Activity12

OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED

To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).
 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8), ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2
l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l3) ... R (∉/∈)
and (l5, l8) ∈ R ⇒ (l8, l5) ... R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R and (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ... R (∈/∉)

Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4) ∈ R, (l4, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∈,∉)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.

104 Laboratory Manual

Activity 2
4
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
one-one but not onto. and plastic strips.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails
in it as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Name the nails as a and b.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix three
nails on it as shown in the Fig. 4.2. Name the nails on the right strip as
1, 2 and 3.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in the Fig. 4.3.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {a, b}
2. Take the set Y = {1, 2, 3}.
3. Join elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 4.3.
OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element a of X in Y is ______________.

The image of the element b of X in Y is ______________.

So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a _____________________.

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_____________ (one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of the element 1 of Y in X __________ (exists/does not
exist). So, the function is __________ (onto/not onto).

Thus, Fig. 4.3 represents a function which is _________ but not onto.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one but not onto
function.

108 Laboratory Manual

Activity 39
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

 x 2 – 16 
 , x ≠ 4
1. Consider the function given by f ( x) =  x – 4 
 10, x = 4 


2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.

DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:

Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999

f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

 2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001

OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the right.

3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

x→ 4 x →4

4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

x →4

5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

x →4

6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

x →c
not continuous).

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a point.

Mathematics 123
 4
Activity 13
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of Pieces of wire of different lengths,
decreasing and increasing functions. piece of plywood of suitable size,
white paper, adhesive, geometry
box, trigonometric tables.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of length say 20 cm each and fix them on the white
paper to represent x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take two more pieces of wire each of suitable length and bend them in the
shape of curves representing two functions and fix them on the paper as
shown in the Fig. 13.

4. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing
tangents to the curves at different points on them.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that it is
 tangent to the curve at the point say P1 and making an angle α1 with the
positive direction of x-axis.
2. α1 is an obtuse angle, so tanα1 is negative, i.e., the slope of the tangent at P1
(derivative of the function at P1) is negative.
3. Take another two points say P2 and P3 on the same curve, and make tangents,
using the same wire, at P2 and P3 making angles α2 and α3, respectively with
the positive direction of x-axis.
4. Here again α2 and α3 are obtuse angles and therefore slopes of the tangents
tan α2 and tan α3 are both negative, i.e., derivatives of the function at P2 and
P3 are negative.
5. The function given by the curve (on the left) is a decreasing function.
6. On the curve (on the right), take three point Q1, Q2, Q3, and using the other
straight wires, form tangents at each of these points making angles β1, β2,
β3, respectively with the positive direction of x-axis, as shown in the figure.
β1, β2, β3 are all acute angles.
So, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Thus, the
function given by this curve (on the right) is an increasing function.

OBSERVATION
1. α1 = _______ , > 90° α2 = _______ > _______, α3 = _______> _______,
tan α1 = _______, (negative) tan α2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan α3 =
_______, ( _______). Thus the function is _______.
2. β1 = _______< 90°, β2 = _______, < _______, β3 = _______ , < _______

tan β1 = _______ , (positive), tan β2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan β3 =

_______( _______ ). Thus, the function is _______.

APPLICATION
This activity may be useful in explaining the concepts of decreasing and
increasing functions.

Mathematics 133
 5
Activity 16
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To construct an open box of maximum Chart papers, scissors, cellotape,
volume from a given rectangular sheet calculator.
by cutting equal squares from each
corner.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 20 cm × 10 cm and name it as ABCD.
2. Cut four equal squares each of side x cm from each corner A, B, C and D.
3. Repeat the process by taking the same size of chart papers and different
values of x.
4. Make an open box by folding its flaps using cellotape/adhesive.

DEMONSTRATION
1. When x = 1, Volume of the box = 144 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, Volume of the box = 178.5 cm3
 3. When x = 1.8, Volume of the box = 188.9 cm3.
4. When x = 2, Volume of the box = 192 cm3.
5. When x = 2.1, Volume of the box = 192.4 cm3.
6. When x = 2.2, Volume of the box = 192.2 cm3.
7. When x = 2.5, Volume of the box = 187.5 cm3.
8. When x = 3, Volume of the box = 168 cm3.
Clearly, volume of the box is maximum when x = 2.1.

OBSERVATION
1. V1 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.6) = .................
2. V2 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.9) = .................
3. V = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.1) = .................
4. V3 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.2) = .................
5. V4 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.4) = .................
6. V5 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 3.2) = .................
7. Volume V1 is ____________ than volume V.
8. Volume V2 is ____________ than volume V.
9. Volume V3 is ____________ than volume V.
10. Volume V4 is ____________ than volume V.
11. Volume V5 is ____________ than volume V.

So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = ________.

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions.
It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost.

Mathematics 141
 6
Activity 18
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify that amongst all the rect- Chart paper, paper cutter, scale,
angles of the same perimeter, the pencil, eraser cardboard, glue.
square has the maximum area.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Make rectangles each of perimeter say 48 cm on a chart paper. Rectangles
of different dimensions are as follows:
 R1 : 16 cm × 8 cm, R2 : 15 cm × 9 cm

R3 : 14 cm × 10 cm, R4 : 13 cm × 11 cm

R5 : 12 cm × 12 cm, R6 : 12.5 cm × 11.5 cm

R7 : 10.5 cm × 13.5 cm
3. Cut out these rectangles and paste them on the white paper on the cardboard
(see Fig. 18 (i) to (vii)).
4. Repeat step 2 for more rectangles of different dimensions each having
perimeter 48 cm.
5. Paste these rectangles on cardboard.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Area of rectangle of R1 = 16 cm × 8 cm = 128 cm2

Area of rectangle R2 = 15 cm × 9 cm = 135 cm2

Area of R3 = 140 cm2

Area of R4 = 143 cm2

Area of R5 = 144 cm2

Area of R6 = 143.75 cm2

Area of R7 = 141.75 cm2

2. Perimeter of each rectangle is same but their area are different. Area of
rectangle R5 is the maximum. It is a square of side 12 cm. This can be verified
using theoretical description given in the note.

OBSERVATION
1. Perimeter of each rectangle R1, R2, R3, R4, R4, R6, R7 is _________.
2. Area of the rectangle R3 ________ than the area of rectangle R5.

148 Laboratory Manual

 3. Area of the rectangle R6 _______ than the area of rectangle R5.
4. The rectangle R5 has the diamensions ______ × ______ and hence it is a
________.
5. Of all the rectangles with same perimeter, the ________ has the maximum
area.

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the idea
of Maximum of a function. The result is also
useful in preparing economical packages.
NOTE
Let the length and breadth of rectangle be x and y.
The perimeter of the rectangle P = 48 cm.
2 (x + y) = 48
or x + y = 24 or y = 24 – x
Let A (x) be the area of rectangle, then
A (x) = xy
= x (24 – x)
= 24x – x2
A′ (x) = 24 – 2x
A′ (x) = ⇒ 24 – 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 12
A′′ (x) = – 2
A′′ (12) = – 2, which is negative
Therefore, area is maximum when x = 12
y = x = 24 – 12 = 12
So, x = y = 12
Hence, amongst all rectangles, the square has the maximum area.

Mathematics 149
Activity 207
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify geometrically that Geometry box, cardboard, white
paper, cutter, sketch pen, cellotape.
( )








c× a + b = c× a + c×b

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Fix a white paper on the cardboard.
2. Draw a line segment OA (= 6 cm, say) and let it represent c .

3. Draw another line segment OB (= 4 cm, say) at an angle (say 60°) with OA.



Let OB = a
 



4. Draw BC (= 3 cm, say) making an angle (say 30°) with OA . Let BC = b
5. Draw perpendiculars BM, CL and BN.
6. Complete parallelograms OAPC, OAQB and BQPC.

DEMONSTRATION






1. OC = OB +BC = a + b , and let ∠COA = α .

( )







2. c × a + b = c a + b sin α = area of parallelogram OAPC.

3. c × a = area of parallelogram OAQB.



4. c × b = area of parallelogram BQPC.

5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)

= (OA) (LN + NC) = (OA) (BM + NC)

= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)

= Area of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram BQPC




= c+a + c × b

So, c × ( a + b ) = c × b + c × b

Direction of each of these vectors c × (a + b ), c × a and c × b is perpendicular
to the same plane.








So, c × (a + b ) = c × a + c × b.

154 Laboratory Manual

OBSERVATION



c = OA = OA = _______



a + b = OC = OC = ______

CL = ______




c × ( a + b) = Area of parallelogram OAPC

= (OA) (CL) = _____________ sq. units (i)

c × a = Area of parallelogram OAQB

= (OA) (BM) = _____ × _____ = ______ (ii)

c × b = Area of parallelogram BQPC

= (OA) (CN) = _____ × _____ = ______ (iii)

From (i), (ii) and (iii),

Area of parallelogram OAPC = Area of parallelgram OAQB + Area of

Parallelgram ________.





Thus c × (a + b | = c × a + c × b

( )








c × a, c × b and c × a + b are all in the direction of _______ to the plane
of paper.

( )






Therefore c × a + b = c × a + ________.

Mathematics 155
APPLICATION
Through the activity, distributive property of vector multiplication over addition
can be explained.

NOTE
This activity can also be per-
formed by taking rectangles
instead of parallelograms.

156 Laboratory Manual

 8
Activity 22
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To locate the points to given Drawing board, geometry box,
coordinates in space, measure the squared paper, nails of different
distance between two points in space lengths, paper arrows.
and then to verify the distance using
distance formula.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Y

Z 6

5 C (4, 1, 3)

(–2,2,2)B 4

3 3 cm
2 cm
N 2
(–2, 2)

1 M
(4, 1)
¢
X X
O
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 D (3, –5, 4)

A –2
(–2, –3, 1) 1 cm
L 4 cm
(–2, –3) –3

–4

–5 S
(3, –5)
–6
¢
Y

Fig 22
 1. Take a drawing board and paste a squared paper on it.
2. Draw two lines X′OX and Y′OY to represent x-axis, y-axis respectively
(see Fig. 22) and take 1 unit = 1 cm.
3. Fix a wire through O, in the vertical direction, representing the z-axis.
4. Fix nails of length 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, etc. at different points on the
squared paper (say at L (–2, –3), N (–2, 2), M (4, 1), S (3, –5)), etc.
Now the upper tips of these nails represent the points (say A, B, C, D) in the
space.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Coordinates of the point A = (–2, –3, 1).
2. Coordinates of the point B = (–2, 2, 2).
3. Similarly find the coordinates of the point C and D.
4. By actual measurement (using a scale) distance AB = 5.1 cm.

5. By distance formula, AB= (–2 + 2)2 + (–3 – 2)2 + (1 – 2)2 = 26 = 5.099.

Thus, the distance AB, obtained by actual measurement is approximately same
as the distance obtained by using the distance formula.
Same can be verified for other pairs of points A, C; B, C; A, D; C, D; B, D.

OBSERVATION
Coordinates of the point C = ________.

Coordinates of the point D = ________.

On actual measurement :

AC = ________, BC = _________.

AD = ________, CD = _________, BD = __________.

Mathematics 161
Using distance formula; AC = ________, BC = ________, AD = ________

CD = ________, BD = ________.

Thus, the distance between two points in space obtained on actual measurement
and by using distance formula is approximately the same.

APPLICATION
1. This activity is useful in visualising the position of different points in space
(coordinates of points).
2. The concept of position vectors can also be explained through this activity.

162 Laboratory Manual

 9
Activity 26
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To measure the shortest distance A piece of plywood of size
between two skew lines and verify it 30 cm × 20 cm, a squared paper,
analytically. three wooden blocks of size
2cm × 2 cm × 2 cm each and one
wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm
× 4 cm, wires of different lengths,
set squares, adhesive, pen/pencil,
etc.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood.
2. On the squared paper, draw two lines OA and OB to represent x-axis,
and y-axis, respectively.
3. Name the three blocks of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm as I, II and III. Name the
other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
4. Place blocks I, II, III such that their base centres are at the points
(2, 2), (1, 6) and (7, 6), respectively, and block IV with its base centre at
(6, 2). Other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
5. Place a wire joining the points P and Q, the centres of the bases of the
blocks I and III and another wire joining the centres R and S of the tops of
blocks II and IV as shown in Fig. 26.
6. These two wires represent two skew lines.
7. Take a wire and join it perpendicularly with the skew lines and measure the
actual distance.
 Fig. 26

DEMONSTRATION
1. A set-square is placed in such a way that its one perpendicular side is along
the wire PQ.
2. Move the set-square along PQ till its other perpendicular side touches the
other wire.
172 Laboratory Manual
 3. Measure the distance between the two lines in this position using set-square.
This is the shortest distance between two skew lines.
4. Analytically, find the equation of line joining P (2, 2, 0) and Q (7, 6, 0) and
other line joining R (1, 6, 2) and S (6, 2, 4) and find S.D. using

( )( )








a2 – a1 ⋅ b1 × b2
 . The distance obtained in two cases will be the same.
b1 × b2
OBSERVATION
1. Coordinates of point P are ________.
2. Coordinates of point Q are ________.
3. Coordinates of point R are ________.
4. Coordinates of point S are ________.
5. Equation of line PQ is ________.
6. Equation of line RS is ________.

Shortest distance between PQ and RS analytically = ________.

Shortest distance by actual measurement = ________.

The results so obtained are ________.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the concept of skew lines and of shortest
distance between two lines in space.

Mathematics 173
Activity10
27
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To explain the computation of A piece of plywood, white paper
conditional probability of a given pen/pencil, scale, a pair of dice.
event A, when event B has already
occurred, through an example of
throwing a pair of dice.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a white paper on a piece of plywood of a convenient size.
2. Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares of size 1cm each
(see Fig. 27).
3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure.

Fig. 27
DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A ∩ B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36
taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A ∩ Β) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A ∩ B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : _________, n (A) = _________.
2. Outcomes favourable to B : _________, n (B) = _________.
3. Outcomes favourable to A ∩ B : _________, n (A ∩ B) = _________.
4. P (A ∩ B) = _________.
5. P (A | B) = _________ = _________.

APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.

Mathematics 175