Anatomy Lecture Outline Section 1: The Integumentary A.

The Epidermis – The most superficial layer of the skin is

System

Introduction to the Integumentary System

The integumentary system is considered an organ because it
is made up of different tissues. Actually, it contains all four of
the primary tissues; epithelium, connective, muscle and
nervous. The integument is comprised of: 1) the cutaneous
membrane (skin); and 2) associated structures (hair, glands
and nails). The most superficial portion of the integumentary
system is comprised of stratified squamous (keratinized)
epithelial tissue which makes the epidermis (epi - above or
upon). Deep to this is a combination pf areolar and dense
irregular connective tissue that makes up most of the dermis.
The associated structures include exocrine glands (sebaceous
and sweat), hair and hair follicles, and finger and toe nails.

Gross Anatomy of the skin, hair, glands and nails

The Integumentary system includes the skin and the
associated accessory structures hair, glands and nails. Note
that the skin is a type of membrane, which can be referred to
as the cutaneous membrane. Ask yourself, what is a
membrane? It is like a formula:

Membranes in Anatomy = Epithelial Tissue

Connective Tissue

When examining models, drawings or slides of the skin, keep

in mind that it will always be superficial epithelium and deep made of epithelial tissue. It is classified as stratified squamous
connective tissue. Review the characteristics of epithelial and keratinized (dry) epithelium. The epidermis has either 4 (thin
connective tissue and see these qualities apply when skin) or 5 (thick skin) distinct layers or ‘strata’ that can be
examining the skin and its function. Examine the accessory identified. Below is a description of each of the possible
structures of the skin (hair, glands and nails) remembering layers, from the deepest layer to the most superficial.
that they are all derived from epithelial tissue but originate in
the dermis portion of the skin.

As usual, epi- means above, upon or on top. Sometimes a

source of confusion is the naming of the apocrine sweat
gland; the ‘apo’ part means apical or top portion, such that it
infers the secretion is made by cleaving off the top of the cell.
However, it is believed that this type of gland actually
secretes by means of merocrine mode. It is interesting to
note that the integumentary system contains all four tissue
types.

General Functions of Integumentary System

A. Gives Physical Protection
B. Prevents Pathogen Invasion 1. Stratum Basale (Germinativa) – composed essentially
C. Restricts Desiccation (Dehydration) of a single row of cells that make the deepest layer of the
D. Provides Sensory Perception epidermis. Roughly the cells in this layer are about 80-90%
E. Vitamin D Production keratinocytes and 10-20% melanocytes. The keratinocytes
have mitotic potential which means they can divide and
rapidly reproduce in order to continue replacing themselves.
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These are the ‘stem cell’ of the bulk of the epidermis – the keratinocytes is creating a protective barrier against
name germinativa means ‘to germinate’, like a seed environmental elements, such as pathogens (bacteria,
beginning to grow. These cells are sitting directly on the fungi and viruses), heat, UVA radiation and water loss. If
basement membrane, which is attached to connective tissue pathogens begin to invade the superficial epidermis,
directly deep to it. The melanocytes located in this layer are keratinocytes react by producing pro-inflammatory
the cells that produce the dark pigmented molecule melanin. mediators, particularly chemokines which
When melanin granules are released into the tissue in attract leukocytes to the site of invasion. Go leukocytes.
response to UVA light stimulation, the skin becomes darker.
The melanin provides protection to the nucleus (where the Structural proteins like keratin, and antimicrobial agents
DNA resides) of keratinocytes against UVA irradiation, to contribute to the important barrier function of this cell in the
prevent UVA related cellular damage. skin. Keratinized epithelial tissue means it is waterproofed
(dry) and this cornification provides a significant physical
2. Stratum Spinosum – can be several cell layers thick. barrier, especially in thick skin (palms and soles). The fully
Mostly spindly keratinocytes with some scattered Langerhans cornified keratinocytes that form the outermost layer are
cells that provide immunological protection. The term constantly shed and replaced by new cells.
spinosum means ‘spiny’; the spiny appearance of the cells in
this area is somewhat due to the histological preparation. 2) Melanocytes make up about 10% of
Some cells are beginning to die here, due to distance away the cells in the epidermis. These cells
from nutrients and oxygen in the blood supply of the dermis. make melanin, a dark brown pigment
which is primarily responsible for skin
3. Stratum Granulosum - from 3 to 5 layers of flattened color. *There are actually two main
keratinocytes containing darkly staining keratohyaline and types of melanin. Melanocytes (from
lamellated granules, these are very effective waterproofing Greek melas meaning ‘dark or black’)
hydrophobic substances that provide the protection against are located mostly in the stratum
dehydration of the body at the surface of the skin. basale of the epidermis. After synthesizing melanin, it is
packed into a little container called a melanosome (an
4. Stratum Lucidum - a thin translucent band of a few organelle) and transported along its arm-like structures
(dendrites) so that they can reach and release its
cells, this layer is only found in thick skin, that is, the skin
melanin to the keratinocytes, which take up the
found on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Lots of
melanin for protection against ultraviolet A
keratin here in this layer. Cells in this layer are dead, as they
(UVA) radiation.
are too far away from the capillaries in the underlying
connective tissue.
3) Merkel cells (Merkel-Ranvier) are tactile discs
that act as receptors for light touch found in
5. Stratum Corneum - the most superficial (external)
the epidermis. They are usually associated with
layer of the epidermis, it is many cell layers thick and is
a sensory nerve ending for tactile information,
cornified (horn-like) because it is a thoroughly keratinized
but also may play a role resolving fine spatial
layer, filled with dead cells that provide a substantially
detail of touch.
protective and waterproof barrier. This stratum is thickest in
thick skin (palms and soles) and the cellular attachments of
epithelium can keep 20 to 30 cell layers remaining in the 4) Langerhans cells are the defense cells
stratum corneum. of the epidermis. They are a type of
immune cell that can phagocytose an
B. Cells of the Epidermis invader. They are most prominent in
The strata of the epidermis contain four (4) different types of the stratum spinosum, but can be
cells. found in all layers of the epidermis and
can also wiggle into the papillary layer of the dermis.
Langerhans are dendritic cells that can take up and
1) Keratinocytes represent about 80 to 90% of all cells
process microbial antigens to become antigen-
found in the epidermis. They start as the stem cell in the
presenting cells – quite an accomplishment in the world
stratum basale of the epidermis
of defense cells.
and can be referred to as "basal
cells". These cells make keratin, a
C. The Dermis
tough lipoprotein that acts as a
The dermis of the skin is the connective tissue portion of the
sealing and waterproof agent for
cutaneous membrane. The dermis is divided into two regions
skin. The main function of
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or layers, the superficial papillary layer and the deep reticular D. Hypodermis
layer. A different type of connective tissue is predominate in The hypodermis can also be referred to as the subcutaneous
each of these layers. layer and also superficial fascia. These are three different
names for the same region. This layer is deep to the reticular
The Papillary Layer: This region is immediately deep to the layer of the dermis and consists mostly of adipose tissue with
stratified squamous keratinized epithelium of the epidermis a very good blood supply. One of its main functions is to
and is composed of areolar connective tissue. The underside stabilize the skin and for protection and insulation.
of the epidermal ridges of the epidermis (also known as
fingerprints) interlocks with the dermal papillae of the E. Accessory Structures of the Integumentary System are
papillary region, assisting in the holding together of these two Epidermal Appendages
tissues. It is about 1/5 of the total thickness of the dermis. All of the accessory structures in the integument, that is, hair,
The other basic elements of the papillary layer are: glands and nails, are actually all derived from the epidermis,
that is, they are made of epithelial tissue. It may appear as if
a. A network of blood vessels and capillaries here called the these structures are derived from the connective tissue of the
papillary plexus. The rich blood supply in this areolar dermis because of their location, but they are made of
connective tissue enables the epidermis above it to be epithelia tissue derived from the epidermis.
well supplied with nutrients and oxygen, at least the basal
end of that epithelial tissue. 1. Hair – This fluffy stuff on the surface of your skin grows
b. Free nerve endings are located here. These detect basic from a hair matrix in the hair papilla that has a good blood
sensations of hot and cold and general pain. supply enclosed in the region of the hair bulb and sheath.
Hair has an inner layer, an outer layer a protective cuticle.
c. Meissner's (tactile) corpuscles are sensory nerve receptors
The hair is housed in a hair follicle, which is like another
for the detection of light touch. They are nestled in the
protective shell for the hair. There are several additional
dermal papillae in the papillary layer of dermis. The close
structures that are associated with the hair and the hair
proximity to the epidermis allows for detection of
follicle. Here are the main structures associated with hair:
distention of the surface of the skin.
a. Arrector pili is smooth muscle associated with a hair
The Reticular Layer: This region is made of tough dense
follicle. It is attached to the hair follicle and when it contracts,
irregular connective tissue. Contains more of the same as in
it stands the hair erect, when you are cold, afraid or angry,
papillary layer. It accounts for approximately 4/5 of the total often resulting in ‘goose bumps’. b. Nerve plexus around base
thickness of the dermis and deep to this tissue is the of hair, detects movement of the hair, also painful when hair
hypodermis. The abundance of collagen fibers ‘irregularly’ is pulled out.
arranged allow for distention of this tissue in multiple c. Sebaceous glands - make the oily substance sebum, to
directions. It turns out that the fibers are methodically keep hair supple and conditioned.
arranged - as evident by lines of tension/cleavage that are
seen in the dermatomes of the body, yielding directionality The actual hair has 3 layers: The medulla, cortex and
and creases in the skin. cuticle.
The medulla (from ‘marrow’ in Latin) is the innermost layer
The other basic elements of the reticular layer are: of the hair and is composed of large cells. Represented as
green in the drawing to the right. These cells form a shaft
a. A larger network of blood vessels located here called the through the middle of the hair. Different amounts of
cutaneous plexus. This blood supply often sits deep in the medulla may be present in a hair. The cortex (from Latin
reticular layer and even in the hypodermis region too. This ‘bark of a tree’ or outer husk) is the layer between the
vascular bed is to supply all of the associated structures found cuticle and medulla and contains keratin and pigment
in the reticular layer of the dermis. b. Bundles of collagen (melanin or trichosiderin). Represented as blue the drawing
fibers (crisscrossing) to the right. It represents the bulk and strength of hair. This
c. More free nerve endings are located here, including those intervening layer of the hair is made of spindle shaped cells
responsible for deeper pain sensation. and the pigment granules that give color to the hair. Ovoid
d. Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles are located deep in the bodies of large pigment granules may be found here, and
reticular layer of dermis and are mechanoreceptors for the cortical fusi (small bubble-like structures) are also in the
detection of deep pressure. This is in contrast to the cortex. The cuticle (Latin diminutive for skin), is the
Meissner’s corpuscles which are for light touch. outermost layer of the hair. Represented as red in the
e. Numerous cell types may be found in this region, including: drawing to the right. It is transparent and protects the inner
layers. A healthy cuticle gives a shiny appearance for hair and
Fibroblasts; Adipocytes; Macrophages Mast cells
unhealthy cuticle gives lifeless look. It is basically made of
(histiocytes), and Leukocytes.
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keratin. The cuticle is really a series of overlapping scales and merocrine for all sudoriferous glands too. This mode involves
is very resistant to chemical decomposition. packing the material to be secreted into vesicles in the
cytoplasm of the cells. These vesicles then fuse with the
Hair thickness is anywhere between 1/1500 to 1/450 inches plasma membrane of the cell and release the contents of the
(17 to 181 microns) thick. Hair color is the biggest factor in vesicles to the outside by way of exocytosis (exo meaning out
thickness. Flaxen hair is the finest (1/1500 to 1/500 inches, 17 and cytosis meaning of the cell).
to 51 microns) and black hair the coarsest (1/450 to 1/140
inches, 56 to 181 microns) 3. Sebaceous Glands. These glands make an oily, waxy
material called sebum (meaning fat or tallow in Latin). They
Note: There are several significant problems with using hair are exocrine glands located in the dermis of the skin to
characteristics in criminal cases – most notably that hair is not lubricate and waterproof the surface of the skin and hair.
uniform! Hair from the same person may not be exactly the They occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp and
same! This is why a minimum of 12 hair samples are taken at are associated with hair follicles. They are essentially found
different places on a person’s head. Even This Is Not Enough! on all parts of the skin, except the palms of the hands and
This is because different parts on the same hair can look very soles of the feet. In addition, sebaceous glands are also found
different! in hairless areas (or glabrous regions, meaning smooth), such
as the skin of the eyelids, nose, penis, labia minora and
Hair Follicles – act as a protective covering for the living nipples. Sebaceous glands within the eyelids are known as
growing hair bulb and root. It is basically composed of an meibomian or tarsal glands; these are associated with
inner medulla and outer cortex and an external & internal eyelashes and contribute to maintaining the lubrication of
root sheath. the eyes with the oily secretion added to the lacrimal
solution.
2. Sudoriferous Glands – these are sweat glands, numerous The structure of a sebaceous gland is compound acinar, with
on face, scalp, chest, and feet. There are two types of sweat ducts leading directly to the hairs, also depositing sebum to
glands: Merocrine and Apocrine. the surface of the skin. The mode of secretion is holocrine,
this process involves the cells of the secretory portion of the
a. Merocrine (or eccrine) – these produce watery glans filling with so many vesicles that it causes the cells to
sweat, primarily functions in thermoregulation, specifically rupture or burst, and as they disintegrate they release the
for cooling the body down. They also contain lysozyme, an sebum and the remnants cellular debris with the secreted
antimicrobial agent. The highest density of these glands is sebum.
found on palms, soles and forehead. On the palms and soles
the sweart works in concert with thick epidermal ridges, There is a difference between sebaceous glands, which have
better known as finger prints and foot prints, where they ducts that are connected to hair follicles, and sebaceous
increase the friction for better grip. These glands are by far follicles, which are typically larger glands that are
the most numerous type of sweat gland in the body. independent of hair follicles. One or more sebaceous gland
may surround each hair follicle.
b. Apocrine – these glands are located in specific
regions of the body, such as axillary areas, in the genital and 4. Ceruminous Glands. These glands are found in the
anal regions and breasts. They produce more vicious type of external auditory (ear) canal and they produce earwax or
sweat that is lipid rich and also contains chemical signal cerumen. They are actually a type of modified sudoriferous
molecules called pheromones. These are odorless chemical (sweat) gland. Often located deep in the subcutaneous tissue
signals that travel from one individual to another and can of the external auditory canal, the structure of ceruminous
have an effect on behavior. A good example are ‘musk-like’ glands are simple coiled tubular. Earwax or cerumen is made
pheromones that are related to sexual attraction between by the mixing sticky lipid rich secretion with sebum and dead
individuals. Oxytocin is thought to be another pheromone epidermal cells to produce cerumen. The main role of
released into the external environment by one individual and cerumen is to keep the eardrum (tympanic membrane)
can have an effect on another individual especially common pliable and to maintain the lubrication and waterproofing of
in bonding situations. For example, in the mother-child the external auditory canal. It also contains antimicrobial
bonding of early infancy, close friendships, team sports and agents that kill bacteria, preventing colonization by microbes,
combat. In this capacity, apocrine sweat glands can be otherwise they might set up a campsite in your cozy ear
considered ‘scent’ glands for humans, though people are not canal. Cerumen also serves as a sticky barrier trapping foreign
consciously aware of the fragrance of the pheromones. particles like dust, fungal spores, etc., by coating the guard
The structure of sudoriferous glands, whether merocrine or hairs of the ear.
apocrine, is simple coiled tubular. The mode of secretion is
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5. Fingernails and Toenails. Finger nails in the body are water. What this means is that harmful and medicinal
made of heavily keratinized material that grows from the nail substances applied to the nails can penetrate into the body.
root and creates a visible nail bed. Finger and toenails are Water and other substances including pesticides and other
basically made up of dead epidermal skin cells, and can be toxins can enter via nails, so it is worth being aware of what
thought of as a specialized modification of the stratum your nails are exposed to.
corneum of the epidermis. They are predominantly made of
keratinocytes, which also make keratin, the lipoprotein found Skin Color
in nails that makes them tough. The color of the skin is related to three different pigmented
molecules: 1) Melanin; 2) Hemoglobin; and 3) Carotene. As
The nail matrix is where the nails grows and is deep to the we have already seen, melanocytes are one of four basic cell
surface and so it receives oxygen and nutrients to remain types found in the epidermis. Melanocytes make melanin, a
healthy. The matrix becomes the nail plate and nail bed and dark brown molecule that is deposited in the epidermis of the
as cells are continuously made they push older cells forward, skin. The melanocytes in the epidermis respond to ultraviolet
compressing and flattening them until they become radiation A (UVA) from the sun by making more melanin,
translucent (allow light to pass through). This is why you can which acts to protect the nucleus of living cells against
see vascular tissue deep to the nail as a pink-ish color below damage from UVA rays.
the surface of the nail. EMTs or paramedics may use the
blanch test on a fingernail bed to test peripheral perfusion. Please Note: The sun’s rays also contain ultraviolet radiation B
The nail is briefly squeezed to turn the nail bed white, then (UVB), and it is UVB that is responsible for making vitamin D
the pressure released and the normal pink should be restored in the epidermis from a precursor molecule derived from
within a few seconds. A delay in the return of a pink color cholesterol. Without exposure of the skin to UVB rays your
may indicate shock or dehydration. body cannot make its own vitamin D. If you do not know how
vitally important vitamin D is to your health, I strongly suggest
The little moons of finger and toe nails are called the lunula you find out. It is also worth noting that it is the UVA that can
(meaning small moon) and represents the crescent-shaped create what is called “photo-damage” to your skin. You can
visible part of nail matrix at the base of the visible nail. The think of the A for Aging and the B for Beneficial. According to
eponychium and the cuticle are actually separate structures, what you may have learned, what time of the day should you
and both help to create a protective seal at the proximal end be sure to avoid sun exposure, to be safe from danger? From
of the nail. The eponychium is the fold of skin cells that makes 10am to 2pm, right? It turns out the only time to maximize
the cuticle – which is an almost invisible layer of nonliving UVB exposure is between the hours of, yes, 10am and 2pm.
skin cells that cover the proximal nail. Hmph! So that advice seems contrary to good health.
Furthermore, the use of toxic carcinogenic chemicals in sun
The hyponychium is also known as the "quick" of the nail. block, such as the ingredient oxybenzone, act to block UVB,
When you cut or bend your finger nail back too close to the not A! In addition to blocking the good ray, it also introduces
quick, it can be painful! The hyponychium is located on the a steady stream of estrogen mimickers into the body.
underside of the free edge and is essentially the junction of
where the epidermis beneath the nail plate meets the skin of Hemoglobin (Hb) is a pigmented molecule found in
the fingertip. Here a seal forms to protect the nail bed and erythrocytes (red blood cells) of the blood. When oxygen gas
keep the nail body attached to the nail bed. (O2) is bound to Hb, its color is bright red. When Hb has low
O2 levels a purple color will result and it virtually no O 2 is
The free edge or free margin (margo liber) or distal edge is bound to Hb, then a blue color of the blood prevails.
the anterior margin of the nail plate corresponding to the Therefore, the level of oxygenation of the blood will
abrasive or cutting edge of the nail. The lateral margin (margo contribute the overall color of an individual’s skin. An easy
lateralis) lies beneath the nail wall on the sides of the nail and example to think of it is if you are asked to dig in the garden
the lateral nail fold or groove (sulcus matricis unguis) are the on a hot day, your completion will become more red,
cutaneous slits into which the lateral margins are embedded. indication 2 things: an increased supply of blood to the skin
(to cool down) and a more richly oxygenated blood supply,
The rate of nail growth is related to the length of the distal because you are outside using your body!
phalanx (bone of the digits). For example, the nail of the
index finger grows faster than the little finger; and fingernails Finally, carotene is an orange-yellow pigments found in
grow up to four times faster than toenails. On average, nails certain foods (like carrots, pumpkin and sweet potato) and
grow at a rate of 3 mm (0.12 in) a month. the consumption of food containing carotene will contribute
to an orangey-yellow of the skin. It tends to collect more in
Nail are not an impermeable barrier, but are actually more the stratum corneum.
permeable than skin. Nails are often composed of up to 10%