Lecture 2

Wave Statistics and Energy Spectra

By Mike Johnson and Will Bateman
Who he ?

Michael Johnson PhD BSc(Hons) CPhys MInstP MRINA

Ship Performance Operability in Multi-

Model Testing
in Rough Weather directional Waves

RV Triton Seakeeping Trials Officer

Today’s topics

• How waves are measured Mike

• JONSWAP and PM spectra and how they are
formed Mike
• Significant wave height (Hs) and period Mike
• Mike
Directionality and its impact
• Linear Random Wave Theory Mike
• The New-Wave theory Will
• Fully nonlinear wave modelling and some
comparisons to Linear. Will
Sea State

• Met Office State of Sea card

Sea State
Terminology

• Long crested regular waves

• unidirectional

• Long crested random waves

• unidirectional
Terminology

• Short crested random waves

• multi-directional

• Much more realistic description of natural sea waves

• However it is useful to build up to this from a thorough description of long
crested regular and random waves
Wave superposition

WAVE 1
1

0 WAVE 1 + WAVE 2
2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1 1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
WAVE 2 -1
1
0.5 -2
0
-0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1 WAVE 1 + WAVE 2 + WAVE 3
2

WAVE 3 0
1 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.5 -1
0 -2
-0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1
2
WAVE 1 + WAVE 2 + WAVE 3 + WAVE 4

1
WAVE 4
1 0
0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1
0
-2
-0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1

:
:

4
WAVE 1 + WAVE 2 + … + WAVE 20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-1

-2

-3

-4

• Adding a number of waves creates a virtually random wave time history with a long
repeat period
Wave Superposition
 Random wave statistics

4
3
2
1
0
-1300 350 400 450 500 550 600

-2
-3
TIME →
-4

• Can analyse for

• Peak/trough amplitudes
• Mean zero crossing period Tz
• Mean period of peaks
Random wave statistics

• “Significant Wave Height” H1/3 is defined as the average of the highest

third of the waves in the record

Wave height Wave height Number Relative

intervals average of waves frequency
(m) (m) counted -
0.25 - 0.75 0.5 34 0.113
0.75 - 1.25 1.0 68 0.227
1.25 - 1.75 1.5 98 0.327
1.75 - 2.25 2.0 54 0.180 H1/3 for this data=2.41m
2.25 - 2.75 2.5 22 0.073
2.75 - 3.25 3.0 14 0.047
3.25 - 3.75 3.5 8 0.027
3.75 - 4.25 4.0 2 0.007
totals 300 1.000

• H1/3 is approximately the ‘wave height’ reported by observers

• H1/3 ≈ 4 x RMS wave height from time history
The wave spectrum

• Taking a Power/Auto Spectral Density (‘PSD’ or ‘ASD’) of real ocean waves typically
reveals a characteristic shape

1.2

1.0
Spectral Energy [m2/Hz)]

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Frequency [Hz]

• Significant wave height from spectrum=

• Modal period from spectrum =
Spectral growth

SS3
80 SS4
SS4
SS4
SS5
SS5
SS5
Spectral Energy [m Hz ]
-1

SS6
SS6
2

SS7
40

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Frequency [Hz]
Wave Creation

speed

length
Bretschneider spectrum

• Two parameters, significant height and modal period

• For Open Ocean e.g. North Atlantic

Hsig= 4.0m Tmod=10.0s Bretschneider Atlantic SS5

16
14
Spectral Energy [m2Hz -1]

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Frequency [Hz]

fm
4
⎛ 5 fm4 ⎞
S ( f ) = 0.313 H1/ 3 exp⎜⎜ − ⎟
2
4 ⎟
f5 ⎝ 4 f ⎠
JONSWAP spectrum

• JOint North Sea WAve Project

• For limited fetch sea areas e.g. North Sea

Hsig= 4.0m Tmod=10.0s JONSWAP North Sea SS5

32
Spectral Energy [m2Hz -1] 28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Frequency [Hz]

⎛ ( f − f m )2 ⎞
fm
4
⎛ 5 fm 4
⎞ exp ⎜ −
⎜ 2σ 2 f 2
⎟
⎟
S ( f ) = 0.206 H1/ 3
2
exp⎜− ⎟γ ⎝ m ⎠
5 ⎜ 4 f4 ⎟
f ⎝ ⎠
⎧σ for f < fm
σ =⎨ a
⎩σ b for f > fm

typical values γ = 3.3, σ a = 0.07, σ b = 0.09

Spectra compared

JONSWAP North Sea SS5

Hsig= 4.0m Tmod=10.0s Bretschneider Atlantic SS5
32
28
Spectral Energy [m2Hz -1]

24
20
16
12
8
4
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Frequency [Hz]
More spectra

• Pierson-Moskowitz (1964)
• Includes wind speed v [m/s] as well as Hsig or Tmod

⎛ 4
⎞
S( f ) =
0.00810g 2
exp⎜ − 0.74⎛⎜ g ⎞
⎟ ⎟ v2 =
0.74 gH 1 / 3
0.1962 2
(2π f )5 ⎜ ⎜ 2π f v ⎟⎠ ⎟ H1/ 3 =
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ 0.0081 2
fm
2

• Darbyshire (1952), Neumann (1953)

• Wind speed the only parameter

• TMA spectrum Texel-Marsen-Arsloe

• Suitable for shallow water
Wave spreading

• Natural seas are rarely long crested

• A ‘spreading function’ can be applied to wave spectra to create a short crested
model

S ( f , χ ) = W (χ ) G (χ ) S ( f )

∫ W (χ ) G(χ ) dχ = 1
• χ is the wave direction relative to the primary wave direction.

• Cosine squared spreading is most commonly applied:

⎧2
⎪ cos2 χ for χ ≤ 90o
G( χ ) = ⎨ π
⎪⎩ 0 for χ > 90o

• Other even cosine powers may be used similarly

• Very advanced models have G(f, χ)

Short crested waves spectrum

2.0
Spectral Energy

1.5
[m^2/Hz/deg]
Density

1.0

0.5 0
45
0.0 90
135
0 180
225 Direction
270
0.1 315 [degs]

Frequency [Hz] 0.2

• Bretschneider spectrum with cosine squared spreading

Natural wave spectrum

16-20
12-16
8-12
4- 8 • Things can get even more
0- 4
complicated in reality
• This wave spectrum was measured in
Lyme Bay

0 360
0.04 300
0.1
240
0.16 16-20
180 12-16
0.22 8-12
120 4- 8
0.28

Direction
0- 4

Wave

[deg]
Frequency [Hz] 0.34 60
0.4 0

20
• More complicated spectra like this 0 16
0.04 12

Spectral

Density
Energy
may modelled by superposing two 0.1 4
8
0.16 0
spread from different principal
0.22

360
directions (“6- parameter” spectra)

300
Frequency [Hz] 0.28

240
180
0.34

120
0.4

60
Wave Direction [deg]

0
Effect of Spreading

Roll of a ship in these waves

5
Long Crested

Short Crested
4 (cos14 spreading)
Short Crested
(cos2 spreading)

RMS Roll [degs]

2.0
3
Spectral Energy

1.5
[m^2/Hz/deg]
Density

1.0
2
0.5 0
45
0.0 90
135
0 180
225 Direction 1
270
0.1 315 [degs]

Frequency [Hz] 0.2

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Heading [degs, 180=head seas]

Response is SYMMETRICAL port / starboard

Effect of spreading

Roll of a ship in these waves

Stbd
2.0 Port

1.5

RMS Roll [degs]

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Nominal Relative Heading [degs] (180=head seas)

Not symmetric response !

What does the wind do to the waves ?
How do these spectra form ?
How can you get these two peak spectra ?
Where does the swell come from ?
Wave Atlas

• Scatter Diagram of Hsig vs.

Tmod
• e.g. BMT Global Wave
Statistics
• This example from Bales, Lee, Voelker
Wave Measurement

• Wave staff arrays

• Stereo photography
• Tucker’
Tucker’s Shipbourne Wave Recorder
• TSK bow mounted radar (omnidirectional
(omnidirectional))
• MIROS wave radar
• Satellite altimetry (height only)
• Waverider buoys (both omnidirectional and directional)
• “Directional”
Directional” wave information essential for proper understanding

Waverider Buoy MIROS Wave Radar

 6m Nomad buoy

2.6m discus buoy TriAxys GPS buoy

3m discus buoy
Satellite Altimetry

ERS-1 (1991-2000) ERS-2 (1995-) TOPEX/Poseidon (1992-) Jason-1 (2001-) Jason-2 (2008-)
Satellite altimetry

• Good for climatology - examples from SOS website

Winter average Hsig Summer Average Hsig

Service providers: Satellite Observing System (SOS) (UK), Cliosat (France) Argos (Netherlands)
Satellite altimetry

• Good for climatology - example from SOS website

A famous study by Dr. D. Carter

of SOS, reported in Nature,
revealed a 10% increase in wave
heights in North Atlantic winters
for 1985-95.
US National Data Buoy Center
e.g. 31 Jan 2008 Roro ferry Riverdance rolled heavily and cargo shifted, eventually beached
at Blackpool. MAIB investigation – Platform 62125 will be evidence
Wave climate models

• A further option is hind-, now-, or fore-casting of wave

conditions
• The “3rd Generation” WAM wave model for global forecasting is
run daily at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather
Forecasting
• Other WAM models at US Navy Fleet Numerical Oceanography
Center, (including Mediterranean), Royal Netherlands
Meterological Institute, Meteo France etc.
• UK Met Office can perform hindcasting for specific areas
US Navy Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center
https://www.fnmoc.navy.mil/public/
 Describing Real Ocean Waves

Jonswap Spectrum Spreading

1.0

Multiplication Factor, F(θ)

20 Spectal Peakiness, γ

1 (PM) 0.8
2
15 3
Gηη(ω)

4 0.6
5
10
0.4

5
0.2

0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 -100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
ω (rad/s)
θ (deg)
ωp = 0.551 σn= 30º
Wave Creation

speed

length
Wave Creation
Random Sea

a (ω ) = 2 ⋅ Sηη (ω ) ⋅ Δω
Wave Superposition
Searching for Maxima
Searching for Maxima
 Rayleigh Distribution

Rayleigh Distribution Hrms= 3.63

P( H ≥ H ) = exp − ( H / H rms )
ˆ ˆ 2
( )
0.20
0.15
f

0.10
0.05
0.00

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

H
Extreme Wave Heights
1.0
0.8
0.6
p

0.4
0.2
0.0

0 2 4 6 8 10

H
New-Wave

• Computes the Most Probable (or average) shape of the

water surface given the desired extreme crest

η (t ) = A, η& (t ) = 0, and η&& < 0

• i.e. From a given Wave Spectrum, New-Wave obtains the
free-wave components that are most likely to be in phase
within the extreme wave event of a given wave height.
New-Wave
New-Wave
Validation

Case b78s4
Experimental
0.10 Numerical
Linear
0.08
2nd Order
0.06
Elevation (m)

0.04

0.02

0.00

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.5 0.0 0.5

Time (s)
Validation

Case b78s4
0.10 Experimental
Numerical
0.08
Linear
0.06 2nd Order
Elevation (m)

0.04

0.02

0.00

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Time (s)
Validation

Broad Banded - Short Crested

0.10 x=-0.7m

Elevation (m)
0.06
0.02
-0.02
-0.06

0.10 x=-0.3m
Elevation (m)

0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10

0.10 x=0m
Elevation (m)

0.06
0.02
-0.02
-0.06

0.10 x=0.7m
Elevation (m)

0.05
0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-2.0 -1.2 -0.4 0.4 1.2 2.0
Validation

0.2 Case b78s4

0.0

-0.2
Depth (m)

-0.4

-0.6 Experimental
Numerical
-0.8 Linear
2nd Order
-1.0

-1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Horizontal Velocity (m/s)
Real Ocean Waves

H=26.0m
20 Stream function
2-D Unsteady
3-D Unsteady
15

10
Elevation (m)

-5

-10

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Horizontal Wave Velocities (at crest)

H=26.0m
20

0
Depth (m)

Stream function
2-D Unsteady
-20
3-D Unsteady

-40

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Horizontal Velocity (m/s)
 Wave Forces on a 2.0e9
H=26.0m - stream function
Convective inertia
Axial divergence
vertical cylinder 1.5e9 Surface intersection
Surface distortion
1.0e9

Moment (Nm)
5.0e8

0.0e0

-5.0e8

-1.0e9
H=26.0m - 3-D unsteady
2.0e9 Convective inertia
-1.5e9
Axial divergence
1.5e9 Surface intersection
Surface distortion
-2.0e9
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1.0e9
Time (s)
Moment (Nm)

5.0e8

0.0e0

-5.0e8

-1.0e9

-1.5e9

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
 H = 26.0m - 3-D u n stead y
3.0e9 M orison inertia
Wave Forces on a M orison drag
N onlinear inertia
vertical cylinder 2.0e9 T otal force

1.0e9

Moment (Nm)
0.0e0

-1.0e9

H = 26.0m - stream fu n ctio n

3.0e9 -2.0e9 M orison inertia
M orison drag
N onlinear inertia
2.0e9 -3.0e9 T otal force
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
T im e (s)
1.0e9
Moment (Nm)

0.0e0

-1.0e9

-2.0e9

-3.0e9
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
T im e (s)
Summary of Wave Forces

1:100 (18.4m) versus 1:10,000 (26m) year waves

Wave theory Total Base Shear Total Overturning

(MN) Moment (MNm)

Stream Function 18.7 | 50.4 501 | 1915

2-D Nonlinear Model 40.9 | 79.4 1448 | 3176

3-D Nonlinear Model 16.7 | 29.5 458 | 953

Wave Statistics and Energy Spectra

• Measuring Waves and different Sea States.

• Wind wave generations, leading to how JONSWAP (or PM)
spectra vary with fetch length.
• Swell, Storm Surge, and Tides.
• Significant wave height (Hs) and period (Ts)
• Directionality and its impact (Long and Short crested seas)
• Likely hood of Extreme Events
• The New-Wave theory (now part of BS)
• Fully nonlinear wave modelling and some comparisons to Linear.
Coming Soon

• Friday 12th September (12:20 to 1:30pm)

• Dr Will Bateman
• Workshop 3 – Extreme Waves

• Friday 3rd October (12:30 to 2pm)

• Prof Paul Taylor from Oxford University
• Presentation 1 – Giant Waves on the Open Sea - Mariners’ Tall Tales
or Alarming Fact?

• Friday 10th October

• Workshop 4 – TBC

• Friday 17th October (12:30 to 2pm)

• Prof Paul Taylor from Oxford University
• Presentation 2 – Recent Research on Violent Wave-Structure
Interactions - Nonlinear Diffraction around Fixed and Floating
Structures