a vent that opens to atmosphere. When the first
check valve opens, it closes off the opening to the vent. When the first check valve moves
to the closed position, the intermediate atmospheric vent opens to vent any nonpotable
water that flows past the second check valve. The intermediate atmospheric vent must Inlet Outlet
discharge through an air gap.
These types of backflow preventers are only available in ¼ inch through ¾ inch (DN 8
through 20). The common installation of this backflow preventer is on the fill line to a boiler

Vent
that does not have conditioning chemicals. This device provides backflow protection similar
to an RP but in a compact, less-expensive design that is not testable or repairable in line.
Figure 9-7
Dual Check Valve Dual Check Valve, ASSE 1032
A dual check valve (see Figure 9-7) has two independently acting check valves without an Inlet Outlet
atmospheric vent opening, shutoff valves on either end, or test cocks. The many styles of dual
check valves depend on the application of use. Larger dual check valves are available in sizes
up to 2 inches (DN-50) in diameter. These types of valves are commonly used on the inlet
supply to a building or on the water supply to a residential sprinkler system. Smaller-diameter
dual check valves are used for backflow protection on the water supply to equipment such as
juice dispensers, coffee makers, and humidifiers. The small sizes are also used on laboratory
faucets and shampoo sinks. This device provides backflow protection similar to
Figure 9-8
a double check (DC) but in a compact, less-expensive design that is not testable Backflow Preventer for Carbonated Beverage
or repairable in line. Dual checks are usually referred to as a “DuC” and should Machines, ASSE 1022
not be confused with a double check.
Inlet Outlet
Not all plumbing codes recognize the use of dual check valves. When dual
check valves are permitted by the plumbing codes, they are typically restricted
to a narrow application of use for backflow protection.

Backflow Preventer for Carbonated Beverage Machines

A backflow preventer for carbonated beverage machines has two independent
check valves with a vent to atmosphere (see Figure 9-8). The valve is designed
for the high pressures associated with carbonated beverage dispensers. When
carbon dioxide is introduced into the potable water, it converts to carbonic acid
(also called carbonated water), which is very corrosive to copper pipe and brass
plumbing components, resulting in copper toxicity in the drinking water. The
backflow preventer prevents the carbonic acid from entering the potable water
system, and because of its contact with carbonic acid, this device is required to
be made of stainless steel or engineered plastic.
When a backflow preventer for carbonated beverage machines is installed, the
engineer must be concerned with the possible escape of carbon dioxide. Adequate Inlet Outlet
ventilation is required to dilute any escape of carbon dioxide, or monitoring must
be provided to indicate a hazardous environment.

Vacuum Breakers
Vacuum breakers are designed to break a siphon by allowing the introduction
of air into the piping system. Vacuum breakers are only designed to prevent
siphonage; however, certain vacuum breaker are tested for low-head backpressure,
which typically means a column of water elevated to 10 feet (3.3 m) or less. For
Atmospheric vent
some applications, a lower head height is anticipated. Vacuum breakers must be
installed above the flood level rim of the fixture, vat, vessel, or tank that they are
protecting against backflow.

Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker

An atmospheric vacuum breaker, or “AVB,” has a vent opening that is closed when water is normally flowing through the device. The AVB is
designed to provide backsiphonage protection in intermittent-pressure applications. Minimal moving parts and no springs are associated with
an atmospheric vacuum breaker. Water must flow freely through the vacuum breaker without continuous pressure or a buildup of pressure.
For this reason, shutoff valves are not permitted to be placed downstream of an atmospheric vacuum breaker.
The most common type of atmospheric vacuum breaker is a pipe-applied vacuum breaker (see Figure 9-9). Pipe-applied vacuum breakers
are installed on most flush valves to water closets and urinals. The flush pipe has an enlarged area with openings to atmosphere. Inside the

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flush pipe is an elastomeric sleeve that expands, closing off the openings when water passes Figure 9-9 Pipe- Applied Vacuum Breaker
through the vacuum breaker. After each use, the elastomeric sleeve returns to its normal for Flushometer Valve
position, allowing air to enter the openings in the flush pipe. Source: Zurn

The other style of atmospheric vacuum breaker is designed in a 90-degree configuration

(see Figure 9-10). Water enters the bottom of the vacuum breaker and exits through the
side. At the top of the vacuum breaker is an opening that allows air to enter the piping
system. A bonnet covers the air opening to prevent any foreign objects from obstructing
the opening. An internal disk moves upward when water enters the vacuum breaker. The
disk closes off the air opening, allowing water to flow freely through the valve. When water
is not flowing, the disk lowers, allowing air to enter the piping, thus breaking any siphon
action. The remaining water in the piping discharges into the fixture or vessel.
Pressure Vacuum Breaker
A pressure vacuum breaker, or “PVB,” utilizes one or two springs on the disks to ensure that
the air inlet opens to allow air to enter to break the siphon action, and the inlet closes when Figure 9-10 Atmospheric
water is not flowing. These devices are designed to provide backsiphonage protection in a continuous- Vacuum Breaker, ASSE 1001
pressure application. A pressure vacuum breaker comes with two shutoff valves, one on the supply and
the other on the outlet of the valve. Because the disks are spring loaded, shutoff valves can be installed
downstream of the pressure vacuum breaker.
Pressure vacuum breakers are testable valves and have two test cocks. Before being placed into service,

Atm nt
ve
a pressure vacuum breaker must be tested. An annual test also is required.

.
Pressure vacuum breakers were originally designed to be installed outdoors (see Figure 9-11), but Outlet
they can be installed indoors provided measures are taken to prevent damage when the valve discharges
water. Pressure vacuum breakers are often referred to as spitting when water first flows through the valve.
The spitting is the discharge of water out of the top bonnet, which occurs until the disk seals off the air

Inlet
opening. The amount of water that discharges is less than a gallon; however, some form of drainage, such
as a floor drain, should be located near the pressure vacuum breaker. Most pressure vacuum breakers are
required to be installed a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) above the Figure 9-11 Pressure Vacuum Breaker on the Water Supply
flood level rim or highest downstream outlet. to a Lawn Sprinkler System, ASSE 1020

Spill-Resistant Vacuum Breaker Pressure vacuum

breaker
Spill-resistant vacuum breakers, or “SVB” (see Figure 9-12), are a style of
pressure vacuum breaker that does not discharge water when water starts
to flow through the valve. Spill-resistant vacuum breakers are specifically
12 in. (305 mm)
designed for installation indoors. A floor drain or other drainage means minimum
is not required for the installation of a spill-resistant vacuum breaker.
Spill-resistant vacuum breakers also have test cocks and require
testing as a pressure vacuum breaker.

Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker

To lawn sprinklers
Many styles of vacuum breakers, called “HCVB,” are designed to protect
hose connections against backflow (see Figure 9-13). Some vacuum breakers Figure 9-12 Spill- Figure 9-13 Hose
connect to the end of the hose connection, while others are internal to the Resistant Vacuum Breaker, Connection Vacuum
sillcock. Frost-proof sillcocks, intended for outdoor use in cold climates, have ASSE 1056 Breaker, ASSE 1011
internal vacuum breakers that release the water inside the barrel of the sillcock.
Inlet

Hose connection vacuum breakers are a style of atmospheric vacuum

Atm nt

breaker; however, they are all tested for low-head backpressure, which can be
ve
.

present when a hose is connected and elevated during use.

Outlet
Other Backflow Protection Means
Tank-type water closets have internal anti-siphon ballcocks to protect against
backflow. Pressure-assist water closets have internal backflow protection as Test cock
Atm nt
Outlet

part of the pressurized tank design. The backflow protection for tank-type
ve
.

and pressure-assist water closets is discussed in Chapter 1.

Other equipment and devices using potable water may have internal
Inlet

backflow protection, which is required in some product standards. However,

the plumbing code may or may not accept the internal backflow protection,
so any internal backflow preventer must be evaluated to determine if the level of protection complies with the plumbing code. If the internal
backflow preventer is not acceptable, another method of backflow prevention must be installed on the water supply to the equipment or device.

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Backflow Protection in Heat Exchangers Figure 9-14 Double-Wall Heat

Exchanger
A heat exchanger itself appears to not be a concern regarding backflow. For example, in a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger used to heat potable water, the potable water is separated from the transfer fluid by a pipe
wall. However, the backflow concern is a potential leak in the water piping inside the heat exchanger.
If a leak occurs, the nonpotable transfer fluid could enter the hot water piping and contaminate the
potable water supply.
When toxic transfer fluid is used in a heat exchanger, the plumbing codes normally require a double-
wall heat exchanger (see Figure 9-14). The interstitial space between the two walls has to be vented to
make any internal leak visible. Hot water
out

INSTALLATION
All backflow preventers must be accessible for inspection, service, repair, maintenance, or replacement
via a panel, door, or access opening. Testable backflow preventers must be installed so their test cocks
are accessible for installing the test gauges. For this reason, some manufacturers may advise to limit the Vent to
atmosphere
installation height of the bottom of the device to 30 inches (762 mm) off the finished grade.
The standard orientation for reduced pressure principle backflow preventers and double check valve
assemblies is horizontal. A reduced pressure principle backflow preventer and double check valve assembly
can only be installed in the vertical orientation when the device is tested and listed for vertical orientation.
For reduced pressure principle backflow preventers and double check valve assemblies that are 3 Cold water in
inches (DN-80) or smaller in diameter, the minimum spacing between the side of the device with the
test cocks and the side wall of the building is recommended to be 24 inches (610 mm). The Table 9-4 Reduced Pressure Principle
remaining sides of the device should have a spacing of 12 inches (305 mm) minimum. For Backflow Preventer Discharge Rates
4-inch (DN-100) and larger reduced pressure principle backflow preventers and double check Relief Valve
valve assemblies, the minimum spacing on the side with the test cocks should be 48 inches Backflow Discharge Rate at
Preventer Size, in.
(1,220 mm). The remaining sides should have a minimum spacing of 24 inches (610 mm). 80 psi (552 kPa),
(DN)
Reduced pressure principle backflow preventers must be installed with an air gap for the gpm (L/m)
relief valve discharge port. The location of a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer 1½ (40) 80 (303)
must prevent the relief valve discharge port from becoming submerged. Many plumbing 2 (50) 150 (568)
codes prohibit a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer from being installed in a pit
3 (80) 240 (908)
or underground, which can be interpreted as prohibiting the device from being installed in a
basement that could be flooded. Other plumbing codes allow pit or underground installations if 4 (100) 620 (2,350)
adequate drainage is provided to prevent the relief valve discharge port from being submerged. 6 (150) 620 (2,350)
Double check valve assemblies do not have the same concern about being submerged. Most 8 (200) 620 (2,350)
plumbing codes allow double check valve assemblies to be installed in pits or underground.
However, some plumbing codes do not allow these devices to be installed in a pit if the test
cocks could be submerged, which could result in contamination of the potable water supply. Table 9-5 Flow Rate Through a PVC Drain
When installed outside, reduced pressure principle backflow preventers and double check Pitched ¼ in./ft (~2%) Flowing Half Full
valve assemblies must be protected from freezing in colder climates. Insulated enclosures Drain Size, Flow Rate, gpm
and heated, insulated enclosures specifically designed for backflow preventers are available to in. (DN) (Lpm)
protect the device from freezing. These outside enclosures also allow the water to discharge 1½ (40) 8.3 (31.4)
to the surrounding ground when a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer is installed. 2 (50) 15.7 (59.4)
This avoids the need for a drain to be installed.
3 (80) 39.6 (150)
One of the most overlooked installation design requirements is the size of the floor drain
in the immediate area of a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer. Table 9-4 lists the 4 (100) 81.7 (309)
discharge flow rates from the relief valve for one manufacturer’s reduced pressure principle 6 (150) 243.6 (922)
backflow preventer with a water supply pressure of 80 psi (552 kPa). Table 9-5 lists the flow 8 (200) 505.2 (1,912)
rates through a PVC drain pitched ¼ inch per foot (~2 percent) flowing half full. The drain 10 (250) 927 (3,510)
for a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer should have a flow rate equal to or greater
than the discharge rate from the backflow preventer.
All vacuum breakers must be installed in the orientation for which the device is listed (for example, vertical to horizontal orientation).
The critical level, typically marked “CL” on the vacuum breaker, must be installed above the flood level rim. Atmospheric vacuum breakers
typically require a minimum of 6 inches (152 mm) between the critical level and flood level rim. However, some special atmospheric vacuum
breakers, often called deck-mounted vacuum breakers, can be installed 1 inch (25 mm) above the flood level rim. Pressure vacuum breaker are
typically required to be installed a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) above the flood level rim. A lower height may be acceptable if the device
has been so tested and listed. The minimum height is specified by the manufacturer and is part of the vacuum breaker’s listing.

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MEANS OF PROVIDING PROTECTION

The two philosophical approaches to providing protection against backflow are identified as point-of-use protection and point-of-supply
protection. Point-of-use protection is based on providing some means of backflow protection at every opening, outlet, or connection to a
nonpotable system. The goal of point-of-use protection is to provide an air gap whenever possible. When an air gap cannot be reasonably
provided, an appropriate backflow preventer must be installed.
Point-of-supply protection is based on providing a backflow preventer at the water supply inlet to the building. This level of protection is
either by a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer or a double check valve assembly. In some cities the installation of a break tank is
also permitted, whereby the water supply fills a tank having an air gap on the water supply from the public utility. The water is pumped from
the tank to the building.
Point-of-supply protection is designed to protect the public water supply against backflow, but it does not address backflow protection
within the building. Point-of-supply protection is not covered by the major plumbing codes. Point-of-supply protection is favored by the water
utilities as a means of protecting the public supply. Point-of-supply protection may be required by the water utility for certain buildings. The
plumbing engineer needs to confirm the point-of-supply protection required by the water utility. The U.S. EPA provides recommendations
for the types of buildings requiring additional point-of-supply backflow preventers.
Every plumbing code requires protection by point of use. This method is intended to ensure that the potable water supply is protected in
both the building and the public main.
When point-of-supply protection is required by the water purveyor and point-of-use protection is required by the plumbing code, pressure
problems within the water piping system can occur. If multiple backflow preventers lower the pressure below the required pressure to operate
the plumbing fixtures or connected equipment, a pump system must be installed to elevate the pressure. One option would be to install the
required backflow preventers in parallel: one for the potable water system and the other as required for the nonpotable water system. The
other option would be to remove the point-of-supply backflow preventer to increase the pressure as part of an engineered alternative design.

Acceptable Level of Protection

The plumbing codes stipulate the required level of protection against backflow. An air gap is permitted by every plumbing code to protect
any opening or outlet. When an air gap is not possible, the following backflow preventers can be used to protect the outlets, openings, or
connections as identified:
• Reduced pressure principle backflow preventer: This backflow preventer can be used to protect any connection. The nonpotable
system can contain any chemical or toxic substance.
• Double check valve assembly: This backflow preventer can be used to protect the water supply to a fire sprinkler or standpipe system.
If antifreeze or conditioning chemicals are added to the fire sprinkler or standpipe system, a reduced pressure principle backflow
preventer is required.
• Backflow preventer with an intermediate atmospheric vent: This backflow preventer can be used to protect the connection to a hot
water or steam boiler that does not contain any conditioning chemicals. If conditioning chemicals are added to the boiler, a reduced
pressure principle backflow preventer is required.
• Backflow preventer for carbonated beverage machine: This backflow preventer can be used to protect the water supply to a carbonated
beverage dispenser.
• Dual check valve: This backflow preventer can be used to protect the water supply to juice dispensers, coffee makers, espresso machines,
and humidifiers.
• Barometric loop: A barometric loop can protect a connection to any fixture or open vessel, tank, or vat. The vessel, tank, or vat can
contain chemicals or toxic substances.
• Vacuum breaker (atmospheric, pressure, and spill resistant): Vacuum breakers can be used to protect the water supply to any connection
that is open to atmosphere. If connected to a tank or vat, the tank or vat can contain chemicals or toxic substances.
• Hose connection vacuum breaker: This device can be used to protect the water supply on any outlet that has a hose connection.
• Heat exchanger: A double-wall heat exchanger can be used to protect the water supply when the heat transfer fluid is toxic, such as
ethylene glycol. When a nontoxic heat transfer fluid, such as propylene glycol, is used, a single-wall heat exchanger may be used.

TESTING BACKFLOW PREVENTERS

Testable backflow preventers must be tested and certified before being placed in service. The testing ensures that the backflow preventer will
provide the level of protection required for the device. The types of backflow preventers that are testable include reduced pressure principle
backflow preventers, double check valve assemblies, pressure vacuum breakers, and spill-resistant vacuum breakers.
Field testing is conducted in accordance with the protocol that is specified in ASSE 5000: Cross-Connection Control Certification. Field
testing must be conducted by a certified backflow tester. For a reduced pressure principle backflow preventer, the testing verifies that the first
and second check valves are properly operating and that the relief valve is properly functioning. For a double check valve assembly, the testing
verifies that the first and second check valves are properly operating. For pressure vacuum breakers and spill-resistant vacuum breakers, the
testing verifies that the check valve is properly operating and that the air inlet is properly admitting air.
After the initial testing of the backflow preventer, an annual test is required. In some jurisdictions, test reports must be filed with the
jurisdiction to verify that the backflow preventer is operating as anticipated.

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Technical advancements in plumbing equipment now allow integral real-time monitoring and control of backflow prevention devices in
addition to the required annual testing. For instance, where the check valves don’t hold, allowing backsiphonage of water, a pressure sensor
before and after the check valve will indicate a pressure difference, meaning the check valves are maintaining spring tension. If there is no
pressure differential across the valve, it could mean the check valves are stuck open, allowing for back siphonage. In case the vent discharge
is stuck open, often causing a flood in the room and unnecessary water waste, an integral flood sensor will alert the owner or operator of
the failure in real time. A backflow preventer assembly includes two shutoff valves: one before and one after the check valves. To prevent a
situation where the shutoff valves don’t hold, automatic valve exercising can ensure they operate as required at any time.

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ASPE Read, Learn, Earn Continuing Education

In order to receive CEU credit, please complete the below quiz online. If you score 90 percent or higher on the test, you will be notified that you have earned
0.1 CEU, which can be applied toward CPD or CPDT recertification or numerous regulatory-agency CE programs. (Please note that it is your responsibility to
determine the acceptance policy of a particular agency.)

Expiration date: Continuing education credit will be given for this examination through December 31, 2024.

Thank you to Tony Furst, MSEd, CPD, Leed AP, for authoring this month’s quiz.

Cross-Connection Control (CEU 326)

1. A column of water 20’ tall exerts a pressure on its base of what? 7. The intermediate zone of an RP device is equipped with _______.
a. .866 psi a. A drain valve
b. .433 psi b. A test cock
c. 43.3 psi c. Two check valves
d. 8.66 psi d. A relief valve

2. Backflow protection is based on what? 8. Heat exchangers for domestic water use minimize cross contamination
a. Preventing the reversal of of flow potential through the use of _______.
b. Adding pressure drop to a system a. Double wall construction
c. Creating a test point in a system b. Double check valve assembly on the potable water side
d. Ensuring flow reversal c. Automatic isolation valves on the heat source
d. Electronic leak detection systems
3. Reverse flow can be caused by numerous situations. What are three
possble causes? 9. A 3” RP style backflow preventer has a relief valve discharge rate of
a. Over-pressure in the city water main, incorrect pipe size, excessive ______.
water demand a. 375 GPM
b. Fire department usage, pressure increase due to temperature increase, b. 90 GPM
broken city water main c. 240 GPM
c. Nonpotable system operating at a higher pressure than the potable d. 150 GPM
system, operator error, broken city main
d. Additional fixture load, higher demand on a lower flow, pumps 10. The minimum required level of backflow prevention for seperating
operated in reverse the potable water system from a heating hot water system containing
propylene glycol is?
4. An air gap is considered ______ against backflow. a. Reduced Pressure Zone or RP
a. The lowest level of protection b. Double Check Valve Assembly or DCDA
b. Not a usable level of protection c. Dual Check Valve
c. The highest level of protection d. Vacuum Breaker
d. The minimum level of protection
11. Testable backflow prevention devices must be tested and certified
5. A barometric loop is similar to _______. _________.
a. An atmospheic vacuum breaker a. At initial installation and every year thereafter
b. A double check valve backflow preventer b. At original installation and every five years thereafter
c. A reduced pressure zone backflow preventer c. By the manufacturer and every ten years thereafter
d. An air gap d. At time of original installation and never again

6. A reduced pressure or RP backflow preventer has _______ check valves

and a relief valve.
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 1

6 Read, Learn, Earn December 2023