BASIC CONCEPT AND DEFINATION

Thermodynamics is study of thermal energy, thermal energy and its effect of physical properties of the substance
.

The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therm (heat) and dynanus (power), which is most
descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include
all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including power generation refrigeration, and relationships
among the properties of matter,

Classification of Thermodynamics :

Thermodynamics is classified into two part

:1. Equilibrium thermodynamics 2. Non –Equilibrium Thermodynamics

The Equilibrium thermodynamics is again classified into three types

 Classical thermodynamics
 Kinetic thermodynamics
 Statically thermodynamics

Concept of classical Themodymics

System or thermodynamic system :

A thermodynamic system we focused on matter and space ,A fixed quantity of matter or a fixed region of space
on which we focused on our attention while solving on thermodynamic problem is called system or
thermodynamic system,

Ex:- Fixed quantity of matter :

6kg oxygen ,10kg Hydrogen ,10 ton of ice,100 lit water are systemhe

Surrounding :

Any thing extending external to the system is called as surrounding .anything a part of surrounding is not a part
of system or anything part of system is not a part of surrounding.

Universe: The system and surrounding together constitute is called as universe.

Boundary:

The system and surrounding separate with each other is called as boundary or system boundary ,it may visible or
invisible . it is moving or stationary.

Across the boundary there is a possibility of mass flow ,energy flow. System may interact with surrounding by
mass or energy interaction .

Classification of system :

Close system : If there is no mass interaction between system and surrounding , it is called as closed system,
energy flow may takes place

Ex: frying pan, pressure cooker, refrigerator

Close system

Open system : If mass flow takes place ,then it is called as open system.

Ex: automobile engine , heat exchanger

Isolated system :

If neither mass flow nor energy flow .nor energy flow . then it is called isolated system.

Ex: Themoflask
Control volume

1. Refers to a defined region of space on which attention is focused.

2. Enclosed by a control surface which may be real or imaginary.

3. Matter continuously flows in and out of the control volume.

4. Control volume can exchange heat and work through control surface.

Control mass

1. Refers to a definite quantity of matter on which attention is focused.

2. Bounded by a closed boundary which may be real or imaginary.

3. Matter does not cross the boundaries of a control mass.

4. Heat and work interaction are present across the system boundary.

Properties of system:

A property of the system is characteristic to describe system which depends upon the state .but not upon how the
state is reached.

There are 8 types of thermodynamic properties

(a) Pressure (b) volume (c) temperature (d) Internal energy (5) enthalpy (6) entropy (7) gibb’s function ( 8)
Helmohtz function
1. Intensive properties: These properties do not depend on mass of the system., also does not depend upon
system size and amount of material of the system.
Ex: temperature and pressure

2. Extensive properties : These properties depend on mass of the system. It also depend upon the size or
amount of material.
Ex: volume ,internal energy

 The ratio of an extensive property to mass of the system is called a specific property.
Also called as intensive property

For example,specific volume v=V/m

 The ratio of an extensive property to the mole number of the system is called a molar property.
Extensive Property Intensive Property

1. Extensive properties are dependent on the mass 1. Intensive properties are independent of
of a system. the mass of a system.

2.Extensive properties are additive. 2. Intensive properties are not additive.

 3. Its value remains the same whether one 3. Its value for an overall system is the
considers the whole system or only a part sum of its values for the parts into which
of it. the system is divided.
4.Example:Pressure(P),Temperature(T),De 4.Example:mass(m),volume(V),Energy(E),
nsity etc. Enthalp y(H) etc.

5. Lowercase letters are used for intensive 5. Uppercase letters are used for extensive
properties except pressure(P) and temp.(T) properties except mass.

State : It is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or measured by the properties Or
each unique condition of system is called as state.

The value of all properties is fixed at stage -1

If a system is subjected to some kind of operation ( heat, compressing,-------) then at least e one of the property
may change , then the system is under on a change of state

Thermodynamic Path :

The locus of different point state change is called as thermodynamic path .

There will infinite no path possible path may drawn.

Condition of path :

1. Pressure may const, 2.volume may constant , 3. Temperature may be constant.

Process:

Process is well define path with specific condition .

1.constant pressure –Isobaric process

2.constant Temp – Isothermal process

3,Constant volume – Isochoric process

4.No heat interaction - Adiabatic process

Quasi-Static Process

The processes can be restrained or unrestrained We need restrained processes in practice .A quasi – static process
is one in which

• The deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal.

• All states of the system passes through are equilibrium states.
• If we remove the weights slowly one byone the pressure of the gas will displace the piston gradually. It is
quasi-Static Process

Reversible process :

Reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the end of the process both
the system and surrounding may be restored to their initial state without producing any changes
in rest of the Universe.

Reasons for studying Reversible Process:

1. They are easy to analyze.

2. They served as an idealized process to which actual process can be compared.

3. They are taken for consideration because work producing devices such as steam turbine,
automobile engines etc delivers the max. work and work consuming devices like compressors,
pumps etc consumes the least work.
 Characteristics of Reversible Process

 A Reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient so that
every state pass through by the system is in equilibrium.

 It is possible to execute the process in either of the direction.

 No dissipative effect such as friction, loss in a resistor, etc are present.

 Heat and work interactions of the system and the surroundings in the reverse process are equal
and opposite in direction to the same in the forward process.

Examples:

1. Frictionless isothermal expansion or compression of a fluid.

2. Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of a fluid.

3. Elastic stretching of a solid.

4. Electric current with zero resistance.

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS

An irreversible process is one that is carried out in such a way that the system and surrounding
can not be exactly restored to their respective initial state at the end of the reverse process, that a
net change occurs in the Universe.

Note: In an irreversible the surrounding would always be affected by loss of work and gain of
low temperature heat, which can be considered as waste heat for the surrounding.

Causes of an Irreversibility:

The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following.

(i) Lack of Equilibrium.

(ii) Involvement of Dissipative effect

Lack of Equilibrium(Mechanical,Thermal,Chemical)

The lack of equilibrium between the system and the surroundings or between the two systems
causes a spontaneous change which makes the process irreversible.

Examples:

1. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.

2. Compression or Expansion through a finite pressure difference between the system and
the surroundings.

3. Free expansion or Unrestrained expansion.

 4. Mixing of substances.

Dissipative Effects:

Dissipation results in the transformation of work into molecular energy of the system.

Examples:

1. Friction.

2. Flow of electricity through a resistor.

3. Paddle wheel work transfer. etc

Characteristics of an Irreversible Process:

1. It can be carried out in one direction only.

2. It occurs at a finite rate.

3. During an irreversible process, the system is not in equilibrium.

An irreversible process cannot be reversed without causing permanent changes in the

surroundings.
Difference between Reversible and irreverrsible process
Reversible Process Irreversible Process

1. It takes place in infinite number of 1. It takes place infinite time.

infinitesimally small steps and it would take
infinite time to occur.

2. It is imaginary as it assumes the presence of 2. It is real and can be performed actually.

frictionless and weight less piston.

3. It is in equilibrium state at all stage of the It is in equilibrium state only at the initial and
operation. final stage of the operation.

4. All changes are reversed when the process is 4. After this type of process has occurred all
carried out in reversible direction. changes do not return to the initial stage by
themselves.

5. It is extremely slow. 5. It proceeds at measureable speed

6. Work done by a reversible process is greater 6. Work done by a irreversible process is smaller
than the corresponding irreversible process. than the corresponding reversible process.

7. it is represted by solid line 7. it is represent by dotted line

Cycle :

Combination of process is called as cycle or thermodynamic cycle .here initial and final point is identical

A B

Ex: carnot’s cycle- two reversible adiabatic processes and two reversible reversible isothermal process

Otto cycle : Two reversible adiabatic and two reversible isochoric

Diesel cycle ; Two reversible adiabatic and two reversible isobar

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A B

1. A and B gives no unbalanced external force is called as Mechanical Equilibrium .

2. A and B gives no chemically interacting with each other ,then it is called as chemically equilibrium
3. A and B give no heat transfer with each other .then it is called Thermal equilibrium

If all equilibrium process is satisfy ,then it is called Thermodynamic equilibrium

Point function :

 .Any quantity whose change is independent of the path is known as point function.

 The magnitude of such quantity in a process depends on the state.

 . These are exact differential.

 . Properties are the examples of point function like pressure(P), volume(V),Temp.(T),Energy etc.

Path function
 Any quantity, the value of which depends on the path followed during a change of state is known
as path function.
 The magnitude of such quantity in a processis equal to the area under the curve on a property
diagram
 These are inexact differential. Inexact differential is denoted by δ
 . Ex: Heat and work
Microscopic approach of Thermodynamic :

 Here attention is focused on certain quantity of matter without taking in account the events
occurring a molecular level.
 Here analysis is concerned with overall behaviour of the system
 Here few properties are needed to described the system
 Here pressure and temperature etc needed to described the system
 The properties of the system are average value.
 This approach requireds simple mathematical formula for analysing the system
Macroscopic approach of Thermodynamics :
 In this approach we consider that system is made up of large number of discrete particles called
molecule which have different velocity and energies ,the parameter constantly change with time
 A knowledge of structure of matter is analysing the behaviour of the system
 Large number of variable are needed to describe the system
 Properties like velocity ,momentum and kinetic energy which describe the behaviour of
molecule
 The properties are defined for each molecule individually
 Here advance statical and mathematical method is required
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics :

It speaks about thermal equilibrium .If a system A is thermal equilibrium with system B,B is
thermal equilibrium C. Then A and C are thermal equilibrium.

A B

A,B,C are thermal equilibrium with each other , The common thing Temperature is same
Temperature of A is equal tempeture B and temperature C

Heat and Temperature :

Heat is a form of energy which flow due to tempeture difference. it is a path function . its unit is
joules kilo joules mega joule
Temperature is a thermodynamic properties due to the difference of heat flow. It is point function ,unit
Centigrade, Kelvin .
Tempeture scales :
Freezing point of water known as ice point and boiling point of water known as steam point are taken as
the reference states for all types of temperature scales.

The various types as temperature scales in use are :

a) Celsius scale b) Fahrenheit scale c) Kelvin scale d) Rankine scale

Comparison of Temperature scale

PRESSURE

Pressure is the normal force exerted by a system against unit area of the boundary surface. The unit of pressure
depends on the units of force and area. In S.I, the practical units of pressure are N/mm 2,

N/m2, kN/m2, MN/m2 etc.

A bigger unit of pressure known as bar, such that

1 bar = 1 × 105 N/m2 = 0.1 × 106 N/m2 = 0.1 MN/m2

Other practical units of pressure are Pascal (Pa), kilopascal (kPa) & mega Pascal (MPa), such that

1 Pa = 1N/m2
1 kPa = 1 kN/m2 = 103 N/m2

1 MPa = 1 × 106 N/m2 = 103 kPa = 1 N/ mm2

ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND VACUUM PRESSURE

The pressure is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the absolute zero or
complete vacuum, and is defined as absolute pressure. In other system, pressure is measured above the
atmospheric pressure, and is defined as gauge pressure. So

(a) Absolute pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute zero pressure.

(b) Gauge pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to atmospheric pressure. It is
measured with the help of a pressure measuring instrument. It is a pressure above the atmospheric pressure

P = ρgh
Convert the following reading of pressure in KPa . assuming the barometer reads 760 mmHg
(a) 90cm Hg gauge
Ans : 760mm = 0.760 x 13600 x 9.81 Pa = 101.4 KPa
90mm Hg gauge =

2. Calculate the actual pressure of air in the tank if the pressure of compressed air measured by manometeris 30
cm of mercury and atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa. (Take g = 9.78 m/s2)

Work and Heat Transfer:

Work is done when the point of application of a force moves in the direction of the force. The product
of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force is equal to the amount of the work done

The Thermodynamic Definition of Work :

Positive work is done by a system, during a given process, when sole effect external to the system could be
reduced to the lifting of a mass.
Consider a gas expanding in a piston cylinder arrangement as given in Figure. Here no mass is actually lifted
against gravity. But if the existing surroundings is fitted with an arrangement as given in the Figure , there is a
possibility of lifting the mass. Hence work is said to be done by the system

While exploring the possibility of lifting a mass the effects that are external to the system alone must be
taken into account. For example, a lift with a person and a suitcase is considered as a system. If the person lifts
the suitcase, it should not be taken into account, because this event occurs within the system.

Expansion with actual lifting mass

Units of Work and Power :

In the international system (SI), the unit of force is Newton (N) and that of distance is metre (m). Hence the
unit of work is Nm which is also given a special name Joule. In most of the applications large quantity of work is
involved. Therefore kJ is commonly used.

Rate of doing work is known as power. Hence its unit is Nm/S or J/S which is again given a special name
Watts(W).

Sign Convention of Work

 Work done by the system on the surroundings is considered as positive work. It is called expansion
process

 Work done on the system by the surroundings is taken as negative work.it is called as compression
process
 Sign convection of work

Sign convection of Heat

 Heat supplied to the system from the surroundings is considered as positive Heat .

 Heat rejected from the system from the surroundings is considered as Negative Heat .

Displacement work :

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement as given in the Figure . If the pressure of the fluid is greater than
that of the surroundings, there will be an unbalanced force on the face of the piston. Hence, the piston will move
towards right.
 Expression for pdV Work:

W dW

( p * piston area * displacement)

p * A* dL

pdV

Constant Pressure Process

2
W12=∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑉

Constant volume process :

𝑽
W12= ∫𝑽 𝟐 𝒑𝒅𝑽 =0
𝟏
Constant Temperature Process:

2
W12 =  pdV 
1

2
 =  CdV where C=pV
1

2
1
= C  V dV 
1

 = C ln (V2/V1)

1w2 = P1V1ln(V2/V1) (or)

p2V2ln (V2/V1)

Polytropic Process :
 2

1W2   pdV
1

2
C
 V
1
n
dV where C = pVn

2
 C V  n dV 
1

2
 V  n 1 
 C  
  n  1 1
2
 CV  n 1  CV1  n 1 
  2 
  n 1 1

 p 2V2 nV2  n 1  p1V1 nV1  n 1 

   since C  p1V1n  p2Vn2
  n 1 

 p 2V2  p1V1 
   n 1 
 

Adiabatic process : ( 𝒑𝑽𝜸 = constant)

𝑪𝒑
𝒑𝑽𝜸 = constant where 𝜸 = 𝑪
𝒗

γ = 1.4 for biatomic gas

= 1.64 for mono atomic gas

= 1.33 for tri atomic gas

𝑝1 𝑉1−𝑝2 𝑉2
W1-2=
𝛾−1

Internal energy (U)

10 kg oxygen ( system)
 1
If it posses KE= 𝐸𝑘 = 2 m𝑣 2

If the system is at height Z , potential energy 𝐸𝑝 = MgZ

We from KE theory of gas molecule move velocity ( linear, rotational and vibrational)

E = 𝐸𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸𝐴𝑅 + EROTIONAL + EVIBRATIONAL +----

E = Molecular internal energy or internal energy for single molecule

If there is N no of molecule , then total internal energy NE=U

If gravity and motion is not consider then

E=U

Internal energy posses by system it is a thermodynamic property .It is a point function

First law of Thermodynamics :

This is a form a Law of Conservation of Energy.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS IN A CLOSED SYSTEM ( FIXED QUANTITY OF MATTER) UNDER

GOING A THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS

When the thermodynamic process the amount of heat transfer is algebraic sum of work transfer and
change in internal energy in a process
Iii

nnnnnnn
If Q= Heat transfer during process
W=Work transfer during process
ΔU = change in internal energy

Then Q= W+ ΔU

In general statement Q= W+(U2-U!)

Q = W + (U2-U!)

( +) ve Zero (-)Ve + ve zero - Ve

Positive zero Negative
Ex : if Q = +100 kj , W = +70 kj
(U2-U!) = + 30
U2 >U!

Consider a adiabatic process

if Q = 0 kj , W = +50 kj
(U2-U!) = - 50kj
U1 >U2
U1 =U2+ 50kj

First law of thermodynamics in a cycle :

Q12= W12+(U2-U!)
Q21= W21+(U1-U2)

Q12+ Q21 = W12 + W21

General statement

1
3

2
 Q12= W12+(U2-U!)
Q23= W23+(U3-U2)
Q31= W31+(U1-U3)

Q12+ Q23+Q31 = W12+ W23+W31

∑𝑸 = ∑𝑾
Net heat transfer = Net work transfer

Show that Energy is a property of the system

for path A
QA= WA+ ΔUA

For path B
QB= WB+ ΔUB

For path C
QC= WC+ ΔUC
For Cycle 1-A-2-B-1,
QA+ QB = WA+ WB
QA- WA = - (QB- WB)
ΔEA = -ΔEB
For Cycle 1-A-2-C-1,
QA+ QC = WA+ WC
QA- WA = - (QB- WC)
ΔEA = -ΔEC
From this above expression ,
ΔEB = ΔEC

Concept Heat and Enthalpy

Enthalpy is a point function .but heat is a path function.

Thermal Energy

Flowing form ( Transit) Stored form ( enthalpy)

Heat

Unit : Kj ,Mj

h = u+pv
u= internal energy / unit mass
pv = flow energy / unit mass
h = specific enthalpy
H= U+ PV
H = total enthalpy , U = total internal energy

Specific Heat at Constant Volume and at Constant Pressure

Specific heat at constant volume of a substance is the amount of heat added to rise
the temperature of unit mass of the given substance by 1 degree at constant volume

From first law for a stationary closed system undergoing a process

dQ = pdV + dU or dq = pdv + du

For a constant volume process

dQ = dU or dq = du

  or du = CvdT ...(3.23)

Similarly specific heat at constant pressure is the quantity of heat added to rise the
temperature of unit mass of the given substance by 1 degree at constant pressure

where dQ = pdV + dU

dQ = pdV + d(H + PV)

dQ = pdV + dH + Vdp + pdV

dQ = dH - Vdp
For a constant pressure process dp = 0

Hence dQ = dH or dq = dh

or dh = CpdT

Universal Gas law :

PV = nRT
n = no of Mole= 6.023 x 1023
R =universal gas const ( j/mol.K)
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
n= =
𝑀 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑚
PV = ( )RuT
𝑀
𝑅
PV = m( 𝑢)𝑇 Ru = 8.314 kj/kg molK = universal gas constant.
𝑀
𝑅
PV =mRT ( R =( 𝑢) - specific gas const or characteristic gas consr
𝑀
m =mass of gas
R = specific gas const kj/kgK

Heat transfer in different process

Constant pressure
Constant volume process

Constant Temperature process

𝑸𝟏 = P1V1ln(V2/V1) = mRT 1

Polytrophic Process
COMPARISON OF HEAT AND WORK

Similarities between heat and work are follows :

(i) Heat and Work are neither thermodynamic properties, nor point functions. The system

itself does not posses heat and work. When a system undergoes a change, heat transfer

or work done may occur. They are both transient phenomena.

(ii) The heat and work are boundary phenomena. They are observed at the boundary of

the system.

(iii) Heat and work are both transit energy crossing the boundary of the system.

(iv) The heat and work both are path functions and hence are inexact differentials. They

are written as δQ and δW.

(v) The area under the pressure-volume (i.e., p-∀) diagram represents the work done duringthe process and is
given by ∫ pd∀. Similarly the area under the temperature-entropy i.e.,

(T-S) diagram represents the heat transfer during the process and is given by ∫ TdS.

(vi) Work is written by the integral of the product of the intensive property(p) and differential change of the
extensive property (∀).

Heat transfer can also be written as the integral of product of the intensive property (T) and the differential
change of an extensive property, entropy(S).

A Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind

There can be no device which would produce work continuously without absorbing any energy from its
surroundings is called a Perpetual Motion Machine of the First kind(PMM-1). It is imaginary. Thus it is
impossible

PMM- 1 converse of PMM-1

The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be no machine which would continuously
consume work without some other form of energy appearing simultaneously. It is also imaginary

Steady flow and un steady flow

Steady flow: A flow is steady if the fluid properties at particular location donot change. Mass flow rate is const .

Mass flow /unit at inlet = mass flow/unit at out let.

Thermodynamic equation for steady flow device 2
1 Q

Steady flow device

1 2
W
Control
volume

̇ 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑠
At inlet
V1 2
𝑢1 + P1 v1 + + gZ1
2

At out let

V2 2
𝑢2 + P2 v2 + + gZ2
2

𝑢1 , 𝑢2= Specific internal energy at inlet and out let

𝑉1 , 𝑉2 = velocity at inlet and out let

𝑍1 , 𝑍2 = datum height at inlet and out let

Q = Heat transfer , W = work done

𝑄
q = Heat transfer per mass =
𝑚̇
𝑊
w= work done per mass =
𝑚̇

from the first law of thermodynamics , neither accumulation of mass nor the energy transfer takes place

𝐕𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝟐
𝒖𝟏 + 𝐏𝟏 𝐯𝟏 + + 𝐠𝐙𝟏 + 𝒒 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝐏𝟐 𝐯𝟐 + + 𝐠𝐙𝟐 + 𝐰
𝟐 𝟐

This equation is the mass based energy equation of SFEE ( steady flow energy equation)

Since h = u+Pv
So above equation rewrite as

𝐕𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + + 𝐠𝐙𝟏 + 𝒒 = 𝒉𝟐 + + 𝐠𝐙𝟐 + 𝐰
𝟐 𝟐
Here unit of every term is J/kg

If we multiply 𝑚̇ (mass flow rate ) in both sides

𝐕𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝟐
𝒎̇𝒉𝟏 + 𝐦̇ + 𝐦̇ 𝐠𝐙𝟏 + 𝐦̇ 𝒒 = 𝒎̇𝒉𝟐 + 𝐦̇ + 𝐦̇ 𝐠𝐙𝟐 + 𝐦̇ 𝐰
𝟐 𝟐

Here unit of every unit is j/sec

𝐕𝟏 𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝟐
𝐇̇𝟏 + 𝐦̇ + 𝐦̇ 𝐠𝐙𝟏 + 𝐐 = 𝐇̇𝟐 + 𝐦̇ + 𝐦̇ 𝐠𝐙𝟐 + 𝐖
𝟐 𝟐

This equation is the Time based energy equation of SFEE ( steady flow energy equation)

Application of SFEE

SFEE governs the working of a large number of components used in many engineering practices. In this section a
brief analysis of such components working under steady flow conditions are given and the respective governing
equations are obtained

Turbines

Turbines are devices used in hydraulic, steam and gas turbine power plants. As the fluid passes through the
turbine, work is done on the blades of the turbine which are attached to a shaft. Due to the work given to the
blades, the turbine shaft rotates producing work

General Assumptions

1. Changes in kinetic energy of the fluid are negligible

2. Changes in potential energy of the fluid are negligible.

Q  W  m (h
2  h1 )

Compressors
 Compressors (fans and blowers) are work consuming devices, where a low-pressure fluid is compressed by
utilising mechanical work. Blades attached to the shaft of the turbine imparts kinetic energy to the fluid which is
later converted into pressure energy.
;General Assumptions

1. Changes in the kinetic energy of the fluid are negligible

2. Changes in the potential energy of the fluid are negligible

Governing Equation

Applying the above equations SFEE becomes

Q  W  m (h
2  h1 ) ...

Pumps

Similar to compressors pumps are also work consuming devices. But pumps handle
incompressible fluids, whereas compressors deal with compressible fluids.

General Assumptions

1. No heat energy is gained or lost by the fluids;

2. Changes in kinetic energy of the fluid are negligible.

Governing Equation

  W  m (h
2  h1 )  Z 2  Z1 g 

As the fluid passes through a pump, enthalpy of the fluid increases, (internal energy of the fluid
remains constant) due to the increase in pv (flow energy). Increase in potential energy of fluid is the
most important change found in almost all pump applications.

Nozzles

Nozzles are devices which increase the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure. A typical
nozzle used for fluid flow at subsonic* speeds is shown in Figure.
 General Assumptions

1. In nozzles fluids flow at a speed which is high enough to neglect heat lost or gained
as it crosses the entire length of the nozzle. Therefore, flow through nozzles can be
regarded as adiabatic. That is heat transfer Q  0.

2. There is no shaft or any other form of work transfer to the fluid or from the fluid; that is  0.

3. Changes in the potential energy of the fluid are negligible.

Nozzle ( control surface)

IN out

𝑉2 2 −𝑉12
(ℎ2 -h1) – ( )=0
2

𝑽𝟐 𝟐 −𝑽𝟐𝟏
(𝒉𝟐 -h1) = ( )
𝟐
SECOND LAW of Thermodynamics :
State the limitations of first law of thermodynamics?

1. First Law places no restriction on the direction of a process.

2. It does not ensure whether the process is feasible or not.

3. This law does not differentiate heat and work. It is concerned with the quantity of
energy and the transformation of energy from one form to another with no regard to
its quality.

EX:

High Temperature

Q Q

Low Temperature

Example showing the transfer of heat from high

temperature system to low temperature system

Here shows two systems, one at higher temperature and the other at a lower temperature under going
a process in which heat transferred from the high temperature system to low temperature system. This
process can takes place but it is impossible to complete a cycle by transferring heat from low
temperature system to high temperature system, by heat transfer only

Ex 2

Consider the running automobile vehicle is stopped by applying brakes. The breaks get hot and the
kinetic energy lost by the vehicle is gained by the breaks whose temperature increases. The first law
of thermodynamics would be satisfied if the break were to cool off and give back its internal energy to
vehicle causing the vehicle to resume its motion.

Ex:3

A hot cup of coffee cools by virtue of heat transfer to the cooler surroundings but once it is cooled, it
can never be heated by addition of heat from the cooler surrounding

Aspects of the second law

1. To identify the direction of process.

 2. Establishing conditions for equilibrium.

3. It also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity.

3. It is also used in determining the theoretical limits for the performance of heat
engines and refrigerators.

4. Defining a temperature scale independent of the properties of any thermometric

substance.

Thermal Energy Reservoir (TER): It is a hypothetical body with a relatively large

thermal energy capacity that can supply or absorb finite amount of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature. Examples: Oceans, rivers, atmospheric air etc.

 TER that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source

 TER that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink

There are two classical statements of second law of thermodynamics

1) Kelvin – Planck statement

2) Clausius statement
Kelvin – Planck statement :
It is impossible to construct an engine operating in a cycle to produce net work by exchanging heat
between reservoir and single fixed temperature.
High Temperature High Temperature
Reservoir Reservoir
Q1
Heat Heat
Work Work
Heat Engine
Heat Engine

Heat
H.E
W
Low Temperature
Reservoir
Q2
Impossible Possible

Here let high temperature reservoir = T 1, if T1> T2 work is done

Low temperature reservoir = T 2 T1= T2 no work is done

W = Q 1 - Q2

Condition for Kelvin – Planck statement :

 Cyclic activity is done

  There must two reserviour
 Two reserviour have different temperature not single temperature.

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 W 𝑄1 −𝑄2 𝑄2

Efficiency = η = = = = 1-
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄1

η = 1 ,when Q2 =0 ,which is impossible

so η is never be 1, No engine can have 100 % efficiency .

This statement is power giving device.

Clausius statement :

It is impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle to transfer heat from a body at low
temperature to body at higher temperature without help of any external work .( refrigerator ,Heat
pump, Air conditioner)

Refrigerator:

It is a device which operate in a cycle and maintain the temperature of a body at a value less
than that of surrounding.
Q1 = W + Q 2 so Q1-Q2 =W

For refrigerator , source is the cold body , sink is atmosphere

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 Q2 𝑄2
η= = =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊 𝑄1 −𝑄2

Q2 𝑄2
(COP)R= =
𝑊 𝑄1 −𝑄2

Q2 and W are separate value

So ratio can less than 1

Equal to 1

Greater than 1

Heat pump

It is a device which operates in cycle its maintains a tempeture of body at vaue

greater than that of surrounding .

Here Warm heated space ( room) = sink

Cold outside air ( atmosphere ) = sink

Q1 𝑄1
(COP)HP= =
𝑊 𝑄1 −𝑄2

Here Q1 = Q2 + W

So (COP)HP always greater than 1 , here desired effect is Q1

Relation between (COP)HP and ( COP)R E

(COP)HP = (COP)RE +1
Equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statements:

The equivalence of the statement is demonstrated by showing that the violation

of each statement implies the violation of other.

CASE-1: Violation of Kelvin-planck statement leads to violation of Clausius

statement
 Thus violation Kelvin Planck Statement has lead to the
violation of Clausius Statement
CASE-2: Violation of Clausius statement leads to violation of Kelvin-planck statement
 Thus Violation of Clausius Statement has lead to violation of Kelvin Planck Statements
Carnot cycle

Q =0

WE

Q =0

Wc
It consist of two reversible isothermal and reversible adiabatic process
𝒗𝟐
Here Q1= P1V1ln ( ) = mRT1
𝒗𝟏
𝒗𝟒
Q2= P3V3ln ( ) = mRT2
𝒗𝟑
𝑸𝟐 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟐
η=1- = 1-
𝑸𝟏 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐
ηcarnot = 1- ( T= absolute temp at K)
𝑻𝟏
Carnot’s Theorem:

 The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than efficiency of a

reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.

 The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same
reservoirs are the same.
Perpetual Motion Machine of Second Kind (PMM-2)

Without violating the first law, a machine can be imagined which would continuously absorbs heat
from single thermal reservoir and would convert this heat into work. The efficiency of such machine
would be 100 percent. This machine is called the perpetual motion machine of second kind (PMM2)

Fig shows the PMM2. a machine of this kind will be evidently violates the second law of
thermodynamics.
Entropy

Thermodynamic cycle start and final point is same

Net change any property in a cycle =0

1 2

∮ 𝒅𝒑 = 𝟎 P2-P1+ P2-P3+ P1-P3 =0 , ∮ 𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎

∮ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎 ( differential is zero ,then it is a property )

dQ1

T1

Reversible isothermal line

T2

dQ2

Assuming reversible isothermal line.

If we take different lines ,it shows like a carnot cycle

 𝑑𝑄2 𝑇2
1− = 1−
𝑑𝑄1 𝑇1

𝑑𝑄2 𝑇2
So =
𝑑𝑄1 𝑇1

𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2
=.> − =0
𝑇1 𝑇2

Similarly if we take n no lines

𝑑𝑄3 𝑑𝑄4 𝑑𝑄5 𝑑𝑄6
Then − = 0, − =0
𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6

𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2 𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2

+ (− ) = 0, + =0
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑑𝑄3 𝑑𝑄4 𝑑𝑄3 𝑑𝑄4
+ (− ) = 0, + =0
𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑇4
𝑑𝑄5 𝑑𝑄6 𝑑𝑄5 𝑑𝑄6
+ (− ) = 0, + =0
𝑇5 𝑇6 𝑇5 𝑇6
( -) sign due to the heat is rejected from the cycle.
𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2 𝑑𝑄3 𝑑𝑄4 𝑑𝑄5 𝑑𝑄6
+ + + + + =0
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6

𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄3 𝑑𝑄5 𝑑𝑄2 𝑑𝑄4 𝑑𝑄6

+ + + + + =0
𝑇1 𝑇3 𝑇5 𝑇2 𝑇4 𝑇6

heat supplied heat rejected

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
∮ = 0, ∑ =0
𝑇 𝑇
This is known as Entropy
𝑑𝑄
∮ = 0, ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝑇

This statement for both reversible and irreversible cycle

Irreversible cycle

( Reversible process) ( Irreversible process)

from the carnot theorem work done by reversible process is more

WR > Wi

Then 𝑑𝑄2′ > 𝑑𝑄2

Reversible process

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2
∮ =0 + =0
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
Irreversible process

𝑑𝑄1 𝑑𝑄2′
+ <0
𝑇1 𝑇2
Since
𝑑𝑄2′ > 𝑑𝑄2
𝑑𝑄
(∮ ) <0
𝑇 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
 General statement
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
∮ ≤ 0, ∑ ≤0
𝑇 𝑇
This in equation is called Clausius inequality

If
𝑑𝑄
∮ > 0 ( it is impossible)
𝑇

𝑑𝑄
= 𝑑𝑠 ( not always ds )
𝑇

𝒅𝑸
Relationship between 𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝑻

R I

R R

2 1
∫1𝑅 𝑑𝑠 + ∫2𝑅 𝑑𝑠 = 0 -------------------------------- ( 1)
2 𝑑𝑄 1 𝑑𝑄
∫1𝑅 + ∫2𝑅 =0 --------------------------------------(2)
𝑇 𝑇

2 1
∫1𝑅 𝑑𝑠 + ∫2𝐼 𝑑𝑠 = 0 ---------------------------------( 3)
2 𝑑𝑄 1 𝑑𝑄
∫1𝑅 + ∫2𝐼 <0 -------------------------------------( 4)
𝑇 𝑇

From (3) and (4)

1 1
𝑑𝑄
∫ 𝑑𝑠 > ∫
2𝐼 2𝐼 𝑇

𝑑𝑄
General stamen 𝑑𝑠 ≥
𝑇
 𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑠 > ---------------------- irreversible cycle
𝑇

𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑠 = -----------------------reversible cycle
𝑇

𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑠 < --------------------- impossible
𝑇

Entropy change point to point

1
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1
2

Principle of Entropy

We know that a universe is consist of system and surrounding. when the system is increasing
the surrounding becomes smaller and smaller .Then system boundary becomes name as
universe . there is no surrounding is present . Universe behaves as system. Universe is a
isolated system ( no energy transfer and mass transfer )

For a isolated system 𝑑𝑠 ≥ 0 (universe)

𝑑𝑠 > 0 (irreversible process)

𝑑𝑠 = 0 (reversible process)

Since every process are irreversible process so Entropy of universe is always greater than
zero . Entropy of universe never decrease, so Entropy of universe always increase . it tends
towards maximum .this known as Principle of Entropy .

dQ

A at TA B at TB

TA> TB

Heat loss = Heat gain

−𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
+ =0 ( - ve sign heat loss)
𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐵

−𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
For entropy + = 𝑑𝑄( 𝑇 - )
𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐵 𝐵 𝑇𝐴
𝑇𝐴 −𝑇𝐵
(∆𝑠)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑒 = 𝑑𝑄( )
𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐵

Since TA> TB , (∆𝒔)𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆, 𝒔𝒐(∆𝒔)𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒆 > 0

Properties of Pure substance and Steam table:

Substances of fixed chemical composition are known as pure substances

Example : Water, Helium, Nitrogen, Oxygen etc.

Substances exist in any one of the three phases namely solid, liquid and gas. For example, H 2O may
exist in the form ice (solid), Water (Liquid) or Steam (Gaseous). In all these phases it will have the
same chemical composition.

A Mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance should also be regarded as pure substance. If
Water and Steam Co-exits in a container, the chemical composition of both the Vapour and liquid
phases will be identical. Hence this heterogeneous system is also a pure substance.
Phase transformation
When we supply heat there will be phase change and temperature change, when the there is
temperature change it is called as sensible heat.when there is phase change it is called as latent
heat
Consider a unit mass of ice heated steadily at a constant pressure of 1 atm. Let the initial temperature
be 10oC. Due to heating, temperature increases upto 0oC (Figure ) , here heat required is called
sensible heat . At 0oC ice starts melting. Until entire mass of ice becomes water, temperature is
remaining constant. Heat added during this phase change is known as latent heat of fusion.

Further heating increases the temperature of water. This continues until 100 oC. At 100oC Evaporation
of water into steam is taking place. Temperature once again remains constant at100oC until complete
conversion of water into steam occurs. Heat added during this phase change is known as latent heat of
evaporation. Temperature of steam continues to increase afterwards
Formation of steam

Figure of liquid water and vapour

a = pure liquid , b= saturation point of liquid , c = saturation point of vapour

d = vapour point

Important term

1. Sensible heat of water (hf ). It is defined as the quantity of heat

absorbed by 1 kg of water when it is heated from 0°C (freezing point) to
boiling point.
The value of specific heat of water may be taken as 4.18 kJ/kg K
2. Latent heat or hidden heat (hfg). It is the amount of heat required to
convert water at a given temperature and pressure into steam at the same
temperature and pressure. It is expressed by the symbol hfg
3. Dryness fraction (x). The term dryness fraction is related with wet
steam. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual dry steam to the mass of
steam containing it. It is usually expressed by the symbol ‘x’ or ‘q’.
If ms = Mass of dry steam contained in steam considered, and
mw = Weight of water particles in suspension in the steam considered,
4. Total heat or enthalpy of wet steam (h). It is defined as the quantity of heat
required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into wet steam at constant pressure. It
is the sum of totalheat of water and the latent heat and this sum is also called
enthalpy.
In other words, h = hf + xhfg
If steam is dry and saturated, then x = 1 and hg = hf + hfg.

Concept of critical point

When we heat the liquid at different pressure , the saturation points of liquid is different . if
we plot it in T-S plane and join the saturated liquid points at different pressure we find
saturated liquid line. Joining the saturated vapour point . we find saturated vapour line . The
point where the saturated liquid line and saturated vapour line meet . This point is known as
critical point .at critical point the Pressure is 221.2 bar and temperature is 374°C, The latent
heat of vapouration is zero.
eat

The latent heat of vapouration decreases with increase in temperature and pressure.

In h-s plane

If we draw the above diagram in h-s plane .

 hg is higher than hf at constant pressure by hfg

So hg = hf + hfg where hfg =latent heat of vapouration , it is zero at critical

point If we consider the dryness fraction then

hg = hf + xhfg ( x= dryness fraction )

concept of steam table we know that at different pressure the saturation

tempeture is different . A table for pressure the saturation tempeture is called
steam table .

Pressure based steam table Tempeture based

Pressure Temperature ( Tsat) 0C Temperature ( Tsat) 0C Pressure

1bar 100 100 1bar

2bar T2 110 P2

3bar T3

221.2bar 374
ENTHALPY-ENTROPY (h-s) CHART OR MOLLIER DIAGRAM
Dr. Mollier, in 1904, conceived the idea of plotting total heat against entropy,
and his diagram is more widely used than any other entropy diagram, since the
work done on vapour cycles can be scaled from this diagram directly as a length
; whereas on T-s diagram it is represented by an area. A sketch of the h-s chart
is shown in Fig.

Mollier chart
Compressor

Compressors are work absorbing devices which are used for increasing pressure of fluid at
the expense or work done on fluid. The compressors used for compressing air are called air
compressors. It is a mechanical component (machine) to compress the air with raise its
pressure. The air compressor sucks air from the atmosphere and compresses it then further
delivers with a high pressure to a storage vessel. From the storage vessel, it may be transmit
by the channel (pipeline) to a place where the supply of compressed air is required.
Compressors are invariably used for all applications requiring high pressure air.
compressors are supplied with low pressure air (or any fluid) at inlet which comes out as
high pressure air (or any fluid) at outlet. Work required for increasing pressure of air is
available from the prime mover driving the compressor. Generally, electric motor, internal
combustion engine or steam engine, turbine etc. are used as prime movers. Compressors are
similar to fans and blowers but differ in terms of pressure ratios.
Application
. Some of popular applications of compressor are, for driving pneumatic tools and air operated
equipments, spray painting, compressed air engine, supercharging surface cleaning, refrigeration
and air conditioning, chemical industry.

Classification:

1) According to the pressure delivered

A) Low pressure air compressor: This type of air compressor may discharge pressure up to 10 bar.

B) Medium pressure compressor: This type of compressor can deliver 10 bar to 70 bar.

C) High pressure air compressor: These giant types of compressor always produce pressure above 70
bar.

2. According to working:
Positive displacement Type
• Reciprocating compressors
• Rotary compressors
Rotodynamic Type
 Centrifugal
 Axial
3 According to action:
• Single acting compressors : If the air admission from the atmosphere is on only one side of
Atmosphere.
• Double acting compressors: If the air admission from the atmosphere is on both sides of
Atmosphere.
4. According to number of stages:
• Single stage compressors : If the total compression is drawn fully in one cylinder.
• Multi-stage compressors: if the compression is carried out more than one cylinder and every
cylinder carries out a part of compression.
Important Definitions:

1. Inlet pressure: It is the absolute pressure of air at the inlet of a compressor.

2. Discharge pressure: It is the absolute pressure of air at the outlet of a compressor.

3. Compression ratio (or pressure ratio): It is the ratio of discharge pressure to the inlet
pressure. Since the discharge pressure is always more than the inlet pressure, therefore the
value of compression ratio is more than unity.

4. Compressor capacity: It is the volume of air delivered by the compressor, and is expressed
in m3/min or m3/s.

5. Free air delivery: It is the actual volume delivered by a compressor when reduced to the
normal temperature and pressure condition. The capacity of a compressor is generally given
in terms of free air delivery.

6. Swept volume: It is the volume of air sucked by the compressor during its suction stroke.
Mathematically the swept volume or displacement of a single acting air compressor is given
𝜋
by Vs = 𝐷 2 𝐿, Where D = Diameter of cylinder bore, and L = Length of piston stroke.
4

7. Mean effective pressure. As a matter of fact, air pressure on the compressor piston keeps
on changing with the movement of the piston in the cylinder. The mean effective pressure of
the compressor is found out mathematically by dividing the work done per cycle to the stroke
volume.

Reciprocating compressor :

If the compression is done in a conventional cylinder with a closely fitted piston making
reciprocating motion, then the compressor is called reciprocating compressor. External work
must be supplied from a prime mover to the achieve the required compression. The general
arrangement of the compressor and prime mover used to the compressor.

Working principle
The schematics arrangement of a single-stage reciprocating compressor is shown in the figure
.It consists of a cylinder with a cooling jacket, piston connecting rod, crank, suction valve and
delivery valve. The piston will making to-and-fro motions through the crankshaft
arrangement and generally run by electric motor, diesel engine, petrol engine and steam
engine. During the outward motion of the piston, the pressure inside the cylinder falls below
the atmospheric pressure and the suction valve is opened due the pressure difference. The
atmospheric air is then drawn into the cylinder until the piston reaches the bottom dead center
piston
As the piston starts move inward the suction valve gets closed and pressure start increasing
until the pressure inside the cylinder is more than pressure of delivery side. Then the delivery
valve opens and high pressure air is delivered to receiver till the piston reaches the top dead
centre. At the end of the delivery stoke, the small volume of high pressure air left in
clearance volume expands as the piston start moving outwards. Hence the cycle is repeated

Rotary Air compressor

In rotary compressor, the compression of air is achieved due to rotating blade fitted in a rotor.
It required less starting torque as compared to reciprocating compressor because of direct
coupling with the prime mover. Usually, rotary compressors operate at high speed and
supplied higher quantity of air than reciprocating compressors. Rotary compressor may be
classified as (a) Root blower (b) Vane type (c) Lysholm compressor (d) Screw compressor

Working principle
In positive displacement type rotary compressors, the air is compressed by entrapping it
between the reduced space of two sets of engaging surfaces. The pressure rise either by
backflow of air, as in the case of roots blower, or by squeezing action and back flow of air,

Roots blower compressor

The schematic arrangement of a roots blower is shown in the fig. It consists of two rotor that
are driven externally, One rotor is connected to the driver and the second rotor is gear driven
from the first in the opposite direction. The lobes of rotors are epicycloids, hypocycloid, or
involute profiles to ensure a seal between the high and low pressure region at all angular
positions. A small clearance provided between the rotors and the cylinder surface to reduce
the wear reduces the efficiency of the compressor due to leakage
Vane type

The schematic diagram of vane type blower is shown in fig .It consists of a rotor located
eccenctrically in cylindrical outer casing. The rotor carries a set of spring loaded vanes in the
slots of rotor

Centrifugal compressor

A centrifugal compressor is of rotodynamic type in which air flows continuously and steadily
through various parts and rise in pressure is primarily due to the centrifugal action, It is used
o supply large quantities of air but at lower pressure ratio.

Construction
Essentially, a centrifugal compressor consists of four elements namely inlet buckets, impeller,
diffuser and casing as shown in the figure . The inlet bucket are attachedto the shaft and
rotate with it, which guide air on the impeller. The impeller consist of a disc on which radial
blades are attached .The diffuser surrounds the impeller and provides diverging passages for
air flow, thus increasing the air pressure. The air coming out from the diffuser is collected in
the casing and taken out from the outlet of the compressor
Axial flow
Basic operation of axial compressors

• Axial flow compressors usually consists of a series of stages.

• Each stage comprises of a row of rotor blades followed by a row of stator blades

. • The working fluid is initially accelerated by the rotor blades and then decelerated in the stator
passages.

• In the stator, the kinetic energy transferred in the rotor is converted to static pressure

. • This process is repeated in several stages to yield the necessary overall pressure ratio.

The compression process consists of a series of diffusions

. • This occurs both in the rotor as well as the stator. two distinct• Due to motion of the rotor blades
velocity components: absolute and relative velocities in the rotor.

• The absolute velocity of the fluid is increased in the rotor, whereas the relative velocity is
decreased, leading to diffusion

. • Per stage pressure ratio is limited because a compressor operates in an adverse pressure gradient
environment
 STEAM POWER PLANT/ THERMAL POWER PLANT
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. The layout of a modern steam power plant comprises of the following four
circuits. It has four different circuits.

1. Coal and ash circuit.

2. Air and gas circuit.
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit.
4. Cooling water circuit.

Coal and Ash Circuit. Coal arrives at the storage yard and after necessary handling,
passes on to the furnaces through the fuel feeding device. Ash resulting from combustion of
coal collects at the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard through ash
handling equipment.

Air and Gas Circuit. Air is taken in from atmosphere through the action of a forced or
induced draught fan and passes on to the furnace through the air preheater, where it has been
heated by the heat of flue gases which pass to the chimney via the preheater. The flue gases
after passing around boiler tubes and superheater tubes in the furnace pass through a dust
catching device or precipitator, then through the economiser, and finally through the air
preheater before being exhausted to the atmosphere.
 Feed Water and Steam Flow Circuit :-In the water and steam circuit condensate
leav-ing the condenser is first heated in a closed feed water heater through extracted steam
from the lowest pressure extraction point of the turbine. It then passes through the deaerator
and a few more water heaters before going into the boiler through economiser.

In the boiler drum and tubes, water circulates due to the difference between the density
of water in the lower temperature and the higher temperature sections of the boiler. Wet
steam from the drum is further heated up in the superheater for being supplied to the prime
mover. After expanding in high pressure turbine steam is taken to the reheat boiler and
brought to its original dryness or superheat before being passed on to the low pressure
turbine. From there it is exhausted through the condenser into the hot well. The condensate is
heated in the feed heaters using the steam trapped (blow steam) from different points of
turbine.

A part of steam and water is lost while passing through different components and this
is compensated by supplying additional feed water. This feed water should be purified before
hand, to avoid the scaling of the tubes of the boiler.
Cooling Water Circuit. The cooling water supply to the condenser helps in
maintaining a low pressure in it. The water may be taken from a natural source such as river,
lake or sea or the same water may be cooled and circulated over again. In the latter case the
cooling arrangement is made through spray pond or cooling tower.
1.1.2. Components of a Modern Steam Power Plant
A modern steam power plant comprises of the following components :
1. Boiler
(i) Superheater (ii) Reheater
(iii) Economiser (iv) Air-heater.
2. Steam turbine 3. Generator
4. Condenser 5. Cooling towers
6. Circulating water pump 7. Boiler feed pump
8. Wagon tippler 9. Crusher house
10. Coal mill 11. Induced draught fans
12. Ash precipitators 13. Boiler chimney
Water treatment
14. Forced draught fans 15. plant
16. Control room 17. Switch yard.
Functions of some important parts of a steam power plant :
1. Boiler. Water is converted into wet steam.
2. Superheater. It converts wet steam into superheated steam.
3.Turbine. Steam at high pressure expands in the turbine and drives the generator

4. Condenser. It condenses steam used by the steam turbine. The condensed steam
(known as condensate) is used as a feed water.
 5. Cooling tower. It cools the condenser circulating water. Condenser cooling water
absorbs heat from steam. This heat is discharged to atmosphere in cooling water.
6. Condenser circulating water pump. It circulates water through the condenser and
the cooling tower.

7. Feed water pump. It pumps water in the water tubes of boiler against boiler steam
pressure.
8. Economiser. In economiser heat in flue gases is partially used to heat incoming feed
water.
9. Air pre-heater. In air pre-heater heat in flue gases (the products of combustion) is
partially used to heat incoming air.
10. Coal Storage: It is the place where coal is stored which can be utilized when
required.
11. Coal Handling: Here the coal is converted into the pulverized form before feeding
to the furnace. A proper system is designed to transport the pulverized coal to the boiler
furnace
12.Ash Storage: It is used to store the ash after burning of the coal.
13. Dust Collector: It collects the dust particle from the burnt gases before it is
released to the chimney.
14.Chimney: It is used to release the hot burnt gases or smoke from the furnace to the
environment at appropriate height. The height of the tower is very high such that it can easily
throw the smoke and exhaust gases at the appropriate height. And it cannot affect the
population living near the steam power plant
Advantages:
1. As compared with power generating plant, it has low initial cost and hence economical.
2. Less land area is required as compared with the hydro power plant.
3. Coal is used as fuel and the cost of coal is cheaper than petrol and diesel fuel. So the power
generation cost is economical.
4. This power plant has easy maintenance cost.
5. Steam power plant can be installed in any area where water sources and transportation
facility are easily available
Disadvantages:
1. The running cost of steam power plant is comparatively high because of fuel, maintenance
etc.
2. If we talk about the overall efficiency of steam power plant, than is about 35 % to 41%
which is low.
3. Due to the release of burnt gases of the coal or fuel, it contributes to the global warming to
a larger extent.
4. The heated water that is thrown in the rivers, ponds etc puts and adverse effect on the
living organism of water and disturbs the ecology.
Heat Pump:
The heat pump principle is based on second law of thermodynamics formulated by Sadi
carnot. The heat pump is a device which with drawn heat from surrounding s ( so called low
temp sources) normally unusable and transfers it to a higher temperature usable for space
heating /or hot water heating .
Main components
1. Evaporator , 2. Compressor 3. Condenser 4. Expansion Valve

Working Principle
Most heat pumps work on the principle of a vapour compression cycle. The main
components in such a heat pump are a compressor, an expansion valve, and two heat
exchangers referred to as an evaporator and condenser
The components are connected to form a closed circuit through which a coolant (working
fluid) circulates. Firstly, in the evaporator (1) the temperature of the liquid working fluid is
kept lower than the temperature of the heat source, causing heat to flow from the heat source
to the liquid. This makes the coolant evaporate. Next, vapour from the evaporator is
compressed by the compressor (2) resulting higher pressure and temperature. After that, the
hot vapour comes into the condenser (3), where it condenses giving off useful heat. Finally,
the high-pressure coolant is expanded to the evaporator pressure and temperature in the
expansion valve (4). The coolant is returned to its original state and again enters the
evaporator.
Refrigerator
Refrigeration is a process that removes heat from a space, substance, or system to lower and/or
maintain its temperature below the ambient temperature

Ton of refrigeration : It is amount of heat that is to be removed from one tonne water at 0 0C
to convert into Ice at 0 0C in one day 24 hour.
1TR = 3.4 kj/sec
SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

Out of all refrigeration systems, the vapour compression system is the most important system from the
view point of commercial and domestic utility. It is the most practical form of refrigeration. In this
system the working fluid is a vapour. It readily evaporates and condenses or changes alternately
between the vapour and liquid phases without leaving the refrigerating plant. During evaporation, it
absorbs heat from the cold body. This heat is used as its latent heat to converting it from the liquid to
vapour. In condensing or cooling or liquefying, it rejects heat to external body, thus creating a cooling
effect in the working fluid. This refrigeration system thus acts as a latent heat pump since it pumps its
latent heat from the cold body or brine and rejects it or delivers it to the external hot body or cooling
medium.
Main com Compressor The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporator is
drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction valve A, where it is compressed to a high
pressure and temperature. This high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is discharged into
the condenser through the delivery or discharge valve Bponent :
i.Evaporator ii. Compressor iii. Condenser iv. Expansion valve
 Figure of Vapour compression system

Functions of Parts of a Simple Vapour Compression System

Here follows the brief description of various parts of a simple vapour compression
system shown in Fig
1. Compressor. The function of a compressor is to remove the vapour from
the evaporator, and to raise its temperature and pressure to a point suck
that it (vapour) can be condensed with available condensing media.
2. Discharge line (or hot gas line). A hot gas or discharge line delivers the
high-pressure, high-temperature vapour from the discharge of the
compressor to the condenser.
3. Condenser. The function of a condenser is to provide a heat transfer
surface through which heat passes from the hot refrigerant vapour to the
condensing medium.
4. Receiver tank. A receiver tank is used to provide storage for a condensed
liquid so that a constant supply of liquid is available to the evaporator as
required.
5. Liquid line. A liquid line carries the liquid refrigerant from the receiver
tank to the refrigerant flow control.
6. Expansion valve (refrigerant flow control). Its function is to meter the
proper amount of refrigerant to the evaporator and to reduce the pressure
of liquid entering the evaporator so that liquid will vapourize in the
evaporator at the desired low temperature and take out sufficient amount
of heat.
7. Evaporator. An evaporator provides a heat transfer surface through
which heat can pass from the refrigerated space into the vapourizing
refrigerant.
8. Suction line. The suction line conveys the low pressure vapour from the
evaporator to the suction inlet of the compressor.

•
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
A Internal Combustion Engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel
into thermal energy and uses this energy to produce mechanical work. Heat engines are
classified into two broad types:
1. External combustion engines
2. Internal combustion engines

1. External Combustion Engines (E.C. Engines)

In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder as in case of steam engines
where the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam which is used to move a piston
in a cylinder. Other examples of external combustion engines are hot air engines, steam
turbine and closed cycle gas turbine. These engines are generally needed for driving
locomotives, ships, gen-eration of electric power etc.

2. Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines)

In this case combustion of the fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within the cylinder of the
engine. The internal combustion engines group includes engines employing mixtures of
combusti-ble gases and air, known as gas engines, those using lighter liquid fuel or spirit
known as petrol engines and those using heavier liquid fuels, known as oil compression
ignition or diesel engines.

1.3.2. Development of I.C. Engines

Many experimental engines were constructed around 1878. The first really successful engine
did not appear, however until 1879, when a German engineer Dr. Otto built his famous Otto
gas engine. The operating cycle of this engine was based upon principles first laid down in
1860 by a French engineer named Bea de Rochas. The majority of modern I.C. engines
operate according to these principles.

The development of the well known Diesel engine began about 1883 by Rudoff Diesel. Al-
though this differs in many important respects from the otto engine, the operating cycle of
modern high speed Diesel engines is thermodynamically very similar to the Otto cycle.

CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
Internal combustion engines can be classified on the following basis.
(a) Based on number of strokes :;
(i) Two stroke engines
(ii) Four stroke engines
(b) Based on thermodynamic cycle : Depending upon thermodynamic cycle used in the
internalcombustion engines these can be classified as:
(i) Engines based on Otto cycle (‘Spark-Ignition engine’)
(ii) Engines based on Diesel or Dual cycle (‘Compression-Ignition engine’)
(c) Based on mechanism of ignition: Internal combustion engines have combustion as the
basic process. Combustion process may be initiated using externally assisted ignition (spark
ignition) orit may get initiated on its’ own due to excessive compression (compression
ignition). Such engines are called:
(i) Spark ignition engines
(ii) Compression ignition engines.
The spark ignition engines may have “magneto ignition system” or “battery ignition system”
forcreating necessary electric potential for producing spark.
(d) Based on type of fuel used: IC engines may be classified depending upon the type of fuel
beingused. These can be:
(i) Petrol engines (petrol being used as fuel)
(ii) Gas engines (gaseous fuel being used)
(iii) Diesel engines (diesel being used as fuel)
(iv) Multi-fuel engines (more than one fuel being used)
(e) Based on fuel admission: IC engines can be of different types depending upon
arrangement usedfor fuel admission:
(i) Carburettor type engines (use carburettor fuel metering)
(ii) Injection type engines (use fuel injector and injection system)
(f) Based on type of cooling: IC engines have inherent requirement of continuous cooling of
engine.
Based on type of cooling these can be classified as:
(i) Air cooled engines (Generally used in small sized engines)
(ii) Water cooled engines (Generally used in large sized engines)
(g) Based on type of motion: IC engines may have reciprocating motion of piston or it may
also haverotary motion. Such engines can be:
(i) Reciprocating engines
(ii) Rotary engines
Reciprocating engines may have different cylinder arrangements such as:
(i) Opposed cylinder engines
(ii) Inclined cylinder engines
(iii) V-shaped cylinder arrangement.
Rotary engines may be further classified as single rotor engines or multi rotor engines i.e.
(i) Single rotor engine
(ii) Multi rotor engine

IC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
Some of the basic components and generally used terms in internal combustion engines are
given asunder.
1. Cylinder: It is a cylindrical block having cylindrical space inside for piston to make
reciprocating motion. Upper portion of cylinder which covers it from the top is called
cylinder head. This is manufactured by casting process and materials used are cast iron or
alloy steel.
2. Piston and Piston rings: Piston is a cylindrical part which reciprocates inside the cylinder
and is used for doing work and getting work. Piston has piston rings tightly fitted in groove
around piston and provide a tight seal so as to prevent leakage across piston and cylinder wall
during piston’s reciprocating motion. Pistons are manufactured by casting or forging process.
Pistons are made of cast iron, aluminium alloy. Piston rings are made of silicon, cast iron,
steel alloy by casting process.
3. Combustion space: It is the space available between the cylinder head and top of piston
when piston is at farthest position from crankshaft (TDC).
4. Intake manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting intake system to the inlet valve upon
cylinder .Through intake manifold the air/air-fuel mixture goes into cylinder.
5. Exhaust manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting exhaust system to the exhaust valve
upon cylinder. Through exhaust manifold burnt gases go out of cylinder.
6. Valves: Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by valve
operating mechanism comprising of cam, camshaft, follower, valve rod, rocker arm, valve
spring etc. Valves are generally of spring loaded type and made out of special alloy steels by
forging process.
7. Spark plug: It is the external ignite or used for initiating combustion process. Spark plug
is activated by electrical energy fed by electrical system with engine. It delivers spark with
suitable energy to initiate combustion at appropriate time for suitable duration.
8. Bearing: Bearings are required to support crank shaft. Bearings are made of white metal
leaded bronze.
9. Connecting rod: It is the member connecting piston and crankshaft. It has generally I
section and is made of steel by forging process.
10. Crank: It is the rigid member connecting the crankshaft and connecting rod. Crank is
mounted on crankshaft. Crank transfers motion from connecting rod to crankshaft as it is
linked to connecting rod through crank pin.
11. Crankshaft: It is the shaft at which useful positive work is available from the piston-
cylinder arrangement. Reciprocating motion of piston gets converted into rotary motion of
crankshaft. Crankshaft are manufactured by forging process from alloy steel.
12. Crankcase: Crankcase actually acts like a sump housing crank, crankshaft, connecting
rod and is attached to cylinder. These are made of aluminium alloy, steel, cast iron etc. by
casting process.
13. Gudgeon pin: It is the pin joining small end of the connecting rod and piston. This is
made of steel by forging process.
14. Cams and Camshafts: Cams are mounted upon camshaft for opening and closing the
valves at righ timings and for correct duration. Camshaft gets motion from crankshaft through
timing gears.
15. Carburettor: Carburettor is device to prepare the air fuel mixture in right proportion and
supplyat right time.
16. Bore: It is nominal inner diameter of the cylinder.
17. Piston area: It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to bore.
18. Stroke: It is the nominal distance travelled by the piston between two extreme positions
in the cylinder.
19. Dead centre: It refers to the extreme end positions inside the cylinder at which piston
reverses it’s motion. Thus, there are two dead centres in cylinder, called as ‘top dead centre’
or ‘inner dead centre’ and ‘bottom dead centre’ or ‘outer dead centre’.
Top dead centre (TDC) is the farthest position of piston from crankshaft. It is also called
inner dead centre (IDC).
Bottom dead centre (BDC) refers to the closed position of piston from crankshaft. It is also
called outer dead center (ODC).
20. Swept volume : It is the volume swept by piston while travelling from one dead centre to
theother. It may also be called stroke volume or displacement volume.
Mathematically, Swept volume = Piston area × Stroke
21. Clearance volume: It is the volume space above the piston inside cylinder, when piston
is at top dead centre. It is provided for cushioning considerations and depends, largely upon
compression ratio.
22. Compression ratio: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when piston is at BDC to
the clearance volume.
Compression ratio = Swept volume + Clearance volume
Clearance volume

FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE ( DIESEL/ PETROL ENGINE)

In four stroke cycle engines the four events namely suction, compression, power and exhaust take
place inside the engine cylinder. The four events are completed in four strokes of the piston (two
revolutions of the crankshaft).
This engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of exhaust gases. The
opening and closing of the valve is controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft. The camshaft is driven
by crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains. The camshaft runs at half the speed of the
crankshaft. The events taking place in I.C. engine are as follows:
1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke
SUCTION STROKE
During suction stroke inlet valve opens and the piston moves downward. Only air or a mixture of
air and fuel are drawn inside the cylinder. The exhaust valve remains in closed position during
this stroke. The pressure in the engine cylinder is less than atmospheric pressure during this
stroke.
Compression stroke
During this stroke the piston moves upward. Both valves are in closed position. The charge
taken in the cylinder is compressed by the upward movement of piston. If only air is
compressed, as in case of diesel engine, diesel is injected at the end of the compression stroke
and ignition of fuel takes place due to high pressure and temperature of the compressed air. If a
mixture of air and fuel is compressed in the cylinder, as in case of petrol engine, the mixture is
ignited by a spark plug.
Power stroke
After ignition of fuel, tremendous amount of heat is generated, causing very high pressure in the
cylinder which pushes the piston downward . The downward movement of the piston at this
instant is called power stroke. The connecting rod transmits the power from piston to the crank
shaft and crank shaft rotates. Mechanical work can be taped at the rotating crank shaft. Both
valves remain closed during power stroke.
Exhaust stroke
During this stroke piston moves upward. Exhaust valve opens and exhaust gases go out through
exhaust valves opening. All the burnt gases go out of the engine and the cylinder becomes ready
to receive the fresh charge. During this stroke inlet valve remains closed .
Thus it is found that out of four strokes, there is only one power stroke and three idle strokes in
four stroke cycle engine. The power stroke supplies necessary momentum for useful work.
FOUR-STROKE COMPRESSION IGNITION (CI) ENGINES
The four-stroke CI engine is similar to four-stroke SI engine except that high compression
ratio is used in the former, and during the suction stroke air alone, instead of a fuel- air
mixture, is inducted. Due to high compression ratio, the temperature at the end of
compression stroke is sufficient to ignite the fuel which is injected into the combustion
chamber. In the CI engine a high pressure fuel pump and an injector is provided to inject fuel
into combustion chamber. The carburettor and ignition system, necessary in the SI engine, are
not required in the CI engine.
The ideal sequence of operation for the four-stroke CI engine is as follows:
a. Suction stroke. Only air is inducted during the suction stroke. During this
stroke intake valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.
b. Compression stroke. Both valves remain closed during compression stroke.
 c. Expansion or power stroke. Fuel is injected in the beginning of the expansion
stroke. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure
constant. After the injection of fuel is over (i.e. after fuel cut off) the products
of combustion expand. Both valves remain closed during expansion stroke.
d. Exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve remains closed
in the exhaust stroke.

TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE)

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power and
exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft. There is
no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called ports in the
cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the crankshaft rotates.

Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression)

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port,
which are normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn
already in to the cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also
uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just
before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a spark plug . Thus, during
this stroke both suction and compression events are completed.
Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust)
Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which forces the piston to
move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the suction port, trapping the
fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the previous upward stroke. Further downward
movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh
charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder through the transfer port driving out the burnt
gases through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture up
around the cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases. During the downward
stroke of the piston power and exhaust events are completed.

(a) Difference between SI and CI engine

SI engine CI engine
1. 1.It works on Otto cycle 1.. It works on Diesel/Dual cycle

2. Compression ratio is from 5 to 15 2. Compression ratio is from 12 to 30.

3. Petrol (Gasoline) is used as fuel. 3. Diesel is used as fuel.

4. Fuel should have high self ignition 4.Fuel should have low self ignition
temperature. temperature.
5. A mixture of air and fuel is sucked inside 5.Air alone is sucked during suction process
.the cylinder during suction process.
6. Carburettor is required for preparing 6.Carburettor is not required.
air-fuel mixture.
7. Fuel goes into cylinder along with air 7. Fuel is injected after compression. For
during suction process . injection of fuel a fuel pump and injector is
Required
8. Spark plug is required to initiate 8. Ignition of fuel takes place on its’ own due to
. combustion. high temperature of air inside cylinder
9. Combustion takes place isochorically. 9.Combustion takes place isobarically
.
10. Due to low compression ratio the engine 10. To withstand high Compression ratio the
. structure is light. engine structure is sturdy
11. Engine speed is higher.
12. Efficiency is low.. 11.Engine speed is lower.

13. Generally used in 2-wheeler automobiles 12. Efficiency is high

.
13. Generally used in 4 wheelers and bigger
and smaller and lighter engines
(b) Comparison of 2-stroke engine with 4-stroke engine
2-stroke engine 4-stroke engine

1. One cycle is completed in one revolution of 1. One cycle is completed in two revolution of
crank shaft of crankshaft.
2. Power stroke is available in each revolution 2. Power stroke is available in alternate
of crankshaft. revolution of crankshaft
3. Thermal efficiency is low. 3. Thermal efficiency is high.
4. Volumetric efficiency is less due to less time 4. Volumetric efficiency is high due to large time
available for suction. available for suction.
5. Lighter flywheel is required due to more 5.Heavier flywheel is required due to less uniform
uniform torque available torque available
6. Engine is compact and light in weight. 6. Engine is heavy.
7. Cooling requirements are less. 7. Cooling requirements are high.
8. Valves are not required . 8. Complex valve operating mechanism is
required.
9. Cost is low. . 9. Cost is high

10. Used in light vehicles and small engines. 10. Used in heavy duty vehicles and bigger engines
 BELT DRIVE
In its simplest form a belt drive consists of an endless belt fitted tightly over two pulleys
(driving and driven) transmitting motion from the driving to the receiving pulley by frictional
resistance between belt and pulleys. The flexibility of the belt makes it possible to arrange the
shafts of the driving and driven pulleys in any manner and to use as many pulleys as
necessary.
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically,
most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or
to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the
pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.
In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the
same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft
is reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a
conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously
between two points.
Selection of Belt Drive
The various important factor for selection of belt drive.
1. Speed of driving and driven shaft 2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted 4. Centre distance between the shaft.
5. Positive drive requirement 6. Shaft layout
7. Space available 8. Service condition

Type of Belt Drive

The belt drives are usually classified into following three groups
1. Light drives : These are used to transmit small powers at belt speed up to about
10m/s as in agriculture machines and small machine tools

2. Medium drive : These are used to transmit small powers at belt speed up to over
10m/s as in machine tools.

3. Heavy drive : these are used to transmit small powers at belt speed above 22 m/s as
in compressor and generators
4.
Material used in Belts :
1. Leather belts 2. Cotton or fabric belt 3. Rubber belt 4. Balata belt
Types Of Belts:-
 1. Flat belt. The flat belt, as shown in Fig (a), is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley
to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart.

2. V-belt. The V-belt, as shown in Fig. (b), is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley
to another, when the two pulleys are very near to each other.

3. Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope, as shown in Fig. (c), is mostly used in
the factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from
one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 meters apart.

Pulley of circular belt

Types of Flat Belt Drives:-
1. Open belt drives:-
The open belt drive, as shown in Fig., is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the
same direction. In this case, the driver A pulls the belt from one side (i.e. lower side RQ) and
delivers it to the other side (i.e. upper side LM). Thus the tension in the lower side belt will be
more than that in the upper side belt. The lower side belt (because of more tension) is known
as tight side whereas the upper side belt (because of less tension) is known as slack side.
2. Crossed belt drive
The crossed or twist belt drive, as shown in Fig. , is used with shafts arranged parallel and
rotating in the opposite directions. In this case, the driver pulls the belt from one side (i.e.
RQ) and delivers it to the other side (i.e. LM). Thus the tension in the belt RQ will be more
than that in the belt LM. The belt RQ (because of more tension) is known as tight side,
whereas the belt LM (because of less tension) is known as slack side,

3. Compound belt drive:- A compound belt drive, as shown in Fig. , is used when power is
transmitted from one shaft to another through a number of pulleys

4. Quarter turn belt drive : The quarter turn belt drive also known as right angle belt
drive, as shown in the figure is used with shaft arranged at right angle and rotating in
 one definite direction. In order to prevent the belt from leaving the pulley. The width
of face of pulley should be greater or equal to 1.4b, where b is width of belt.
In case the pulleys cannot bre arranged or when the reversible motion desired ,
then quarter turn drive with guide pulley may be used.

5. Belt drive with idler pulley :

A belt drive with an idler pulley is used with shaft arranged parallel and when an open
drive cannot be used due to small angle of contact on the small pulley. This type of
drive is provided to obtain high velocity ratio and when the required belt tension
cannot be obtained by other means.

Velocity ratio :
Length of belt passing through driving pulley = π D1 N1
Length of belt passing through driven pulley = π D2 N2
Length of belt passing through driving pulley = Length of belt passing through driven pulley
π D1 N1= π D2 N2
N2 / N1 =D1 / D2
N1 = Speed of driver pulley in rpm
N2 = Speed of driven pulley in rpm
D1 = Diameter of driver pulley in mm
D2 = Diameter of driven pulley in mm
Angle of Contact:
Angle of contact is the angle subtended by the belt overlap on pulley, The angle of contact for
smaller pulley will be (180-2) whereas for bigger pulley, it is (180+2)

Power transmitted by belt drive

Power transmitted, P = (T1 - T2) V (Watt)
T1 = Tension in tight side and T2 = Tension in slack side
V is the velocity of the belt = П D1 N1 / 60 (m/sec)
Slip of the belt
The power transmission in belt drive is caused by friction between belt and pulleys.
However, some relative movement will always exist at driver-belt interface and belt-driven
pulley interface due to ineffective friction. When the friction force between belt and driver
pulley is insufficient, the driver will rotate without carrying the belt with it. This phenomenon
is called as slip the belt. Slip is expressed in percentage. Due to slip, the belt speed will be
less than the peripheral speed of the driving wheel and slightly more than peripheral speed of
the driven wheel.
Creep of Belt
When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of the belt extends
and it contracts again when the belt passes from the tight side to slack side. Due to these
changes of length, there is a relative motion between the belt and the pulley surfaces. This
relative motion is termed as creep. The total effect of creep is to reduce slightly the speed of
the driven pulley or follower.
Advantages of belt drive are:
1. They are simple.
2. They are economical.
3. Parallel shafts are not required.
4. Overload and jam protection are provided. Noise and vibration are damped out. Machinery
life is prolonged because load fluctuations are cushioned (shock-absorbed).
5. They are lubrication-free.
6. They require only low maintenance.
7. They are highly efficient (90–98%, usually 95%). Some misalignment is tolerable. They
are very economical when shafts are separated by large distances.
8. Clutch action may be obtained by relieving belt tension.
9. Variable speeds may be economically obtained by step or tapered pulleys.
Disadvantages include:
1. The angular-velocity ratio is not necessarily constant or equal to the ratio of pulley
diameters, because of belt slip and stretch. Heat buildup occurs.
2. Speed is limited to usually 7000 feet per minute (35 meters per second). Power
transmission is limited to 370 kilowatts (500 horsepower).
3. Operating temperatures are usually restricted to –31 to 185°F (–35 to 85°C). Some
adjustment of center distance or use of an idler pulley is necessary for wear and
 stretch compensation. A means of disassembly must be provided to install endless
belts.

ROPE DRIVE
The rope drives are widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted, from one
pulley to another, over a considerable distance. It may be noted that the use of flat belts is
limited for the transmission of moderate power from one pulley to another when the two
pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart. If large amounts of power are to be transmitted by
the flat belt, then it would result in excessive belt cross-section. It may be noted that frictional
grip in case of rope drives is more than that in V-drive. One of the main advantages of rope
drives is that a number of separate drives may be taken from the one driving pulley. For
example, in many spinning mills, the line shaft on each floor is driven by ropes passing
directly from the main engine pulley on the ground floor.
The rope drives use the following two types of ropes:
1. Fibre ropes, 2. Wire ropes.
The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60 metres apart, while the
wire ropes are used when the pulleys are up-to 150 metres apart.
Fibre ropes
The ropes for transmitting power are usually made from fibrous materials such as hemp,
manila and cotton. Since the hemp and manila fibres are rough, therefore the ropes made
from these fibres are not very flexible and possesses poor mechanical properties. The hemp
ropes have less strength as compared to manila ropes. When the hemp and manila ropes are
bent over the sheave (or pulley), there is some sliding of fibres, causing the rope to wear and
chafe internally. In order to minimise this defect, the rope fibres are lubricated with a tar,
tallow or graphite. The lubrication also makes the rope moisture proof. The hemp ropes are
suitable only for hand operated hoisting machinery and as tie ropes for lifting tackle, hooks
etc. The cotton ropes are very soft and smooth. The lubrication of cotton ropes is not
necessary, but if it is done, it reduces the external wear between the rope and the grooves of
its sheaves. It may be noted that manila ropes are more durable and stronger than cotton
ropes. The cotton ropes are costlier than manila ropes.
Advantages of Fibre Rope Drives
The fibre rope drives have the following advantages:
1. They give smooth, steady and quiet service.
2. They are little affected by outdoor conditions.
3. The shafts may be out of strict alignment.
4. The power may be taken off in any direction and in fractional parts of the whole amount.
5. They give high mechanical efficiency.
Wire Ropes
When a large amount of power is to be transmitted over long distances from one pulley to
another (i. when the pulleys are upto 150 metres apart), then wire ropes are used. The wire
ropes are widely used in elevators, mine hoists, cranes, conveyors, hauling devices and
suspension bridges. The wire ropes run on grooved pulleys but they rest on the bottom of the
grooves and are not wedged between the sides of the grooves.
The wire ropes have the following advantage over cotton ropes.
1. These are lighter in weight, 2. These offer silent operation, 3. These can withstand shock
Loads, 4. These are more reliable, 5. They do not fail suddenly, 6. These are more durable, 7.
The efficiency is high, and 8. The cost is low.
:
 GEAR DRIVES

Gears are defined as toothed wheels, which transmit power and motion from one shaft to
another due to the excessive engagement of teeth. If the distance between the driver and
follower is very small, the gears or toothed wheels are used.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drive:-

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as compared to belt,
rope and chain drives:
Advantages
1. It transmits exact velocity ratio. It has no slipping.
2. It may be used to transmit large power.
3. It has high efficiency.
4. It has reliable service.
5. It has compact layout.
Disadvantages
1. The manufacture of gears requires special tools and equipment.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.
3. Maintainance cost and manufacturing cost is comparatively high.
GEAR CLASSIFICATION
Gears or toothed wheels may be classified as follows:
1. According to the position of axes of the shafts.
The axes of the two shafts between which the motion is to be transmitted, may be
a. Parallel
b. Intersecting
c. Non-intersecting and Non-parallel

Gears for connecting parallel shafts

1. Spur Gear:
Spur gears transmit power through shafts that are parallel. The teeth of the spur
gears are parallel to the shaft axis. This causes the gears to produce radial reaction
loads on the shaft, but not axial loads
 Spur gear

Spur gears are gears in the same plane that move opposite of each other because they are
meshed together. Gear ‘A’ is called the ‘driver’ because this is turned by a motor. As gear
‘A’ turns it meshes with gear ‘B’ and it begins to turn as well. Gear ‘B’ is called the ‘driven’
gear.
2. Helical Gear
Helical gears have teeth that are oriented at an angle to the shaft, unlike spur gears which are
parallel. This causes more than one tooth to be in contact during operation and helical gears
are capable of carrying more load than spur gears. Due to the load sharing between teeth, this
arrangement also allows helical gears to operate smoother and quieter than spur gears. Helical
gears produce a thrust load during operation which needs to be considered when they are
used. Most enclosed gear drives use helical gears.

2. Herringbone gears or Double helical gears: Double helical gears are a variation
of helical gears in which two helical faces are placed next to each other with a gap
separating them. Each face has identical, but opposite, helix angles
 . Employing a double helical set of gears eliminates thrust loads and offers the
possibility of even greater tooth overlap and smoother operation. Like the helical gear,
double helical gears are commonly used in enclosed gear drives.

4. Bevel Gears (Intersecting Shaft):- Bevel gears are most commonly used to transmit
power between shafts that intersect at a 90 degree angle. They are used in applications where
a right angle gear drive is required. Bevel gears are generally more costly and are not able to
transmit as much torque, per size, as a parallel shaft arrangement.

.
5. Worm and worm gear (Non-intersecting and non-parallel)
Worm gears transmit power through right angles on non-intersecting shafts. Worm gears
produce thrust load and are good for high shock load applications but offer very low
efficiency in comparison to the other gears. Due to this low efficiency, they are often used in
lower horsepower applications.

Types of gearing:-
(1) External gearing: - When the gears of two shafts mesh externally with each other, it
is known as external gearing. In this, the motion of two wheels is always opposite to
each other.

External gearing
 (2) Internal Gearing: - If the gears of two shafts mesh internally with each other, then it
is known as internal gearing. The motion of two wheels is always in same direction.

Internal gearing
(3) Rack and Pinion:-If the gear meshes externally or internally with the teeth in a
straight line, then it is known as rack and pinion. The straight line teeth are called rack
and circular gear wheel is called pinion. By using rack and pinion, we can convert the
linear motion into rotary motion and vice versa.

Rack and pinion

NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEARS

 Pitch circle. It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the 2. Pitch
circle diameter. It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually specified
by the pitch circle diameter. It is also known as pitch diameter.
Pitch point. It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
Pitch surface. It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have replaced at
the pitch circle.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity. It is the angle between the common normal to two gear
teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually denoted
by φ.The standard pressure angles are 12 .5 ° and 20°.
Addendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
Dedendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
Addendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with
the pitch circle.
Dedendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called
root circle.
Circular pitch. It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from
a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is usually denoted by pc.
Mathematically,Circular pitch, pc = π D/Twhere D = Diameter of the pitch circle, andsame
Module (m): Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually
specified in inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is the inverse of diametral
pitch. m= D/N.
Pinion: The smallest of any pair of mating gears. The largest of the pair is called simply the
gear.
Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to the
number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a unit of time.

Types of Gear Trains

Following are the different types of gear trains, depending upon the arrangement of wheels:
1. Simple gear train, 2. Compound gear train, 3. Reverted gear train and 4. Epicyclic gear
train.
1. Simple gear train: - When there is only one gear on each shaft, it is known as simple gear
train.

Compound train of gear:-When there are more than one gear on a shaft, it is called a
compound train of gear.
Reverted Gear Train
1. When the axes of first gear ( i.e first driver) and last gear ( i.e. last driven or follower)
are co-axial then the gear train is known as reverted gear train.
2. The reverted gear train are used in automotive transmissions, lathe industrial reduces
and in clock

.
Epicyclic Gear Train
• Gears whose canters can move
• Used to achieve large speed reductions in compact space
• Can achieve different reduction ratios by holding different combinations of gears fixed
• Used in automatic transmissions of cars
CLUTCH:-

Clutch is a mechanical device that facilitates transmission of power and motion from one
component (the driving member) to another (the driven member) when engaged, with a
provision for disengagement whenever required.
In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating co-axial shafts. One
shaft is attached to a power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft (the driven
member) provides output power for work. The motions involved are rotary in nature
Purpose of a clutch:-
1. It allows the vehicle to come to a stop while the transmission remains in gear
2. It allows the driver to smoothly take off from a dead stop
3. It allow the driver to smoothly change gears
4. It must be able to transmit power and torque without slipping
Types of Clutch:-
Single Plate clutch:-

A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in Fig, consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are
faced with a friction material (usually of Ferrodo). It is mounted on the hub which is free to
move axially along the spines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the
clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate
with the engine crankshaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate
towards the flywheel by a set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body.
The three levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on pivots suspended
from the case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure plate
moves away from the flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The bearing is
mounted upon a forked shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed. When the
clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in towards
the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inward. The levers are forced to turn
on their suspended pivot and the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the knife
edges, thereby compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure from the
clutch plate and thus moves back from the flywheel and the driven shaft becomes stationary.
On the other hand, when the foot is taken off from the clutch pedal, the thrust bearing moves
back by the levers. This allows the springs to extend and thus the pressure plate pushes the
clutch plate back towards the flywheel.
MULTI-PLATE CLUTCH: - A multiple disc clutch, as shown in Fig, may be used when a
large torque is to be transmitted. The inside discs (usually of steel) are fastened to the driven
shaft to permit axial motion (except for the last disc). The outside discs (usually of bronze)
are held by bolts and are fastened to the housing which is keyed to the driving shaft. The
multiple disc clutches are extensively used in motor cars, machine tools etc.

Coupling
A coupling is a device used to connect or couple two shafts. Shafts are mostly available up to 7
meters length due to transport difficulty. To get a greater length, it is necessary to joint two or
more pieces of the shaft using coupling.
Shaft coupling are used in machinery for following purposes:
1) To connect shafts of motor and generator which are manufactured separately and to provide for
disconnection for repairs or alternations.

2) To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.

3) To allow misalignment of the shaft or to introduce mechanical flexibility

\
Sleeve or muff coupling
 It is made from cast iron and very simple to design and manufacture.
 It consists of a hollow cylinder whose inner diameter is the same as diameter of the
shaft.
 \The hollow cylinder is fitted over the end of the two shafts with the help of taper
sunk key.
 A key and sleeve useful to transmit power from one shaft to the other shaft.
 The main disadvantage of this coupling is that it is difficult to assemble when there is
no perfect alignment between shafts.

CLAMP OR COMPRESSION COUPLING

1.It is also known as split muff coupling. In this case ,the muff or sleeve is made into two
halve and bolted together.
2. The halves of muff are made of cast iron. The shaft ends are made into to about each
other and a single key is fitted directly in the keywaysof both the shafts.
3. One half of muff is fixed from below and the other half is placed from above. Both the
halve are held together by means of mild steel studs or bolts and nuts.
4. No of Bolts may be Two, four or six.
5. The nuts are recess into body of the muff casting. The coupling is used for heavy and
moderate duty.
6. the advantage of the coupling is the shaft need not to changed for assembling or
disassembling of coupling .
Flange coupling
1. This coupling is having two separate cast iron flanges.

2. Each flange is mounted on the shaft end and keyed to it.

3. This coupling prevent catching clothes of workman.

4. This flange couplings is most accurate and rigid.

5. It is used for heavy power transmission at low speed.

Bush pin type flange coupling

1. This is modified form of protected type flange coupling.
2. This type of coupling has a pins and it work as a coupling bolts.
3. The rubber or leather bushes are used over the pins.
4. This coupling is used to connect of shafts which having the small parallel misalignment,
angular misalignment and axial displacement.
5. This type of coupling is mostly used to couple an electric motor and machine
Universal coupling
 Universal coupling consists of two similar forks keyed on the ends of the two shafts.
 This coupling is used to connect two shafts whose axis intersect.
 It also used to connect two shafts, where the angle between two shafts may be varied
when they rotate.
 It is widely used in automobile and machine tools.

Oldham’s coupling
 It consist of two flange and a central floating disc.
 This coupling is used in connecting two parallel shafts but not in alignment, and their
axis are at small distance apart

BRAKES
 A brake is a mechanical device which produces frictional resistance against moving
machine member, in order to slow down the motion of machine.
 In the process of performing this function, the brake absorbs kinetic energy of moving
member and the brake absorbs potential energy of lowering member.
 The energy absorbed by brakes is released to surrounding in form of heat
 Brakes are also used to stop the vehicle quickly within a short distance.
 Brakes are also used to hold the vehicle at rest on an inclined road against the pull of
gravity.
Construction
Brake action starts as the brake pedal is depressed. Two sets of members constitute the brake
of every vehicle. One member is directly connected to the axle shaft and thus it becomes a
rotating member. The second member is attached to the frame or axle housing and thus it acts
as the stationary member. The brake works by causing friction between the non-rotating
member and the disc or drum that turns with the road wheel. Friction produces the force
required to slow down the vehicle. By means of friction, the brake converts the power of
momentum (kinetic energy) of the vehicle into heat. The heat produced, disappears into the
air around the brakes.
Principle of brake
A moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy that is converted into heat energy on the
application of brakes. This heat is transferred to the surrounding air. In the simplest form, a
brake comprises a stationary brake show with a friction lining on it and a brake drum. The
road wheel is fixed to the rotating brake drum. The driver applies force on the brake pedal
that gets amplifier and pushes the stationary shoe to make contact with the brake drum and
stops its rotation due to frictional resistance. The heat generated due to braking action is
proportional to the force that brings the shoe in contact with the drum.
PURPOSE OF BRAKES
The main purposes of fitting brakes on motor vehicle are as given under.
1. In emergencies to bring the vehicle to rest in the shortest possible distance.
2. To control the vehicle when it is in the hills.
3. To keep the vehicle in desired position after bringing it in complete rest when there is no
driver.
To full fill the above needs two independent braking systems are provided in the vehicle.
(a) "Service brake" which is operated by foot pedal in general during regular operation.
(b)"Emergency brake" which is operated by a hand lever while parking the vehicle

Types of Brake

Block Brake

(1) Single block or shoe brake:

A single block is consists of a block which is pressed against the rim of revolving brake wheel
drum. The force can be increase by lever . Due to pressure applied by single shoe ,there is a side
Thrust on the side of the drum.

r = radius of drum, RN= Normal reaction μ = co-efficient of friction ,P = applied force

Ft = Frictional force
This brake is used in railway trains and tram cars. The prony brake is example of block brake.
2, Double block or shoe brake :
 It consists of two brake blocks at the opposite ends of the wheel.
 These shoes apply force to both sides of wheel and reduces the
unbalanced force on the shaft.
 The spring pulls the upper end of brake arms together and brake is
applied.
 When a force is applied to the bell crank lever, the spring is compressed
and the brake is released.
 To counter balance of the side thrust, two shoes may be used opposite to
each other. in this case the torque is double

• This brake is used on electric cranes.

• The bicycle brake is example of double block

Band Brake
 A band brake consists of a flexible steel band lined with friction material, which wrap to
the brake drum.
 When an upward force is applied to the lever end, the lever turns about the fulcrum pin
and tightens the band on the drum and hence the brakes are applied.
 The friction between the band and the drum provides the braking force.
 The effectiveness of braking varies according to direction of rotation of drum ratio of
length C1 and C2 and direction of force applied at the end of lever

This type of brake is used in civil construction equipment and also in automobiles as hand
brake. The rope brake is example of band brake.
Internal expanding shoe brake
 An internal expanding shoe brake consists of two shoes.
 The outer surface of the shoes are covered with friction material.
 Each shoe is pivoted at one end about a fixed fulcrum and other end rests against cam.
 When the cam is operated, the shoe are pushed outwards against brake drum.
 The friction between the shoes and the drum produces the braking torque.
 It is a self-energizing brake and good heat dissipative

This type of brake is commonly used in motor cars and light trucks.
Robotics
Robotics is a science of designing and building robots suitable for real life applications in
automated manufacturing and other non manufacturing environment
Robot
 A robot is a mechanical device with links and joint, guided by sensor, driven by actuator
and controlled through a programmed software, to handle and manipulate parts, material,
tools and devices for performing various task in variety of work environment .
 It also performing multifarious act ivies for man’s welfare in most planned and integrated
manner, maintaining their own flexibility to do any work, effecting enhanced productivity
and guaranteeing quality, assuring reliability and ensuring safety to the workers.
 In robotics we try to copy 3H of humans
H: Hand – In form of manipulator
H:Head –Multi intelligence
H:Heart – Emotion
Laws of Robotics
First Law : A robot must not harm a human being or through inaction allow one to come to harm
Second Law : A robot must always obey human being unless it is in conflict with first law
Third Law : A robot must protect itself from harm unless that is in conflict with first and second
law
Robot anatomy
The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links. Robot anatomy
deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the manipulator's
physical construction.

Robot links
The two adjacent joint axes of a robotic manipulator are connected and defined by a rigid
body called Link, which maintain a fixed relationship between two joint axes through a
kinematic function .The relationship is described by two variable – the length of the link and
twist of the link,
The links are numbered starting from fixed base of the manipulator ,which is called link zero
(0). The first moving regid body is link 1
Robot Joint
A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot. Each joint, or axis,
provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion. In most of the cases, only one degree-
of-freedom is associated with each joint. Therefore the robot's complexity can be classified
according to the total number of degrees-of-freedom they possess.
 Revolute joint have one DOF and only rotary motion
 Prismatic pair have one DOF and only sliding motion
 Cylindrical pair have two DOF and one sliding and one rotary motion
 Planer pair have three DOF and two sliding and one rotary motion
 Screw pair have two DOF and one translatory and one rotary
 Spherical pair have three DOF and three rotary motion
Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into following five
types as shown in Figure

a) Linear joint (type L joint)

The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational sliding
motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.
b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint)
This is also a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are perpendicular to
each other during the move.
c) Rotational joint (type R joint)
This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the
axes of the input and output links.
d) Twisting joint (type T joint)
This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the axes of the
two links.
e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving)
In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. However the axis
of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Joint symbol

Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link. Joint provides
controlled relative movement between the input link and output link. A robotic link is the
rigid component of the robot manipulator. Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary
base, such as the floor. From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as
shown in Figure. The robotic base (Body) and its connection to the first joint are termed as
link-0(chest). The first joint in the sequence is joint-1(shoulder). Link-0 is the input link for
joint-1, while the output link from joint-1 is link-1(upper arm) —which leads to joint-2
(Elbow). Thus link 1 is, simultaneously, the output link for joint-1 and the input link for joint-
2. This joint-link-numbering scheme is further followed for all joints and links in the robotic
systems.
Robot Configuration
Robot manufacturers have developed many types of robots of differing configurations and
mechanical design, to give a variety of spatial arrangements and working volumes. The
majority of these manipulators fall into one of these six configurations: Cartesian (PPP),
Cylindrical (RPP), Spherical (RRP), SCARA (RRP), Articulate/Revolute (RRR) and
robot. The work envelope or work volume is defined as the space within which the robot
cans manipulator the end of its wrist. The shape of work volume is determined by the type of
robot configuration.
Cartesian configuration
It is form by 3 prismatic joints, whose axes are coincident with the X, Y and Z planes.
These robots move in three directions, in translation, at right angles to each other. Cartesian
manipulator is useful for table-top assembly applications and, as gantry robots for transfer of
material and cargo.

Cylindrical type
For cylindrical type manipulator, its first joint is revolute which produces a rotation
about the based, while its second and third joints are prismatic. The robot arm is
attached to the slide so that it can be moved radially with respect to the column.
Polar or Spherical type
The first two joints of this type of manipulators are revolute, while its third Joint is
prismatic. It used for a small number of vertical actions and is adequate for loading
and unloading of a punch.

SCARA Robot
The word SCARA stands for Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly.
There are two type of SCARA robot configuration: either the first two joints are
revolute with the third joint as prismatic, or the first joint is revolute with the second
and third Joints as prismatic. Although some of the SCARA robots have the RRP
structure.

Revolute type
Also called articulated manipulator that looks like an arm with at least three rotary
joints. They are used in welding and painting; gantry and conveyor systems move
parts in factories\
Angular type
It is a complex mechanism which is constituted by two or more kinematics chains
between, the base and the platform where the end-effectors are located.

Basic component of Robot

1. Arms: The various links and joint make the anatomy of the robot which are also
known as manipulators. Manipulator are mechanical part of a robot.
2. End-effectors: The part that is connected to the end of arm constituting the robot
hand is end effector
Application : spray coat gun ,part gripper
3. Actuators : The joints of the robots are powered by what are known as actuators.
That produce rotary or translator movement in the links, it is working by hydraulic or
pneumatic servo motor or steeper motion
4. Sensor : These are the parts that recognise the robot position while in movement or
when static. The movement or action depend on feedback of information collected
by sensor, the touch and tactile sensor, visible system ,force sensor
5. Controllers : These are electronic device which manipulate the signal from the
sensor to be provide to the drive in under stable pattern to produce action .
6. Transmission: It is a element between actuator and manipulator linkage to maintain
speed of motor and also convert the linear to rotary motion .
7. User Interface : it is used for display and input the command .
Ex : PC
8. Power conversion : It convert low power to high power .
9. Software and Hardware: A computer software or hardware process through
computation of the symbolic codes to derive the needed position,speed and
accuracy of motion obtain by kinematic equation.
Advantages &Benefits of Industrial Robots
 Robots are good substitutes to the human beings in hazardous or uncomfortable work
environments.
 A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability which is difficult
for human beings to attain over a long period of continuous working.
 Robots can be reprogrammed. When the production run of the current task is
completed, a robot can be reprogrammed and equipped with the necessary tooling to
perform an altogether different task.
 Robots can be connected to the computer systems and other robotics systems.
Nowadays robots can be controlled with wire-less control technologies. This has
enhanced the productivity and efficiency of automation industry
Limitations of Robotics
Are not creative or innovative
Can not think independently
Can not make complicated decisions
Can not learn from mistakes
Can not adapt quickly to changes in their surroundings
Temperature measurement

Temperature of a body shows the degree of hotness with respect to reference of a body, There are a
number of temperature measurement systems like thermometer(, liquid expansion devices).,
thermocouple ,sensitive temperature device ( RTO & thermistors ) infrared radiators and bimetallic
device and pyrometer

Thermometer: A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient, using a

variety of different principles. The word thermometer is derived from two smaller word fragments:
thermo from the Greek for heat and meter from Greek, meaning to measure. A thermometer has two
important elements, the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some
physical change occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change into a
value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer). Industrial thermometers commonly use electronic
means to provide a digital display or input to a computer.

Liquid expansion device: This is a very familiar type of thermometer, here mercury or other
organic type liquid fills the glass bulb and extended into bore of glass stem. Mercury is most suitable
liquid and used from 38.90C to about 6000C. Mercury based thermometer is based on the principle
that mercury expand with increase in temperature .

Mercury is consider as environmental hazard, so there is regulation of governing the ship most of
device . fluid expansion device do not required any electrical power, do not explosion and use stable
even after repeated cycle.

GAS THERMOMETER : A schematic diagram of a constant volume gas thermometer is given in

fig

A small amount of gas is enclosed in bulb B which is in communication via the capillary tube C to
which a mercury manometer is connected. the other limb of manometer is open to atmosphere and
moved vertically to adjust the mercury levels so that the mercury just touches lip L of capillary. The
pressure in the bulb is used as a thermometer property and given by p=p 0+ρMZg where
p0=atmospheric pressure and ρM is the density of mercury .
When the bulb is brought in contact with the system whose temperature is to be measured, then the
bulb instant time comes to thermal equilibrium and the gases in the bulb and the expand by heating
pushing the mercury downward .The flexible limb of mercury manometer is then adjusted so that the
mercury again touches the lip L .The difference in mercury level Z is recorded and then pressure p of
the gas is estimated .since the volume of the gas is constant ,from the ideal gas equation the increase
in temperature can be measured .
𝑉
𝑅
∆p=∆T

In a constant pressure gas thermometer ,the mercury level have to be adjusted to keep Z constant, the
volume vary and the temperature can be measured by using
𝑝
𝑅
∆v=∆T

Advantages:
1. They are cheap to manufacture
2. Easy to carry and handle.

Disadvantages:
 They tend to have high heat capacities.
 They are not sensitive enough, that is they cannot measure rapid temperature changes.

Thermocouple : The most common method for measuring temperature uses an electric circuit called
a thermocouple. A thermocouple consists of two electrical conductors that are made of dissimilar
metals and have at least one electrical connection (called a junction). The output of a thermocouple
circuit is a voltage.

There is a direct relationship between the temperature difference of the junctions (T 1,T2) and the
voltage potential (emf). The observed effect is named the Seebeck Effect. It states that the change in
emf versus Temperature is a function of the materials A and B. The Seebeck coefficient is defined as
ɛ=a+bt+ct2+dt3 where ɛ is emf and a,b,c,d are constant the temperature is calibrated with emf and the
temperature can be measured

Electrical Resistance Thermometer

In the resistance thermometer the change in resistance of a metal wire due to its change in temperature
is the thermodynamic property. The wire, frequently, may be incorporated in a Wheatstone Bridge
circuit. In a restricted range, the following quadratic equation is often used

Rt = R0 ( 1 + at + bt2 + ct3 + …)

Where R0 is the resistance of the platinum wire when it is surrounded by melting ice, Rt is the
resistance at temperature t and a and b are constants.

The triple point represents an equilibrium state between solid, liquid and vapour phases of substance.
Normal boiling point is the temperature at which the substance boils at standard atmospheric pressure
of 760 mm Hg. Normal freezing point is the solidification or melting point temperature of the
substance at standard atmospheric pressure

Infrared Temperature measurement Device : Infrared Temperature measurement Device are non-
contacting devices, they measure the temperature by measuring the thermal radiation caused by a
material

Bimettallic temperature Device : Bimettallic device work on the principle that different rate of
thermal expansion,stripes of two metals are bonded together. When heated one side will expand more
than the other, and the resulting bonding is translated into temperature reading by mechanical linkage
of pointer
These devices are portable and they donot require on power supply, but they useally not as accurate as
thermocouple as RTOs and they donot readily lend themselve to temperature recording .

Rediation Pyrometer : A device which measures total intensity of rediation emitted from a body is
called rediation pyrometer. The elements of total rediation pyrometer are showen in the fig

A mirror is used to focus this rediation from an objects(hot body) whose temperature is required. A
mirror is used to focus this rediation on the thermocouple. This energy which is concentrated on the
thermocouple raising the temperature and in turn generate emf ,This emf is then measure either by
galvanometer or potentio meter, this rise in temperature is afunction of amount of rediation emitted
from the object

Optical pyrometer : An optical pyrometer works on the priciple that matter glow above 480 0C and
colour of visible rediation is propotional to the temperature of the glowing matter . The amount of
light rediatedfrom the glowing matter is measured and employed to determine the temperature
.Pressure Measurement :

Different types of Pressure Measurement Devices

The pressure may be measured by means of indicating gauges or recorders. These instruments may be
mechanical, electro-mechanical, electrical or electronic in operation.
1. Mechanical instruments. These instruments may be classified into following two groups :— The
first group includes those instruments in which the pressure measurement is made
by balancing an unknown force with a known force.
— The second group includes those employing quantitative deformation of an elastic member for
pressure measurement.
2. Electro-mechanical instruments. These instruments usually employ a mechanical
means for detecting the pressure and electrical means for indicating or recording the detected
pressure.
3. Electronic instruments. Electronic pressure measuring instruments normally depend
on some physical change that can be detected and indicated or recorded electronically. Mechanical-
type Instruments
The mechanical-type instruments are classified as follows :
1. Manometer gauges
(i) U-tube manometer (ii) Cistern manometer
(iii) Micro-manometer etc.
2. Pressure gauges
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge (ii) Diaphragm gauge
(iii) Vacuum gauge.
. Liquid manometers
Low pressures are generally determined by manometers which employ liquid columns. It is
difficult and costly to construct manometers to measure high pressures, as otherwise the liquid column
will become unwieldy and temperature corrections will also be difficult. Their use is, therefore,
restricted to low pressures only, and for such purposes they are quite accurate.
The liquids commonly employed for manometers are mercury and water. Mercury is used
for high and water for low pressures. For this purpose a liquid is suitable if it has a low viscosity,so
that it can adjust itself quickly, and also a low co-efficient of thermal expansion, so that
densitychanges with temperature are minimum.
1. U-tube manometer :
A U-tube manometer is in the form of U-tube and is made of glass. When no pressure is
applied, the height of the liquid in the two legs is the same. The pressure is then applied to one leg,
whilst the other is open to the atmosphere. Under this pressure the liquid will sink in this leg and will
rise in the other. As the other leg is open to the air, therefore, the pressure on this side is known, and
is barometric. Now the pressure applied to the first leg can be calculated. This is explained with
reference to Figure This consists of a water manometer.
.Cistern manometer : In cistern manometer. The mercury reservoir is made large enough so that
change of level in reservoir is negligible

This form of manometer is generally used for measuring above atmospheric . In this case only one
reading of the level in the column is required .However a zero setting is necessary.

Micro-manometer :

Micro-manometer is also known as single column manometers. The construction of a micro-

manometer is as follows:
a. One limb of manometer is a tank of large cross sectional area as compared to the cross
sectional area of the other limb.
b. This tank acts as a reservoir to hold the manometer fluid.
c. The cross sectional area of the tank is 100 times greater than that of the other limb.
d. When there is change in the pressure in the pipe, there is negligible change in the level of
fluid in tank. This change can be neglected and pressure can be measured as height of liquid
in the other column.

It is of two types:
i. Vertical column micro-manometer
ii. Inclined column micro-manometer

Vertical Column Micro-manometer

Inclined column Micro-manometer

Bourdon tube pressure gauge :

1. Bourdon tubes are made from metal alloys such as stainless steel or brass.
2. They consist of U tube of elliptical or oval cross-section, sealed at one end .
3. There are various shapes of Bourdon tube but a common design is C-shape

4. When incresed pressure is applied to the open end ,it deflect outward in propotion to the
pressure inside the tube .
5. The pointer moves over a calibrated scale
6. When pressure is applied,the movement of the tube is fairly small, so to increase the
movementof the pointer it is mechanically amplified. This is useally by a connecting
mechanism consisting of a lever, quadrant and pinion arrangement .

(ii) Diaphragm gauge :

A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure measurement. They are commercially
available in two types – metallic and non-metallic. Metallic diaphragms are known to have good
spring characteristics and non-metallic types have no elastic characteristics. Thus, non-metallic
 types are used rarely, and are usually opposed by a calibrated coil spring or any other elastic type
gauge. The non-metallic types are also called slack diaphragm.

Non Metallic (Slack) Diaphragm

Construction:
It is made up of rubber or other flexible material. Making a diaphragm slack rather than tight allows it
to move large distance in response to a small pressure. A pointer is attached with the diaphragm via
linkage. Pressure is applied at the input and is indicated on the scale.
Working
The diagram of a diaphragm pressure gauge is shown below. Unknown pressure is applied to the input
(P1) of the gauge which will exerts force on the slack diaphragm. When a force acts against a thin
stretched diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the diaphragm with its center deflecting the most. This
movement is transferred to the pointer mechanism via leaf spring

Non-metallic or slack diaphragms are used for measuring very small pressures. The commonly used
materials for making the diaphragm are polythene, neoprene, animal membrane, silk, and synthetic
materials. Due to their non-elastic characteristics, the device will have to be opposed with external
springs for calibration and precise operation. The common range for pressure measurement varies
between 50 Pa to 0.1 MPa.
Metallic Diaphragm

Construction:
Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the deflection of the diaphragm must be kept in a
restricted manner. This can be done by cascading many diaphragm capsules as shown in the figure 2.
A main capsule is designed by joining two diaphragms at the periphery. A pressure inlet line is
provided at the central position
Working:

When the pressure enters the capsule, the deflection will be the sum of deflections of all the individual
capsules. This will also deflect the lever connected to the diaphragm. Through pivot, this movement
of lever is transferred to the pointer and scale mechanism. As shown in figure, corrugated diaphragms
are also used instead of the conventional ones.

Advantages of Elastic diaphragm gauges:

1. Best advantage is they cost less
2. They have a linear scale for a wide range
3. They can withstand over pressure and hence they are safe to be used.
4. No permanent zero shift.
5. They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure, that is, differential pressure.

Disadvantages of Elastic diaphragm gauges:

1. Shocks and vibrations affects their performance and hence they are to be protected.
2. When used for high pressure measurement, the diaphragm gets damaged.
3. These gauges are difficult to be repaired.

Bellows type pressure gauge.

Like a diaphragm, bellows are also used for pressure measurement, and can be made of cascaded
capsules. The basic way of manufacturing bellows is by fastening together many individual
diaphragms. The bellows element, basically, is a one-piece expansible, collapsible and axially flexible
member. It has many convolutions or fold. It can be manufactured form a single piece of thin metal.
Construction:
A bellows gauge contains an elastic element that is a convoluted unit that expands and contracts
axially with changes in pressure. Most bellows gauges are spring-loaded; that is, a spring opposes the
bellows, thus preventing full expansion of the bellows. Limiting the expansion of the bellows in this
way protects the bellows and prolongs its life. In a spring-loaded bellows element, the deflection is
the result of the force acting on the bellows and the opposing force of the spring. The movement of
bellows is transferred to a pointer though a linkage.
Bellows can also be used to measure differential pressure as shown in figure. Here two different
pressure are applied to the two different pressure connection. Scale and Pointer is attached with gauge
movement linkage at the center of the force bar. The bellows are connected between the input
pressure connection and force bar.

Working:
The pressure to be measured is applied to the outside or inside of the bellows. However, in practice,
most bellows measuring devices have the pressure applied to the outside of the bellows (see fig). As
the inlet pressure varies, the bellows will expand or contract. This will move the linkage assembly and
pointer will shows the applied pressure on the scale.
For differential pressure measurement using bellows, applied differential pressure will try to
imbalance the force bar and accordingly this movement is transferred to scale via gauge movement
and pointer.
Like Bourdon-tube elements, the elastic elements in bellows gauges are made of brass, phosphor
bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-copper, or other metal that is suitable for the intended purpose of the
gauge.
Although some bellows instruments can be designed for measuring pressures up to 800 psig, their
primary application is in the measurement of low pressures or small pressure differentials

Advantages
• Bellow joints do not require access; i.e. They can be direct buried, however a telltale is
recommended
• No maintenance is required.
• Low cost
• Can be used to measured differential pressure

Disadvantages
• Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
• No in place maintenance or repair can be performed - they must be replaced if damaged.
• Require that the system to be shut down when a failure occurs.
• Smaller pressure range of application.
• Temperature compensation needed

Low pressure measurement

1. Pirani gauges :
(a) The pirani gauge is a roughing pressure vaccum gauge.
(b) It uses the thermal conductivity of gases to measure pressure.
(c) The pirani gauge head is based around a heated wire placed in a vacuum system, the
electrical resistance of the wire being proportion to its temperature .
(d) At atmosphere pressure, gas molecules collide with the wire and remove heat energy
from it.
(e) As gas molecules use removed, there are few molecules and therefore fever colliion
(f) Fewer collions means that less heat is removed from the wire and so it heats up.
(g) As it heats up , its electrical resistance increases.
(h) A simple circuit utilizing the wire detects the change in resistance and once calibrated,
can directly correlate the relationship between pressure and resistance .
(i) It measures pressure from atmosphere 10-3 mbar. Therefore other type of gauge should
be used to measure the pressure lower than this.

2. Ion gauge : The ion gauge consist of three distinct parts that are the filament, the grid and the
collector.

 A hot filament emits electrons which are accelerated to go inside inside a cylindrical wire
cage. In the cage the electrons hit rest gas molecules and ionise them.
 The ions are collected at the wire in the middle of the cage and the current from that wire is a
measure for the pressure. The ion current is proportional to the pressure of the rest gas.
 A problem is that the sensitivity of the gauge depends on the chemical identity of the rest gas.
The ion gauge can be used in for pressures between 10-4 and 10-11 mbar.
 The upper limit is given by the need to operate the filament in vacuum, so that it is not
destroyed. The lower limit is given by an unwanted effect: when an electron hits the cage it
 can produce a photon which then can cause the emission of an electron from the centre wire,
giving rise to a current contribution in the opposite direction from the ion current.
 While this effect sounds extremely unlikely it becomes the dominant contribution to the
current at very low pressures.
 When the ion gauge is exposed to a flux of electrons from some other source, it can also start
to show an artificially low pressure for the same reason.

Velocity Measurement:
The following types of transducer are used for measurement of linear velocity
1. Electro-magnetic transducer
( a) Moving magnet type
(b) Moving coil type
2. Seismic type transducer

Electro-magnetic transducer
An electro-magnetic type transducer utilizes the voltage produce in a coil on the account of change
in flux linkage resulting from change in reluctance. This is most commonly used transducer for
measurement of linear velocities.
(j) Moving magnet type : A moving type electro-magnetic transducer uses permanent
magnet which provides a constant polarizing field as shown fig such a transducer. It
consist of rod is a permanent magnet which is surrounded by a coil

Working :

1. The instrument is fixed to the device whose velocity is to measured.

2. Due to the application of the velocity, the permanent magnet moves in or out of the coil. Due
to its motion, the length of the air gap varies.
3. The output voltage also varies due to the motion of the magnet and the amplitude of the
voltage is directly proportional to velocity.
4. The polarity of the output voltages determines the direction of the velocity.

Moving coil type :

This type of transducer operates essentially through the action of a coil moving in a magnetic field,
 1. A voltage generated in the coil being proportional to the velocity of the coil.
2. The coil is mounted on a pivoted arm.
3. There is mass attached at the end of the arm.
4. The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm and therefore the coil moves in the
field of permanent magnet
5. A voltage generated on account of motion of coil in magnetic field
6. The output voltage is proportional to velocity
Measurement of Angular velocity
The angular velocity is measured by the help of tachometer , It is an instrument used for
measurement of angular velocity as of shaft either by registering the total number of revolution during
the period of contact or by indicating directly the number of revolutions per minute.
Tachometer- inductive type
 A tachometer which is inductive and convert speed into an electrical signal.
 It consist of stationary coils and a rotor which is made of permanent magnet.

When the rotor rotates, it alternating flux cuts the stationary coil there by inducing alternating
voltage in them

 The magnitude of voltage depends directly on the angular velocity of the rotor.
This emf may then rectified and further amplified for being fed to DC voltmeter which is directly
calibrate rpm instead of volts.

Tachometer –Capacitive Type

 A capacitive pick up tachometer consists of a vane attached to one end of the rotating
machine shaft . when shaft rotating between the field capacitive plates, the occurs a change in
capacitance.
 The capacitor forms a part of an oscillator tank so that number frequency changes per unit of
time is a measure of shaft speed.
 The pulses thus produced are amplified and squared and may then be fed to frequency
measuring unit or to digital counter to as to provide a digital analog of the shaft rotation
 FLOW MEASUREMENT
The flow of a fluid can be measured by flow meters. The common types of flow meters used
are obstruction (differential pressure or variable area) types. Name of some flow
measurement devices are given below.
-Orifice meter
- Venturimeter
- Rotameter
Orifice meter
An orificemeter provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement for the measurement of flow
through a pipe. An orificemeter is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp edged
concentric circular hole in it. It works on the principle of Bernoullis theorem. The diameter of
orifice is generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe (D), although it may vary from 0.4 to
0.8 times the pipe diameter.
Working Principle: - The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an increase in flow
velocity and a corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective
decrease in cross section beyond the orifice plate, with a maximum velocity and minimum
pressure at the vena-contracta.
Thus discharge Q=A 2V2
Q is calculated by using the formula,

Where Cd= Coefficient of discharge for orifice meter.

Venturimeter
Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe. It works on the principle of Bernoullis theorem. It consists of three parts:
1. A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi where the fluid gets converges.
2. Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the converging and diverging part of the
venturi. The cross section of the throat is much less than the cross section of the converging
and diverging parts. As the fluid enters in the throat, its velocity increases and pressure
decreases.
3. Diverging part: It is the portion of the venturimeter (venturi) where the fluid gets
diverges.
Working Principle:-
The working of venturimeter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.
Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the
total energy at any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy or datum energy.
Mathematically
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 + 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 + 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒑 𝒗𝟐
+ + 𝒁 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
The venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through the pipes.
Let’s understand how it does this measurement step by step.
 Here we have considered two cross sections, first at the inlet and the second one is at
the throat. The difference in the pressure heads of these two sections is used to
calculate the rate of flow through venturimeter.
 As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges and
reaches to the throat.
 The throat has the uniform cross section area and least cross section area in the
venturimeter. As the water enters in the throat its velocity gets increases and due to
increase in the velocity the pressure drops to the minimum.
  Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At the section 1(i.e.
at the inlet) the pressure of the fluid is maximum and the velocity is minimum. And at
the section 2 (at the throat) the velocity of the fluid is maximum and the pressure is
minimum.
 The pressure difference at the two sections can be seen in the manometer attached at
both the section.
 This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing through a
pipe.

Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the inlet, velocity at the inlet and
area at the cross section 1.
And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2

As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2

Therefore

By getting v2 , discharge Q will be calculated as

Where, Cd= Coefficient of discharge for orifice meter

PITOT-TUBE
Pitot-tube is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel.
Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that point increases due to the
conservation of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. A pitot tube is used to determine the
velocity of a fluid flowing through a pipe by measuring the difference in pressure between
two points in the pipe. Bernoulli's equation is then used to determine fluid velocity
In simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles. Consider two
points 1 and 2 at same level in such a way that point 2 is just at the inlet of pitot tube and
point 1 is far away from the tube.

ROTAMETER
 A Rotameter is a device that measure the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube, it
belongs to a class of metrer called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by
allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through, to vary, causing
measurable effect
 Rotameters are particular kind of flow meter, based on variable area princiople .They
provide a simple, precise and economical means of indicating flow rates in fluid
 systems, The variable area principle consists of three basic element: A uniformly
tapered flow tube, and a measurement scale

Strain Measurement

Strain:-When a tensile force is applied to a body the body is elongated. Strain is the amount
of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain is defined as the
fractional change in deformation i.e change in deformation to original deformation. When a
force is applied to a structure, the components of the structure change slightly in their
dimensions and are said to be strained. Devices to measure these small changes in dimensions
are called strain gages.

Electrical Resistance Strain Gage: -

-An electrical resistance strain gage, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion
to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gage is the bonded metallic strain
gage.
-The strain gauge operates on simple principle. When force is applied on an elastic member,
the dimensions undergo a change. If the strain gauge is bonded to the cylinder, the gauge is
stretched or compressed, resulting in a change in its length and diameter. The resistance of
the circuit changes due to change in dimension. The output voltage is already calibrated with
strain.
The ideal sensor for the measurement of strain would
- Have good spatial resolution, implying that the sensor would measure strain at a point
- Be unaffected by changes in ambient conditions
- Have a high-frequency response for dynamic strain measurements.
Force measurement :
Load cell
• A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured. The various types of load cells include hydraulic load cells,
pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells.
1. Strain gauge load cell
• The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as a
Change in electrical resistance, which is a measure of the strain and hence the applied forces
Principle of Strain gauge load cell

When steel cylinder is subjected to a force, it tends to change in dimension.

On this cylinder, if the strain gauges are bonded, the strain gauge also is stretched or compressed,
causing a change in its length and diameter.

This change in dimension of the strain gauge causes its resistance to change. This change in resistance
or output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a measure of applied force.

Construction of strain gauge Load cell

The main parts of the strain gauge load cell are as follows.
They are a cylinder made up of steel on which four identical strain gauge are mounted and out of four
strain gauges, two of them (R1 and R4) are mounted along the direction of the applied load(vertical
gauges).

The other two strain gauges (R2 and R3 Horizontal gauges) are mounted circumferentially at right
angles to gauges R1 and R4.

Operation of strain gauge Load cell

Case 1
When there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all the four gauges will have the same resistance.

As the terminals N and P are at the same potential, the wheat stone bridge is balanced and hence the
output voltage will be zero.

Case 2
Now the load (force) to be measured (say compression force) is applied on the steel cylinder. Due to
this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will under go compression and hence there will be a decrease in
resistance.

At the same time, the horizontal gauges R2 and R3 will under go tension and there will be an increase
in resistance. Thus when strained, the resistance of the various gauges change.

Now the terminal N and P will be at different potential and the change in output voltage due to the
applied load (force) becomes a measure of the applied load force when calibrated.

2. Piezoelectric load cell

• Piezoelectric load cells work on the same principle of deformation as the strain gauge load cells,
but a voltage output is generated by the basic piezoelectric material - proportional to the
deformation of load cell
3. Hydraulic load cell
• The cell uses conventional piston and cylinder arrangement. The piston is placed in a thin
elastic diaphragm. The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell

Here the force variable is impressed upon a diaphragm which deflects and thereby transmits the force
to a liquid. The liquid medium contained in a confined space, has a preload of 2kgf/cm 2 . On the
application of the force magnitude divided by effective area of the diapharagm. The pressure
transmitted to and read on an accurate pressure gauge calibrated directly on force unit.
TOURQUE MEASUREMENT

Torque is the twisting force that tends to cause rotation. The point where the object rotates is
known as the axis of rotation. Mathematically, torque can be written as T = F×L, and it has
units of Newton-meters.
Torque is measured by a device which is known as Dynamometer.
Prony Brake Dynamometer: Pony Brake is one of the simplest dynamometers
for measuring torque and power output (brake power). It is to attempt to stop the engine using
a brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will
support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel.

The Prony brake shown in the above consists of a wooden block, frame, rope, brake shoes
and flywheel. It works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction. Spring-
loaded bolts are provided to increase the friction by tightening the wooden block.The whole
of the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer must the
cooled.
Torque (T)= W×l and Power= 2ПNT/60

Rope –brake Dynamometer:- The rope brake as shown in below figure is another device
for measuring brake power of an engine. It consists of some turns of rope wound around the
rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a
spring balance and the other side to a loading device. The power is absorbed in
friction between the rope and the drum. Therefore drum in rope brake requires cooling. Rope
brake dynamometers are cheap and can be constructed quickly but brake power can’t be
measured accurately because of change in the friction coefficient of the rope with a change in
temperature.
Let W = Dead load in newtons,
S = Spring balance reading in newtons,
D = Diameter of the wheel in metres,
d = diameter of rope in metres, and
N = Speed of the engine shaft in r.p.m.
and work done per minute or Power = (W − S) π(D + d ) N N-m
;