Journal of Applied Animal Research

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Drought vulnerability and impacts of climate

change on livestock production and productivity in
different agro-Ecological zones of Ethiopia

Girma Asefa Bogale & Zelalem Bekeko Erena

To cite this article: Girma Asefa Bogale & Zelalem Bekeko Erena (2022) Drought vulnerability
and impacts of climate change on livestock production and productivity in different agro-
Ecological zones of Ethiopia, Journal of Applied Animal Research, 50:1, 471-489, DOI:
10.1080/09712119.2022.2103563

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2022.2103563

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JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH
2022, VOL. 50, NO. 1, 471–489
https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2022.2103563

REVIEW

Drought vulnerability and impacts of climate change on livestock production and

productivity in different agro-Ecological zones of Ethiopia
a b
Girma Asefa Bogale and Zelalem Bekeko Erena
a
School of Natural Resource Management and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Haramaya UniversityDire
Dawa, Ethiopia; bSchool of Plant Sciences, Dean College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Haramaya UniversityDire Dawa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Drought is a complicated natural hazard that has far-reaching social and environmental impacts. In Received 22 February 2022
Ethiopia’s diverse agro ecological zones, drought remains a severe challenge and problem. Livestock Accepted 14 July 2022
rising is one of the agricultural sub-sectors that provide income and livelihood to around one-third of
KEYWORDS
African inhabitants and accounts for 30–50 percent of agricultural GDP. Pastoralists on the Ethiopia- Adaptation; climate change;
Kenya-Somalia border endured extreme suffering, including the loss of nearly 80% of their cattle and drought; GDP; livestock;
huge migration out of drought-stricken areas. Drought can cause severe economic hardship and stress mitigation; pastoralism
for farmers and local economies, like; lost productivity, population reduction, and the trauma of
witnessing livestock, crops, soil, and native vegetation damage. Between 1990 and 2000, and 2001-
2002/03, drought-related animal death rates in the Somali region increased by 60% and 80% of the
entire cattle population, respectively. Drought has the greatest immediate effects on farmers,
including depletion of water resources, crop failure, and an increase in food prices, ill health, livestock
output losses and death, and a decline in livestock prices in the Borana zone. Drought adaptation and
mitigation measures depending on geography and livestock system may improve the study’s
trajectory in the future if further review is done.

1. Introduction
negative impact on livestock production at a time when it is
The global climate change is therefore considered a key policy most needed (Thornton 2010).
issue of policymakers in this century, as it affects social well- Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which result in atmos-
being, problems in economic development and improvements pheric warming, are the primary cause of global climate
in the atmosphere (Mikayilov et al. 2018). Climate change has change (IPCC 2013b). According to Gerber et al. (2013), the
been triggered by carbon dioxide emission which poses unpar- cattle sector generates 14.5 percent of global GHG emissions,
alleled threats to human existence and growth, such as which might lead to increased land degradation, air and
extreme weather, environmental invasion and scarcity of water pollution, and biodiversity loss (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Rey-
resources (Dong et al. 2019). Livestock has long been recog- nolds et al. 2010; Thornton and Gerber 2015; Bellarby et al.
nized as a particular problem due to climate change mitigation, 2013). Simultaneously, climate change will have an impact on
reducing farm pollution, and building more productive food livestock production due to competition for natural resources,
systems and security (Ripple et al. 2014; Vermeulen et al. feed quantity and quality, livestock illnesses, heat stress, and
2012; Moore and Ghahramani 2013). Furthermore, livestock biodiversity loss, while demand for livestock products is antici-
farming has also been alleged to further stimulate the emis- pated to increase by 100% by the mid-twentieth century
sions of GHG into the global atmosphere (Sakadevan and (Garnett 2009). As a result, maintaining a balance between pro-
Nguyen 2017; Wei et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2019). ductivity, family food security, and environmental preservation
Livestock products account for 17% of world calorie con- is a challenge (Wright et al. 2012).
sumption and 33% of global protein consumption, making Following that, the devastating effects of climate change
them an important agricultural commodity for global food have been noticed in diverse ways among the livelihood
security (Rosegrant et al. 2009). Furthermore, the livestock options of pastoral and agro-pastoral populations in East
sector contributes to the livelihoods of one billion of the Africa for many years (Tsegaye et al. 2010). Although livestock
world’s poorest people and employs nearly 1.1 billion people and crop productivity are entirely dependent on land suit-
(Hurst et al. 2005). There is an increasing demand for livestock ability, land degradation caused by human, drought, and
products, which has been dubbed the ‘livestock revolution’ climate factors is clearly visible in terms of loss of livelihood
because of its rapid rise in emerging countries (Thornton sources, biodiversity, and desertification expansion (Adger
2010; Wright et al. 2012). Climate change, competition for et al. 2000; Prince 2002; Stringer et al. 2009). These have
land and water, and food security are all expected to have a impaired the adaptive capacity of pastoralists and agro-

CONTACT Girma Asefa [email protected] School of Natural Resource Management and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, Haramaya University, 138 Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, dis-
tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
472 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

pastoralists, who are primarily concentrated in East Africa’s dry- population growth, farm revenue, and farmer skills (Washing-
land regions (Sandford 2006). Moreover, traditional adaptation ton and Dawning 1999).
strategies such as livestock mobility, diversification, feed pro- Climate change:- Climate change is defined as a major and
curement, and animal restocking, particularly in Ethiopia, long-term (decades or more) shift in climatic conditions. It’s a
have proven ineffective in meeting their livelihood needs dramatic change in the atmosphere’s mean state and event fre-
(Wassie and Fekadu 2014; Kima et al. 2015). This necessitates quency. The impact of climate change on cattle diseases is
a thorough examination into how numerous coexisting determined by geographic region, land use type, disease
elements influence pastoral and agro-pastoral communities’ characteristics, and animal susceptibility (Thornton et al.
adaptive capabilities across climatic zones (Adger et al., 2009). 2009). Climate change, particularly rising temperatures, can
In Eastern and Western Africa, climate extremes are having a have a direct or indirect impact on animal health (Nardone
substantial impact on livestock productivity. Droughts are et al. 2010). The direct impacts are linked to rising tempera-
becoming more frequent and intense, and changes in water tures, which raise the risk of sickness and death.
availability, as well as increasing patterns of temperature and Climate change manifestations such as rising temperatures,
rainfall variability, are all endangering drought-prone commu- increased irregular rainfall, frequent and severe floods, and
nities’ livelihoods and the existence of arid and semi-arid iso- droughts have substantial effects for smallholder farming com-
lated regions (Palombi and Sessa 2013; Ulrichs et al. 2019). munities’ livelihood security, making them more vulnerable
Livestock raising is one of the agricultural sub-sectors that pro- and difficult to live with. In many African countries, agriculture
vides income and livelihood to around one-third of African is critical to rural populations’ survival (Gizachew and Shimelis
inhabitants and accounts for 30–50 percent of agricultural 2014).
GDP (AU-IBAR 2016). In most pastoral and agro-pastoral com- Climate variability:- Beyond specific weather events,
munities, livestock is the poor’s most valuable asset, despite climate variability is defined as variations in the mean state
the sector’s vulnerability to extreme weather (Fereja 2016). and other statistics of the climate on all temporal and spatial
Ethiopia is home to Africa’s largest livestock population, and scales. When compared against long-term statistics for the
it is the continent’s top livestock producer and exporter. The same calendar period, it is frequently used to denote variances
recent livestock population of Ethiopia estimates that the in climatic statistics over a certain period of time (month,
country has about 57.83 million cattle, 28.89 million sheep, season, or year). The El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an
29.70 million goats, 2.08 million horses,7.88 million donkeys, example of climate variability caused by interactions between
60.51 million poultry, 5.92 million beehive, 0.41 million mules the ocean and the atmosphere. In Ethiopia, there is a strong
and about 1.23 million camels (CSA 2016). The pastoral areas link between climate and agricultural production in terms of
on the Ethiopia-KenyaSomalia border faced abject hardships, timing, variability, seasonal and annual rainfall, and tempera-
including loss of about 80 percent of their livestock and mass ture. Higher temperatures and shifting rainfall levels as a
migration of pastoralists out of drought-affected areas (FAO result of climate change, according to Mintewab et al. (2010),
2011; Headey et al. 2012). During the rainy season, pastures would significantly reduce agricultural production in several
are more plentiful and of greater nutritional quality, but dry and semi-arid portions of Ethiopia in the next decades.
during the dry season, pastures are of lower nutritional Weather and Precipitation: Rainfall, snowfall, and other
quality, with high fibre and low protein content, resulting in types of frozen or liquid water falling from clouds are referred
decreased animal productivity (Abebe 2017). Therefore, the to as precipitation. Precipitation forms when water vapour con-
overall objective of this review was to examine the current denses, which normally happens in rising air that expands and
drought susceptibility and climate change implications on live- cools. Weather refers to the day-to-day changes in the atmos-
stock output and productivity in Ethiopia’s various agro-eco- phere, as well as the description of the atmospheric conditions
logical zones. at a specific point in time for a single event. The atmosphere,
daily air temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed, and pre-
cipitation are all described by weather, which is a short-term
2. Impacts of drought on agropastoralist occurrence (IPCC 2008; WMO 2007).
production in Ethiopia Drought is one of the components of weather climate
extremes, and it occurs when natural water supply is lower
2.1 . Some concepts and definitions of key terms
than normal, resulting in water-related difficulties. Streamflows
Climate:- Climate refers to the average of meteorological par- plummet, water levels in lakes and reservoirs fall, and the depth
ameters over a period of time, usually 30 years in a certain to water in wells increases when rainfall is less than average for
location. Climate measures primarily consist of estimates of weeks to years. Drought is a complicated and recurring natural
average weather parameter values and measures of variability hazard that can have major negative consequences for agricul-
close to the average value. Most of the time, these important ture, business, the environment, and people’s lives (Gan et al.
values are surface factors like temperature, precipitation, and 2016; Cammalleri et al. 2017). Drought is predicted to
wind. Climate patterns have a significant impact on natural eco- become more common and severe in many parts of the
systems, human economy, and civilizations that rely on them. world in the twenty-first century as a result of climate change
Climate change has an impact on a wide range of agricultural (Spinoni et al. 2018a, 2018b; IPCC 2014). It is more necessary
activities, outputs, and input resources such as yields, animal than ever to gain a better knowledge of the drought phenom-
production, land quality, on-farm storage, water supplies, ena, particularly the physical mechanisms that contribute to
labour migration rates between urban and rural areas, drought, its propagation through the hydrological cycle,
 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 473

societal and environmental vulnerability to drought, and its of moisture in the atmosphere (meteorological droughts).
wide-ranging repercussions. Drought is defined as a lack of pre- They spread via hydrologic systems, causing water supply
cipitation induced by a variety of natural factors such as global shortages (hydrologic droughts). Droughts in agriculture and
climatic variability and high pressure, which results in reduced hydrology are influenced not just by rainfall, but also by
relative humidity and less precipitation. other processes including plant water intake (evapotranspira-
Drought is unquestionably one of the most difficult and tion). Due to lesser humidity, rainfall deficiencies tend to
complex natural calamities to manage (Sivakumar 2014; Van result in warmer temperatures. Droughts have an impact on a
and Anne 2015). It was a result of the climate, and it impacted variety of other hydrologic processes, including exfiltration
many countries throughout the world, including Ethiopia and and stream baseflow. To gain a better knowledge of droughts,
the Horn of Africa, as well as many other Sub-Saharan African it is vital to analyze droughts using several indicators calculated
countries (Gutierrez et al., 2014). Dracup et al. (1980) found over different time periods (Karamouz et al. 2009; Ziese et al.
that droughts are caused by changes in precipitation (meteor- 2014).
ological), stream flow (hydrological), soil moisture (agricultural), Agricultural droughts occur when crops are harmed, and
or any combination of these factors. this drought occurs more frequently than meteorological
droughts, but the time interval between the two droughts is
determined by the crop stage (Heim 2002). When the soil
2.2. Drought types
moisture availability to plants drops to the point that it signifi-
Ethiopia’s government has adopted a national drought strategy cantly impacts crop yield and thus agricultural profitability, an
(FDRE 2015), which calls for local stakeholder-driven drought agricultural drought is declared. In a nutshell, agricultural
contingency planning to promote long-term water resource drought refers to soil moisture deficit as a result of meteorolo-
management (Megersa et al. 2014). Droughts can be grouped gical droughts and climatic conditions, as well as the effects of
into four types, according to Figure 1: meteorological, hydrolo- these factors on agricultural production and profitability. The
gical, agricultural, and socioeconomic (Heim 2002). basis for evaluating agricultural drought factors is a soil water
Meteorological droughts (MDs); are water shortages time series.
induced by a difference in precipitation and evaporation; pre- Socioeconomic drought; because local reservoirs play a vital
cipitation is often employed in MD analyses (Chang 1991; role in enhancing water supply and coping with extreme
Eltahir 1992). Droughts in the weather have the potential to climate, it is reasonable to assess socioeconomic drought
affect agricultural productivity by reducing the availability of based on reservoir activities. Droughts can also have serious
soil moisture (agricultural droughts). consequences for rural regions’ socio-economic well-being
Hydrological droughts (HDs) occur when surface and sub- (socio-economic droughts) (Linke et al. 2015). Drought can
surface water resources are insufficient for established water have a significant economic impact on farmers and the local
uses in a specific water resource management system. Strea- economy (Diersen et al. 2002, Horridge et al. 2005, Edwards
mflow data is commonly used in HD analysis (Dracup et al. et al. 2009). The broader societal repercussions of drought, on
1980; Chang 1991). Droughts are generally caused by a lack the other hand, have gotten far less attention (Fritze et al.

Figure 1. The occurrence of different types of droughts and their effects on the ecosystem.
474 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

2008). Drought has a number of social effects, including indir- Hausken 2004; Mersha and van Laerhoven 2018). Water
ect effects of economic factors such as the hardship and supplies in both man-made and natural water bodies are
stress of lost productivity; population decline; social disruption rapidly dwindling, affecting the availability of water for irriga-
as a result of the negative economic effects of drought; and the tion and electricity generation, as well as the economy. When
trauma of witnessing damage to livestock, crops, soil, and groundwater is polluted with toxic chemical compounds
native vegetation (Berry et al. 2008). through human activities it can become unsuitable for
several years (Akhila et al. 2007). The residence time of chemical
pollutants can be retained in the groundwater system for
2.3. Drought’s causes, effects, and consequences
weeks to months, years, and decades (Singh et al. 2019).
Drought has impacted nearly every sector in Ethiopia in the Hydrological drought (Van and Anne 2015) is a term used to
past, including agriculture (loss of crops and livestock), water describe a decrease in lake levels, low river/stream flows, and a
resources (increased evaporation and decreased availability of decrease in ground water levels. The degradation of water
fresh water, resulting in water stress), insufficient water for resources is a much-studied phenomenon and can be caused
industry, reduced electricity production (from hydropower), by natural processes (climate change, water-rock interactions,
and so on. The impact on ecosystems is enormous, despite and geological factors) and human activity (agriculture prac-
the fact that it has not been fully examined and documented tices and urban waste), as well as the presence of considerable
(loss of wet lands and lakes, loss of forest and soil cover, chemical compounds since the industrial revolution (Nagaraju
increased soil erosion and land degradation, etc.). Increased et al. 2016). In addition, the physicochemical and biological
human and livestock diseases, migration, and water disputes, characteristics, as well as quality, quantity and availability of
as well as a drop in the national gross domestic product water resources, fluctuate because of the impact of natural
(GDP) are all significant social and economic consequences. and human activities (Akhtar et al. 2021). The pollutant types,
Perhaps nowhere is the impact of changing weather pathways, and sources, as well as how they influence the
(drought) and climate regimes more visible than in the water surface water and groundwater systems based on natural
sector (Kundzewicz et al., 2007 in Gutierrez et al., 2014), sources and anthropogenic activities, are shown in Figure 2.
which has a substantial impact on all other sectors as a result
of the meteorological drought (Van Dijk et al. 2013). 2.3.3. Socio economic impact
In particular Ethiopian hotspot locations, there is a substantial
2.3.1. Crop and livestock damage drought potential analysis and assessment of social, economic,
Farmers’ perceptions of drought in Ethiopia are based on the and environmental repercussions (Mesfin 1984; Pankhurst
failure of seasonal rainfall (June to September) and, as a 1986; Degene 1990). Four severe droughts were identified as
result, crop and livestock losses (elsewhere it is recognized as a result of the study: I the devastation of oXen by render pest
agricultural drought). The livestock sector is one of Tanzania’s in 1888–1892, (ii) the Tigray famine of 1958, which killed over
most important economic sectors that would be badly 100,000 people, (iii) the Wag Lasta famine of 1966, and (iv)
damaged by climate change if no major measures are done the Wollo Famine of 1973–74. Over the years, these droughts
to mitigate its negative effects (MLDF 2015). Seasonal rainfall impacted a vast number of people. Between 1972 and 2002/
failure (meteorological drought) is mostly caused by climate 3, the number increased dramatically, from 2 million to 14
variability, and its consequences include widespread failure of million, with significant increases in 1976-1977, 1982–1984,
seasonal crops, pasture, and forage, as well as significant live- and 1991–2002.
stock deaths in pastoralist areas, as well as widespread star- As seen in Table 1, drought affected over 10 million people
vation among the affected population. A population of (10%) in 2016, making it the worst drought in the preceding
roughly 10 million people (10%) became hungry as a result of fifty years (USGS 2016). The amount of persons in need of
the 2015 drought (estimate based on the number of people food assistance varied by region; the Tigray, Afar, and Somali
requiring food aid). In Ethiopia, the impact on agriculture regions were particularly heavily struck, with 24, 25, and 21
always results in significant human and cattle loss. Changes percent of the population affected, respectively. Oromya
in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures are predicted to required the most food aid, followed by Amhara and Tigray.
have severe negative implications on the environment and More areas in the Afar and Somali regions were affected in
water resources, crops and livestock, human health, and terms of large geographic coverage. The drought, which devas-
other rural livelihoods in Ethiopia, according to vulnerability tated about half of the animals in the region, had a greater
evaluations (Deressa 2006). impact on children, particularly in pastoralist areas.

2.3.2. Impact on the environment and water resources

2.4. The impact of climate change on Ethiopian
Ethiopia is largely rural, with a huge population dependent on
livestock production
agriculture and pastoral activities, although surface water and
groundwater supplies for irrigation have been underdeveloped Ethiopia is situated between 30 and 150 degrees north latitude
(Ewonetu 2012). Dryland farming is common in Ethiopia, and 330 and 480 degrees east latitude (Figure 3). The climate in
accounting for more than two-thirds of the country’s total agri- Ethiopia is typically tropical in the southeastern and northeast-
cultural land (MoA 2011). Ethiopia has been plagued by ern lowlands, but significantly cooler in the country’s vast
droughts on a regular basis, and they are a major climatic central highlands. In high altitude locations, mean annual
danger that threatens the country’s long-term viability (Meze- temperatures are around 15°C, whereas in the lowlands, they
 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 475

Figure 2. Schematic diagram illustrates water contamination due to natural sources (droughts and floods) and anthropogenic sources (industrial, agriculture, and
urban activities), their pathways, receptors, and other types of pollution (Sasakova et al. 2018)

are around 25°C (McSweeney et al. 2007). Furthermore, the temperatures in Ethiopia over the next century, as well as a
mean annual rainfall distribution contains maxima (>2000 rise in rainfall variability and the frequency of both major
mm) in the southwest and minima (300 mm) in the south flooding and droughts (Robinson et al. 2013). Although the
northeast lowlands (Ofgeha and Abshire 2021). By 2050, direct effects of heat stress on livestock have not been
global annual average temperature is expected to be 2°C studied extensively, warming is expected to alter the feed
higher than pre-industrial levels (IPCC 2007). Droughts, intake, mortality, growth, reproduction, maintenance, and pro-
floods, heat waves, and other extreme weather phenomena duction of animals. Collectively, these effects are expected to
will become more common and intense as the planet warms have a negative impact on livestock productivity (Thornton
by 2 degrees Celsius. As a result of global warming, climate et al. 2009).
model projections suggest a large increase in mean
2.4.1. Resources for livestock
The production of beef cattle, dairy cattle, goats, sheep, and
Table 1. Number of people receiving food aid (FORTUNE, 2016) chickens contributes for around 30% of the total value of agri-
Number of people cultural production in Africa, with 92 percent of that coming
Regions January June Percentage from beef cattle, dairy cattle, goats, sheep, and chickens
Tigray 2.3 2.3 24% (IFAD 2009; IUCN 2010). The growth of the human population,
Afar 0.4 0.4 25% rising living standards (increased demand for animal products
Amhara 2.3 2.3 11%
Oromia 3.8 3.8 11%
as earnings rise), and urbanization are all driving up livestock
SNNP 0.8 0.8 4% output in Africa (Philip et al. 2007; IUCN 2010). Ethiopia is
Somali 1.6 1.2 21% Africa’s greatest livestock producer and exporter, with the con-
Ben-Gumuz 0.079 – 8%
Gambella 0.043 – 10%
tinent’s highest cattle population. Although domestic demand
Dire Dawa 0.057 0.057 for animal products is growing in Ethiopia, driven by the urban
Harari 0.014 0.014 middle and upper classes, export potential is the driving factor
Total 11.314 10.871
behind livestock expansion and intensification (MacDonald and
476 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

Figure 3. Geographical location of Ethiopia which are highly affected by drought force

Simon 2011). The cattle industry is an important aspect of the be changed, and greater temperatures may have direct conse-
country’s farming systems. In both the highlands and low- quences on livestock. Climate change is projected to have the
lands/pastoral farming systems, it is the source of numerous greatest impact on vulnerable pastoral communities who rely
social and economic goods such as food, draught power, on huge livestock production systems in arid environments
fuel, monetary income, security, and investment (FDRE 2001). (Saidu and Omedo 2010).
Ethiopia has roughly 52.1 million cattle, 24.2 million sheep,
22.6 million goats, and 44.9 million fowl, according to a
recent livestock population estimate (FDRE 2001; Berihu et al. 2.4.3. Indigenous mechanisms of weather forecasting
2014). Pastoralists have long relied on traditional methods to predict
seasonal climate occurrences. Reading of animal behaviours
and body conditions is indigenously believed among the
2.4.2. Climate change’s impact on cattle production Borena that specific body conditions and behaviours of
Climate change and cattle are inextricably linked (Iqubal 2013). animals during resource abundant time give clues about the
The pattern and availability of rainfall have a huge impact on future weather. To the contrary, the following cattle body con-
the spatial distribution and availability of pasture and water ditions and behaviours are regarded as signs of a normal rainy
(Aklilu et al. 2013). Changes in rainfall patterns and temperature season. They lick each other’s body, wander around villages in
ranges also have an impact on feed availability, grazing ranges, search of bone to eat, they display a relaxed mood and get
feed quality, weed, pest, and disease incidence (Coffey 2008). away from water points after drinking. They show normal
As a result, environmental parameters like temperature, pre- sexual desire and the bull visits many cows within a short
cipitation, and the frequency and intensity of extreme occur- period of time. A study report in Kenya reveals that some of
rences like droughts had a direct impact on cattle output these body conditions are interpreted similarly but disagrees
(Adams et al. 1998). Climate change affects animal productivity that cattle fight over food in view of a future of drought (Sper-
in two ways, according to Coffey (2008). Similarly, Adams et al. anza et al. 2010). The knowledge of such elders is still
(1998) found that climate change can influence livestock in two highly valued in Ethiopian pastoralist communities
ways: the quality and quantity of fodder from grasslands may (Gebremichael and Kifle 2009). Traditional methods of
 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 477

predicting climate events, on the other hand, are seen as absorbed about 30% of the CO2 released from human activities,
becoming less reliable as climate variability increases. This causing a measurable increase in the acidity of the oceans.
‘raises the question of whether external, meteorology-based Warming caused by humans in the western Pacific Ocean is
climate forecasts could better assist pastoralists in conserving exacerbating the problem. The impacts may be severe, and tro-
cattle wealth and contributing to the sustainable use of pical countries in particular face temperature increases,
natural resources (Luseno et al. 2003).’ changes in precipitation patterns, increased heavy rainfall
The primary warning is critical for early animal sales to avoid from tropical cyclones and sea-level rise, which may have cata-
livestock losses, grain purchases before price increases, and strophic impacts for low-lying Pacific nations (IPCC 2014). The
alternative options research before households are hit by fast warming of the west Pacific as a result of global emissions
food shortages (Gebremichael and Kifle 2009). On the other has resulted in greater rain around Indonesia and worrying but
side, wealth in pastoralist societies is seen to be influenced expected rainfall shortfalls in desert, food-insecure eastern
by the amount of cattle held, and livestock sales are thought Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia (Figure 4).
to lower household wealth. As a result, selling livestock Drought is a typical occurrence throughout the Borana
ahead to a projected drought is not a popular practice zone’s lowlands, however its impact varies by region.
among Ethiopian pastoralists. According to a research by Pan- However, the focus of this research was on the 13 districts in
tuliano and Mike (2008), efficient EWS allows for early detection the Borana zone that were severely damaged. As a result, the
of food insecurity during drought. Yabello and Dirre districts of Borana zone were specifically
chosen based on the severity of drought effects reported by
Borana zone (Figure 5).
2.5. Drought management for livestock
Many people working on drought relief in pastoral areas of East 2.6.1. Drought’s effects on cattle production
and Central Africa agree on the importance of timely and suit- Droughts, combined with cattle recovery times, have had a sig-
able interventions to save cattle during droughts (ECA). Pastor- nificant impact on livestock size and composition. Cattle, in par-
alists use a variety of coping and adaptation tactics to protect ticular, are the most vulnerable livestock species in the Borana
livestock assets during droughts, including transferring zone. According to the findings, around 68 percent of the live-
animals to places with better fodder and water, selling some stock killed throughout the study were cattle. On the other
animals, separating or trading herds, and changing the hand, within a decade, the maximum size of animals in the
species makeup of herds over time (Morton et al. 2001). Pastor- research area was lowered by 315 percent (Figure 6). As a
alists’ animals are a valuable asset, and livestock losses due to result, the number of households without animals is growing,
drought have a detrimental influence on pastoral livelihood forcing them to look for alternate sources of income, mainly
strategies by reducing milk production, reducing revenue crop cultivation. Droughts can last for several years, but even
from livestock sales, and reducing the asset value of cattle a brief, severe drought can cause significant animal feed degra-
that die. Furthermore, during the current drought in Kenya in dation (IVM 2009).
2008-9, certain districts reported fatality rates of above 50% In contrast, despite the continuous destruction effect of
(Zwaagstra et al. 2010). As a result, various academics pushed drought, the proportion of goats to other livestock was increas-
for the establishment of Drought Cycle Management (DCM) ing. It is undeniable that goat populations are on the rise as a
and the more modern Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) principles result of their high reproduction frequency, drought resistance,
(IIRR 2004; ISDR 2009). Drought is a threat that is constantly low feeding costs, low purchasing costs, and easy manage-
present in the dry plains of East and Central Africa, according ment, particularly during feed shortages. Drought can strike
to these two frameworks (ECA). anywhere on the planet, but the consequences are less
severe in Africa, notably in Ethiopia, due to a lack of adaptive
capacity. Droughts have caused massive loss of life and prop-
2.6. Drought impacts and adaptation strategies in
erty in the past, as well as mass displacement of people
Borana zone, southern Ethiopia
(NAPA 2007). Similarly, as shown in Figure 6, the investigation
Ethiopia is frequently mentioned as a prospective cattle revealed that even the maximum size of cattle is decreasing
resource country (Shapiro et al. 2015). This resource is an with time over a decade.
important aspect of the agricultural system and a source of
income for a large number of rural and semi-urban residents. 2.6.2. Effect of climate change on livestock production in
However, as drought length, intensity, and coverage have Borana zone
increased in tandem with irregular, highly intensive, and Drought-related livestock losses are particularly significant
short-duration rainfall, traditional coping techniques have among certain species, ages, and sex groups of livestock
become increasingly constrained (Skinner 2010). Every few (Desta and Coppock 2004). Pastoralists in the Borana area
years, it’s heartbreaking to witness the same tragedy: a said climate change had an impact on their livelihoods
weather cycle that brings terrible drought and hunger to east through a variety of ways (Table 2). The four principal effects
Africa, putting millions of people’s lives and livelihoods at jeo- of climate change on livestock production, as highlighted by
pardy. The weather cycle that is causing these incidents is a ‘La pastoralists during the group discussion, are feed shortage,
Niña’. that has been exacerbated by climate change. ‘La Niña’ is water shortage, reduced productivity, and decreased mature
caused by a drop in ocean temperatures in the eastern Pacific, weight and/or longer time to achieve mature weight, in that
resulting in dry spells across eastern Africa. The ocean has order.
478 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

Figure 4. The severity of the drought affecting the livestock of Borana zone in October 2022

Figure 5. Borana zone is located in Ethiopia’s southern region

 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 479

Figure 6. The status of livestock composition in a decade

Pastoralists in Ethiopia, in general, and in the Borana plateau 2.6.4. Adaptive strategies for livestock and water
in particular, have the highest rate of poverty and the least Reduced livestock size, livestock movement, livestock and live-
access to basic amenities when compared to other groups, lihood diversification are all examples of livestock-related
and they are also among the most vulnerable to climate coping methods. Approximately 33% of respondent homes
change (Oxfam 2008). Cattle, in general, are the most used this method during the survey. Despite the fact that live-
affected livestock type during severe droughts because they stock remains the most important component of Borana liveli-
require more input than other livestock species. Due to their hood, the poll found that pastoralists want to reduce their
drought tolerance, prolific nature, and adaptation of their phys- livestock size and even diversify to drought-resistant cattle
iological make-up, small ruminant m ortality rates were lower kinds. Herd mobility is one of the long-standing livestock-
than cattle. According to field statistics, shoats accounted for related coping methods, which is influenced by the season
just about 11% of total livestock deaths during the field and feed availability, as well as personal relationships, family
study. Furthermore, camels had the lowest death rate, at only structure, and immediate needs for water and pasture. Further-
2%, demonstrating their higher tolerance. From highest to more, drought is a big contributing element that affects cattle,
lowest, the major vulnerability rank can be associated with since some herders will sell their livestock during a drought,
cattle, sheep, goat, and camel, as shown in Table 3. Camel is disease can alter market pricing, and if food aid is made avail-
the least drought-prone livestock due to its ability to adapt able, grain prices may be distorted (Morton et al. 2001).
to extreme conditions. Furthermore, a water resource is a critical resource that is
impacted by severe drought and can be used to construct a
water harvesting plan, such as a deep well or shallow pond,
2.6.3. Drought-relief tactics to collect rainwater for human and livestock consumption.
Coping techniques refer to strategies that have evolved over Drought’s qualities, as well as its wide-ranging consequences,
time as a result of people’s extensive experience dealing with make its effects on society, the economy, and the environment
the known and understood natural fluctuation that they difficult to detect and quantify (Wilhite et al. 2000). However, in
expect in seasons, as well as their unique responses to the comparison to ten years ago, the average distance to the water
season as it unfolds (Cooper et al. 2008). Through their experi- has decreased for both animals and humans due to aggressive
ence, pastoralists in southern Ethiopia have devised numerous water development to address severe water shortages. Increas-
alternative coping techniques to combat the suffering effect of ing frequency and intensity of droughts; changes in water avail-
drought. However, the increased frequency of droughts threa- ability; increasing patterns of temperature and rainfall
tens to overwhelm the pastoralists’ coping methods and resili- variability, all are profoundly threatening livelihoods of
ence (Stark and Ejigu 2011). Weather, livestock, rangeland, and drought-prone areas, and the existence of arid and semi-arid
water-related techniques are presented in the following part to remote regions (Palombi and Sessa 2013; Ulrichs et al. 2019).
help with the discussion of coping strategies depending on To address water-related issues, a coordinated effort is
diverse natural and environmental variables. needed to develop adequate potable water or a water
healing, restorative, or recovery system. (Figure 7).

Table 2. Major effects of climate on livestock production ranked by pastoralists Table 3. During the recent drought season, livestock died
(Yilma et al. 2009) Livestock type N Maximum (TLV) Mean (TLV) Std.Deviation
Major effects Rank Cattle 84 94.5 8.323 21.68
Feed shortage 1st Camel 67 3 0.18 0.6
Shortage of water 2nd Sheep 78 7 0.501 11.5
Reduced productivity 2nd Goat 82 7.8 0.501 12.54
Decreased mature weight and/or longer time to reach mature weight 4th Donkey 73 5 0.235 1.56
More conflict 4th Mule 72 21 1.106 5.18
Increased disease prevalence 6th Total 199 138.3 10.846 –
Increased mortality 7th TLV;-Total livestock vulnerability
480 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

Figure 7. Severe drought, water development and consumption

2.7. Gender participation in drought pastoralist to a lesser level in other parts of the nation (World Bank 2002;
surviving mechanisms in Ethiopia’s eastern region Mulu 2010).
Pastoralist drought response mechanisms are marginalized
Pastoral areas of Ethiopia, which are defined as arid and semi-
by increasing land degradation, conflicts over scarce resources,
arid rangelands, cover more than 62 percent of the country’s
limited access to information, limited education, skills, and
land mass and keep over eleven million heads of livestock (Kas-
access to financial services, markets required to diversify liveli-
sahun et al. 2008). Pastoralism employs roughly 27 percent of
hoods, inadequate government policies, and population press-
the entire national population, contributes about 30 percent
ures, according to Riché et al. (2009) and Kassa et al. (2005).
of the gross national product, and generates 90 percent of
These are similar in the Shinile District of Somali pastoralist
the hard cash from live animal exports, according to Kassahun
region, the research area, which is one of the poorest districts
et al. (2008). As seen in Figure 8, Ethiopia’s Somali and Har-
in Somali pastoralist region, characterized by low household
arghe, Fentale (kereyu Oromo), and Afar Regional States are
livestock ownership compared to other Somali pastoralist
primary pastoral habitats, with pastoralism also being practiced

Figure 8. Drought has caused animal mortality in Ethiopia’s eastern region

 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 481

districts (Devereux 2006; Mulu 2010). The climate in Shinile dis-

trict is described as harsh, with frequent and severe droughts.
This district is particularly vulnerable to drought due to its
reliance on only one big rainy season and the extended inter-
vals between rains.

2.6. Drought in Ethiopia and its effects on pastoralist

communities
Drought is considered a common part of life in Ethiopia’s dry
and semi-arid regions, where rainfall is low during rainy
seasons and unusually low every few years. For example,
there were 15 droughts in these locations between 1978 and
1998 (Brown and Teshome 2007). Pastoralists’ livelihoods
have to be carefully adjusted to low and fluctuating rainfall
conditions (Devereux 2006). Drought-related animal mortality
rates in the Somali region increased by roughly 20%, 40%, Figure 9. In Ethiopia’s Magado Borana Zone, the Damte family is an example of
60%, and 80% of the total cattle population between 1930 drought
and 1970, 1970-1990,1990-2000, and 2001-2002/03, respect-
ively (SERP 1990). The problem is particularly acute in the coun- Damte family’s story illustrates. Livelihoods interventions,
try’s dry and semi-arid regions, which are primarily pastoral and such as livestock-related efforts (destocking) and water-
agro-pastoral (Gebremichael and Kifle 2009). Historically, pas- related interventions such as the construction and rehabilita-
toralists faced drought every 5–10 years (Lautze et al. 2003), tion of wells and boreholes, help pastoralists save lives while
but drought has been occuring every 1–2 years in recent years. also increasing their resilience. Strategic livelihoods initiatives
Furthermore, drought has been occuring every 1–2 years in pastoral communities have long been recognized for their
among the pastoral population of Borana, although it used to socioeconomic significance (Aklilu and Wekesa 2002).
occur every 6–8 years, as evidenced by the two significant For example, a study of a destocking intervention in Ethio-
droughts that affected the zone in 2006 and 2008 (Riché pia’s Moyale Woreda during the 2006 drought found a
et al. 2009). Furthermore, between 2007 and 2009, the two benefit–cost ratio of about 41:1 in terms of aid funding. Des-
Somali districts of Ayisha and Erer had only 15 and 4 days of tocking provided more than half – 52.4 percent – of the
rain, respectively. The worst years in terms of drought money for the programme’s households, which was used to
between these periods were 2007 and 2008, which resulted buy food and care for cattle. Figure 10, designed to cover a
in the death of a considerable number of animals (80 percent variety of household needs, help relatives, and either pay off
of cattle, 70 percent of sheep, 40 percent of camels and 30 debts or put money into savings, allowing households to
percent of goats). Similarly, pastoralists in the Afar region weather the drought without losing all of their assets
have been experiencing catastrophic droughts every 2–3 (Demeke 2006).
years since 1993 (DPPC 2002). More than 80% of the total live-
stock deaths in Ethiopia’s pastoral areas are due to drought
(Kassahun 2003). The effects of losing these animals vary
2.10. Drought effects and traditional drought
depending on the type of family and gender. Women-headed
mitigation strategies
poorer homes with less cattle and poorer households, for
example, are more sensitive to drought than others (Regassa Droughts on the Borana production system in southern Ethio-
et al. 2010). pia occurred in 1983–84 as a result of rainfall shortfalls over
four consecutive rainy seasons spanning two years. Drought
conditions are caused by a lack of adequate feed supplies,
2.9. Supporting livelihoods and appropriate funding to
resulting in poor physical condition, which weakens the
build resilience
immune system and makes the animal more susceptible to
The Damte family lives in Magado, Ethiopia’s Borana zone disease. Drought, insufficient water, heat, and insufficient
(Figure 9). The family’s 30 cattle, 25 sheep and goats had pro- feed resources are the principal climate stresses in dryland
vided a steady supply of milk and meat prior to the drought. environments, lowering livestock immunity and exposing
They also provided milk, skins, meat, and calves to the local animals to new diseases and vectors. The current study’s
market for sale (Saving Lives through Livelihoods 2006). findings echoed those of (Boru et al. 2014), who claimed that
Animals contributes for more than 90% of the local economy drought and land fragmentation contributed to animal
in the Borana zone, and the sale of livestock and livestock pro- deaths and a decline in the cattle population in the eastern
ducts generates more than 60% of household income. Due to Guji zone. Ethiopia has Africa’s largest livestock population
the drought, the Damtes were left with only two frail cows and is the tenth largest producer of livestock and livestock pro-
and one goat. ducts in the world (MacDonald and Simon 2011). Livestock and
Drought can have severe repercussions on the lives and live- livestock products account for around 10% of Ethiopia’s foreign
lihoods of millions of pastoralists in the Horn of Africa, as the currency revenues (Pantuliano and Wekesa 2008). Respondents
482 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

Figure 10. Funding appeals and contributions (Saving Lives through Livelihoods: Critical Gaps in the Response to the Drought in the Greater Horn of Africa, HPG
Briefing Note, 2006)

Table 4. Drivers for livestock decline in the study area (Matiwos et al. 2022)
Purpose Golba Dida
Frequency Index Rank Frequency Index Rank
Drought 54 (56.2) 0.429 1 53 (52.0) 0.406 1
Disease 39 (40.6) 0.323 2 44 (43.1) 0.361 2
shortage of grazing land 44 (45.8) 0.248 3 64 (62.7) 0.233 3

declared that the main drivers for livestock decline in the study diminishing rangeland quality and quantity. In the current
area is drought and drought-driven impacts (Table 4). drought, the number of breastfeeding animals required to
maintain a household could be as high as 10-20, compared
2.10.1. Mitigation of livestock-related risks to just one or two lactation animals forty years ago.
Cattle provide the majority of the diet and livelihood in Ethio-
pia’s Borana zone (Figure 11). If animal sources continue to 2.10.2. Mobility of the herd
provide the great majority of their calories, maintaining a The Borana wander with their livestock in search of water and
sufficiently big herd size will be critical to guaranteeing ade- pasture as nomadic pastoralists. Season and forage availability,
quate caloric intakes among the Borana. Although there is a as well as personal relationships, family structure, and current
move to non-traditional pastoralist livelihoods, livestock demands, all influence movement. Drought is the natural
remains the most important component of Borana livelihoods danger that affects the greatest number of people worldwide,
(Wassie et al. 2007). Although huge herds may signify economic wreaking havoc. Drought has the most direct effects on
and food security, animal well-being and herd mortality are farmers, including the drying up of water resources, crop
also linked to cattle herd size. Figure 11 shows how bigger failure, a rise in food prices, ill health, livestock output losses
herd sizes can increase herd mortality, especially under and death, and a drop in livestock prices (Udmale et al. 2014).
drought and stress situations (Lybbert et al. 2004). Milk As climate change has worsened, the Borana have changed
output has declined, according to elders, because to their migration patterns, including when, where, and for how

Figure 11. During the current drought, livestock deaths are on the rise
 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 483

Figure 12. Drought-affected pastoral and agro-pastoral areas in Afar districts on a map

long they travel. According to Dr. Roobaa Basaayyee, the chair- 2.12.2. Farmers’ perceptions of drought and its
man of the Borana Zone Livestock Development and Health socioeconomic consequences in Ethiopia’s Tigray and
Agency, cattle going from the south, where tsetse flies are Afar regions
scarce, to the north, where they are plentiful, could catch trypa- Climate change is real, and it is already happening. It will
nosomiasis, resulting in large livestock deaths (Yabello, July worsen in the future, with more negative consequences for
2011). rural poor communities in developing countries. Climate
change and catastrophic weather events have gotten a lot of
press in recent years (IPCC 2007). Furthermore, a recent IPCC
2.11. Drought and climate-related hazards have an
assessment (IPCC 2013a) stated that the climate system is
impact on livestock production in Ethiopia’s Afar and
clearly warming, and that many of the changes seen since
Tigray regions
the 1950s are unprecedented for periods ranging from
2.11.1. The effects of emergency livestock feeding on decades to millennia. Data on the economic effects of
livestock mortality in the Afar area drought is few, incomplete, unreliable, and dispersed. Addres-
FARM Africa, Save the Children-UK (SCUK), and CARE Ethiopia sing these issues could be critical in decreasing the socioeco-
examined the impact of an emergency livestock feed sup- nomic effects of drought, especially in Africa’s least
plementation programme in the Afar Region’s Amibara, Teru, developed countries (Brida et al. 2013; Debela et al. 2015).
and Abala districts (Figure 12). From March to June 2016, a cross-sectional examination of
The evaluated feed supplementation programme was the study was undertaken in three Tigray districts (Alamata,
created in response to the poor performance of both the Ofla, and Raya-azebo) and one Afar district (Aba’ala) (Figure
Sugum (short rains in March-April) and Kerma (long rains in 13). Drought-prone and desert regions include Tigray, which
July-September) rains in 2009. Drought is a severe and recur-
ring climate occurrence that affects the lives of millions of
people around the world, and it is considered the most Table 5. Drought-related mortality in Teru and Abala study herds was compared
serious natural disaster in terms of economic, social, and Livestock mortality
environmental consequences (Mniki 2009). This revealed a per location
Comparison Chi-square Teru Abala
severe lack of pasture and water in many parts of the region,
Teru vs. Abala:
as well as low trading terms. It also revealed that pasture and Cattle fed 26.3, p < 3.7% (6/164) 23.8% (31/130)
water constraints have caused lactating for cows to dry up 0.001
and browsers (goats and camels) to produce far less, putting Small ruminant fed 20.2, p < 3.3% (9/272) 18.2% (12/66)
0.001
the nutritional status of households, particularly offspring and Cattle not fed 26.3, p < 22.3% (105/471) 41.5% (86/207)
pregnant or lactating mothers, at risk. Tables 5 and 6 indicate 0.001
the impact of this livestock feeding intervention on cow and Small ruminant not 98.5, p < 10.2% (87/852) 42.6% (58/136)
fed 0.001
small ruminant mortality.
484 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

Table 6. Statistical analysis of mortality of 85,403, 126,889, and 135,870, respectively, according to the
Comparison Chi-square Percentage of animals died 2007 national population and housing census (CSA 2007).
Fed Not fed Farmers’ perceptions of drought and its effects found that
Amibara district least affected 96.2 percent believe drought is a natural disaster rather than
by drought: a man-made calamity. Furthermore, 77.5 percent of respon-
Cattle (n = 35 herds):
Animals supplementary fed vs. 5.5, ns 4.7% (18/379) 2.2%(16/731) dents have experienced drought, with 78.8, 17.5 percent, and
not 15% having experienced drought in 1983, 1989, and 2003,
respectively, in addition to the current drought (2015/2016).
Small ruminants (n: 11 flocks):
Animals supplementary fed vs. 0.9, ns 5.3% (7/131) 3.4% (9/265) In addition to the above drought years, the respondents men-
not tioned other drought years they had lived through. Droughts
were reported to occur more frequently than expected by
Teru district affected by
moderate 67.5 percent of research participants, while 56.25 percent of
drought: respondents predicted the commencement of drought.
Cattle (n = 30 herds): Droughts have substantial economic consequences because
Animals supplementary fed vs. 29.3, p < 3.7% (6/164) 22.3%(105/471)
not 0.001 they disrupt populations’ main economic activity (Antonio
et al. 2013).
Small ruminants (n: 30 flocks):
Animals supplementary fed vs. 12.6, p < 3.3%(9/272) 10.2%(87/852)
not 0.001
2.13. Effects of climate change on Ethiopian
Abala district affected by agriculture, livestock, and the economy
severe drought:
Cattle (n = 33 herds): The global economy and social progress are both threatened
Animals supplementary fed vs. 11.0, p < 23.8%(31/130) 41.5%(86/207) by climate change. Because their economies are primarily
not 0.002
dependent on climate-sensitive activities like rain-fed agricul-
Small ruminants (n = 7 flocks): ture, its effects would be disproportionately felt in Sub-
Animals supplementary fed vs. 11.7, p < 18.2%(12/66) 42.6%(58/136) Saharan African countries like Ethiopia. Agriculture accounts
not 0.002
for over 47% of Ethiopia’s GDP, and more than 70 million
ns: not significant
people (85% of the country’s population) rely on it directly or
indirectly for their livelihoods (MoFED 2013). As a result, any
is located in Ethiopia’s northern and hilly highlands, and Afar, impact on Ethiopia’s agricultural will have a huge impact on
which is located in Ethiopia’s northeastern region. The study the country’s economy. Climate change is expected to cause
districts were chosen for comparison of drought consequences periodic droughts and excessive rainfall in various parts of
in mid, highland, and lowland areas based on their previous his- Ethiopia, limiting the amount of land available for agriculture
tories. Alamata, Ofla, and Raya-azebo districts had populations and lowering crop output.

Figure 13. Tigray region in northern part Ethiopia’s is located in a drought-prone environment
 JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 485

2.14. Policy implications of the drought resistance of the total cattle population from 1930 to 1970, 1970–1990,
mechanism in livestock production 1990–2000, and 2001–2002/03. In terms of livestock manage-
ment, a quick response to the first failure of the long rains in
Drought policies based on the principle of risk reduction can
April 1983 was to adjust cattle allocation from a 71:29 ratio
change a country’s approach to drought management by low-
for home-based and satellite herds to a 34:66 ratio within
ering the negative consequences (risk). To address this
seven months.
problem, crops and livestock must be grown in livestock
The following recommendations were forwarded to cattle
systems that require less water or in areas where water is abun-
populations fleeing drought based on the introduction,
dant (Nardone et al. 2010). Furthermore, mitigation strategies
review of associated literature, and conclusion. Increased land
such as increasing nitrogen use efficiency, plant breeding and
degradation, conflicts over finite resources, restricted access
genetic modifications using organic fertilizers regular soil
to (knowledge, education, skills, and financial services), poor
testing, using technologically advanced fertilizers, and combin-
government policies, and population pressures are all impor-
ing legumes and grasses in pasture areas may help to reduce
tant obstacles for pastoralist drought response techniques.
GHG emissions in feed production (Denef et al. 2011, 2014).
There is still limited research regarding the impacts of climate
The national climate change strategy is broken down into
change on livestock production. Interactions between climate
three sub-documents (sub-strategies), each of which corre-
change and livestock production are still not well understood,
sponds to one of the three pillars of climate policy: a national
despite the amount of research performed. Governments
decarbonization roadmap for mitigation, a national adaptation
should pay attention to and support technical innovation, par-
strategy for adaptation, and a climate change partnership plan
ticularly in the area of forage reservation. In drought-prone
for raising awareness.
areas, pastoralists must be aware that drought incidence is
dependent on the season in order to protect their animals
from starvation, vector-borne disease, and tse-tse fly infesta-
3. Conclusion and recommendation
tion. During the season, the local community should establish
Drought has wreaked havoc on Ethiopia’s pastoral and agro- coping techniques for evacuating cattle from drought by tra-
pastoral communities’ cattle, water, and grazing lands, as well veling from place to place in the best climatic conditions and
as the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities’ socioeco- gaining access to feed. Finally, including climate data into the
nomics. Drought continues to be a serious challenge and existing application of adaptation and mitigation approaches
problem in several agro-ecological zones, particularly in Ethio- based on location and livestock system may improve the
pia’s southern, eastern, and northern regions, where cattle is study’s trajectory in the future.
dominating due to an abundance of range land. Climate
change, competition for natural resources, feed quality and
quantity, livestock illnesses, heat stress, and biodiversity loss
Declaration of competing interest
all have a negative impact on livestock output. Traditional The authors state that they have no known competing financial
adaptation measures in Ethiopia, such as livestock movement, interests or personal ties that may have influenced the work
diversification, feed procurement, and animal restocking, presented in this study.
have been insufficient to meet their livelihood needs.
Drought can occur in practically all climatic zones and is
caused by a lack of precipitation over a lengthy period of Data availability
time, usually a season or the long-term average condition in On the request of an online user, data will be made available.
a specific area. Ethiopia is Africa’s greatest livestock producer
and exporter, with the continent’s highest cattle population.
Climate change has a direct impact on cattle; the spatial dis- Funding statement
tribution and availability of pasture and water are highly This review article received no specific support from public,
dependent on rainfall patterns and availability. Changes in rain- commercial, or non-profit funding entities.
fall patterns and temperature ranges also have an impact on
feed availability, grazing ranges, feed quality, weed, pest, and
disease incidence. Climate change can influence livestock in Disclosure statement
two ways: the quality and quantity of feed from grasslands The authors declare no conflict of interest.
may be affected, as well as direct consequences on animals
owing to rising temperatures. Yabello and Dirre districts in
Borana zone were chosen since drought severity harmed ORCID
animals owing to a lack of quality and quantity water and Girma Asefa Bogale http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1295-5608
feed. In the Borana zone of southern Ethiopia, almost 65 Zelalem Bekeko Erena http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1441-6088
percent of cattle died, making them the most vulnerable
animal kind. Pastoralism employs roughly 27% of Ethiopia’s
Public interest statement
entire population, generates 30% of the country’s gross dom-
estic product, and generates 90% of the country’s hard cash Drought is one of the elements of weather and climate
from live animal exports. Drought-related animal death rates extremes, and it happens when the natural water supply is
in Somalia increased by a factor of 20, 40, 60, and 80 percent lower than usual, leading to problems with the availability of
486 G. ASEFA AND Z. BEKEKO

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Ethiopia.
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International Agricultural Research, Parliament House, Canberra,
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