Pay FCCHAC Mechines Theoty, Operatton, Applications, Agfusunent, and Conitel Pagel iran alae perme pent Era ie tan, Pé erence RuCl re ArtetaELECTRIC MACHINES Theory, Operation, Applications, Adjustment, and Control Second Edition Charles |. Hubert Professor of Electrical Engineering United States Merchant Marine Academy PEARSON ee Education iCopyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. This edition is published by arrangement with Pearson Education, Inc. and Dorling Kindersley Publishing Inc. This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being, imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above-mentioned publisher of this book. ISBN 978-81-317-0802-6 First Impression, 2007 Second Impression, 2009 This edition is manufactured in India and is authorized for sale only in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Circulation of this edition outside of these territories is UNAUTHORIZED. Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. Head Office: 482, F.1.E., Patparganj, Delhi 110 092, India. Registered Office: 14 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India. Printed in India by Saurabh Printers Pvt. Ltd,Contents 1 MAGNETICS, ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES, GENERATED VOLTAGE, AND ENERGY CONVERSION 1 Ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 Lil 112 113 1.14 11S Introduction 1 Magnetic Field 1 Magnetic Circuit Defined 2 Reluctance and the Magnetic Circuit Equation 4 Relative Permeability and Magnetization Curves 5 Analogies Between Electric and Magnetic Circuits 12 Magnetic Hysteresis and Hysteresis Loss 15 Interaction of Magnetic Fields (Motor Action) 17 Elementary Two-Pole Motor 18 Magnitude of the Mechanical Force Exerted on a Current-Carrying Conductor Situated in a Magnetic Field (BLI Rule) 19 Electromechanically Induced Voltages (Generator Action) 21 Elementary Two-Pole Generator 25 Energy Conversion in Rotating Electrical Machines 27 Eddy Currents and Eddy-Current Losses 28 Multipolar Machines, Frequency, and Electrical Degrees 29 ‘Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 32 Specific References Keyed to Text 33 Review Questions 33 Problems 34 TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLES 37 Introduction 37 Construction of Power and Distribution Transformers 37 Principle of Transformer Action 40 Transformers with Sinusoidal Voltages 41 No-LoadConditions 43x | Contents 2.6 27 28 2.10 241 2.12: 2.13 214 Transient Behavior When Loading and Unloading Effect of Leakage Flux on the Output Voltage of a Real Transformer 48 Ideal Transformer 49 46 Leakage Reactance and the Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer 51 Equivalent Impedance of a Transformer __ Voltage Regulation 62 55 Per-Unit Impedance and Percent Impedance of Transformer Windings 64 Transformer Losses and Efficiency a Determination of Transformer Parameters Summary of Equations for Problem Solvin; Specific References Keyed to Text General References 82 Review Questions 82 Problems 83 81 15 79 3 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS, OPERATION, 91 AND SPECIALTY TRANSFORMERS aa 32 33 34 3.13 344 Antroduction 91 ‘Transformer Polarity and Standard Terminal Markings Transformer Nameplates 94 Autotransformers 95 Buck-Boost Transformers 101 Parallel Operation of Transformers Load Divi Transformer In-Rush Current 109 Harmonics in Transformer Exciting Current Three-Phase Connections of Single-Phase Transformers Three-Phase Transformers Hs ion Between Transformers in Parallel 110 106 Beware the 30° Phase Shift When Paralleling Three-Phase ue Harmonic Suppression in Three-Phase Connections Instrument Transformers 125 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving Specific References Keyed to Text 127 126 121 92 3a4 availableimage not availableimage not availablexiv | Contents 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 9.1 a2 93 94 95 9.6 97 98 99 9.10 O11 9.12 9.13 9.14 91S 9.16 917 Salient-Pole Motor 326 Pull-In Torque and Moment of Inertia 329 Speed Control of Synchronous Motors 330 Dynamic Braking 331 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 331 Specific References Keyed to Text 332 General Reference 332 Review Questions 332 Problems 333 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS) 337 Introduction 337 Motor-to-Generator Transition 338 ‘Synchronous-Generator Power Equation 342 Generator Loading and Countertorque 344 Load, Power Factor, and the Prime Mover 344 Paralleling Synchronous Generators 345 Prime-Mover Governor Characteristics 350 Division of Active Power Between Alternators in Parallel 351 Motoring of Alternators 356 General Procedure for Safe Shutdown of AC Generators in Parallel With Other Machines 356 Characteristic Triangle as a Tool for Solving Load Distribution Problems Between Alternators in Parallel 357 Division of Reactive Power Between Alternators in Parallel 363 Accidental Loss of Field Excitation 367 Per-Unit Values of Synchronous Machine Parameters 367 Voltage Regulation 368 Determination of Synchronous Machine Parameters. 373 Losses, Efficiency, and Cooling of AC Generators. 377 Summary of Equations for Problem Solving 379 Specific References Keyed to Text 381 Review Questions 381 Problems 383image not availableimage not availableimage not availablexviii | Contents APPENDIXES A Balanced Three-Phase System 539 B Three-Phase Stator Windings 561 C —__Constant-Horsepower, Constant-Torque, and Variable-Torque Induction Motors. 573 D Selected Graphic Symbols Used in Controller Diagrams 577 E Full-Load Current in Amperes, Direct-Current Motors 579. F Full-Load Current in Amperes, Single-Phase Alternating-Current Motors 581 G _Full-Load Current, Two-Phase Alternating-Current Motors J (Four-Wire) 583 Full-Load Current, Three-Phase Alternating-Current Motors 585 Representative Transformer Impedances for Single-Phase 60-Hz Transformers 587 Unit Conversion Factors 589 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 591 INDEX 597image not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 3 FIGURE 1.2 Magnetic circuit: (a) for a transformer; (b) for a simple two-pole motor. shows the magnetic circuit of a simple two-pole motor; it includes a stator core, a rotor core, and two air gaps. Note that the flux always takes the shortest path across an air gap. Magnetomotive Force ‘The ampere-turns (At) of the respective coils in Figure 1.2 represent the driving force, called magnetomotive force or mmf, that causes a magnetic field to appear in the corresponding magnetic circuits. Expressed in equation form, F=N-1 (i-1) where: = magnetomotive force (mmf) in ampere-turns (A-t) N = number of turns in coil 1= current in coil (A) Magnetic Field Intensity Magnetic field intensity, also called mmf gradient, is defined as the magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic circuit, and it may vary from point to point throughout the magnetic circuit. The average magnitude of the field intensity in a homogeneous section of a magnetic circuit is numerically equal to the mmf across the section divided by the effective length of the magnetic section, That is, FON Hage (1-2)image not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 7 Saturation Flux Density (B,D) Tow Medium High Very High Magnetic Field Intensity (H, A-vm) FIGURE 1.4 Exaggerated magnetization curve illustrating the four principal sections. The relationship between the relative permeability and the reluctance of a mag- netic core is obtained by solving Eq. (1~7) for 1, and then substituting into Eq. (1-6). The result is €_ ¢ HA Hy boA - (1-8) Equation (1-8) indicates that the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is affected by the rel- ative permeability of the material, which, as shown in Figure 1.5, is dependent on the magnetization, and hence is not constant. EXAMPLE 41 (a) Determine the voltage that must be applied to the magnetizing coil in Figure 1.6(a) in order to produce a flux density of 0.200 T in the air gap. Flux fringing, which always occurs along the sides of an air gap, as shown in Figure 1.6(b), will be assumed negligible. Assume the magnetization curve for the core material (which is homoge- neous) is that given in Figure 1.5. The coil has 80 turns and a resistance of 0.05 0. The cross section of the core material is 0.0400 m’.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 11 air gap. This, to reduce the amount of ampere-turns required to obtain a desired flux density, air gaps in electrical machinery are kept small Since Fen. is also the magnetic-potential difference across section bcde, the magnetic field intensity in that region is Frode 833 lice VF 141 Hvcde = = 277.67 Actin Converting to oersteds, 277.67 + 79.577 = 3.49 oersteds The corresponding flux density, as obtained from the magnetization curve in Figure 1Sis Breie ~ VAST Thus, the flux in section bede is i.e = BA = 1.45 X 0.04 = 0.058 Wo The total magnetic flux supplied by the coil is ® fo = Peay + rede = 0.008 + 0.058 = 0.066 Wo © _ 0.066 Beas = = Gog = 165 T The field intensity required to provide a flux density of 1.65 T in the left leg, as obtained from the magnetization curve in Figure 1.5, is + 37 oersteds. Thus, H ja = 37 X 19.577 = 2944.35 A-t/im The mmf drop in section efab is F ejay = H+ € = 2944,35(1 + 0.8 + 0.8) = 7655.31 At The total mmf that must be supplied by the magnetizing coil is Fr = Fone + Fey = 1655.31 + 833 = 8488.31 At 3 NI > 8488.31 = 80 x J 106.1 A IR = 106.1 X 0.05 = 5.30 Vimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 15 1.7 MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS AND HYSTERESIS LOSS If an alternating magnetomotive force is applied to a magnetic material, as shown in Figure 1.8(a), and the flux density B plotted against the magnetic field intensity H, the resultant curve will indicate a lack of retraceability. This phenomenon, shown in Fig- ure 1,8(b), is called hysteresis, and the resultant curve is called an hysteresis loop. Starting with an unmagnetized ferromagnetic core, point O on the curve, H = 0 and B = 0. Increasing the coil current in the positive direction increases the ampere- turns, and hence the magnetic field intensity. From Eqs. (11) and (1-2), M ee ‘When the current reaches its maximum value, the flux density and magnetic field in- tensity have their respective maximum values, and the curve is at point a; this initial trace of the curye, drawn with a broken line, is called the virgin section of the curve. A the current decreases, the curve follows a different path, and when the current is re- duced to zero, H is reduced to zero, but the flux density in the core lags behind, hold- ing at point b on the curve. The flux density at point b is the residual magnetism. This lagging of flux behind the magnetizing force is the hysteresis effect. As the alternating current and associated magnetic field intensity increase in the negative direction, the residual magnetism decreases but remains positive until point ¢ is reached, at which time the flux density in the core is zero. The negative field inten- sity required.to force the residual magnetism to zero is called the coercive force, and is AC Source d. @ (b) FIGURE 1.8 (a) Magnetic circuit with an alternating mmf; (b) representative hysteresis loop.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 19 upward mechanical force. The net result is a counterclockwise (CCW)-turning mo- ment or torque, called motor action, 1.10 MAGNITUDE OF THE MECHANICAL FORCE EXERTED ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR SITUATED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (BLI RULE) ‘The magnitude of the mechanical force exerted on a straight conductor that is carrying an electric current and situated within and perpendicular to a magnetic field, as shown in Figure 1.11(a), is expressed by F=Be bg l (1-12) where: F = mechanical force (N) B = flux density of stator field (T) current in rotor conductor (A) 4.44 X 5.7296 X 6 X Prax yyy = 0.112 Wo 1.13 ENERGY CONVERSION IN ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES All rotating electrical machines may be operated as either motors or as generators. If mechanical energy is supplied to the shaft, the machine converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. If electrical energy is applied to the machine windings, the machine converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Regardless of the direction of energy flow, however, all electrical machines (when operating) generate voltage and develop torque at the same time. If operating as a motor, it develops torque and a counter-emf; if operating as a generator, it develops an emf; and if supplying a load, it develops a countertorque. 5 The constant depends on the units used and the number of series-connected turns in the coil.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 31 Note also that, for a four-pole machine, 720° of the periodic wave corresponds to 360° of angular displacement of the rotor. Hence, to differentiate between the degrees of an electrical quantity and the degrees of space displacement, the former are known as electrical degrees or time degrees, and the latter as space degrees. This distinction is also used in radian measure, namely, electrical radians and space radians. As indicated in Figure 1.16(c), the relationship between electrical degrees and space degrees is Elec. deg. = space deg. X £ (1-32) where: P = the number of poles Unless otherwise specified, angular measurements used in electrical transactions in this text, and in other electrical texts, are expressed in electrical degrees or electrical radians. Adjacent poles are always 180 electrical degrees (7 electrical radians) apart. EXAMPLE 18 A special-purpose 80-pole, 100-kVA generator is operating at 20 r/s. Determine (a) the number of cycles per revolution; (b) the number of electrical degrees per revolution; (c) the frequency in Hz. Solution (a) Two poles per cycle, or 40 cycles. (b) Elec. deg. = 360 x 2 = 4,400 Pn _ 80 X 20 Orta 800 Hz EXAMPLE 19 The voltage generated in a 15-turn armature coil by a four-pole rotating field is 100 V. If the flux per pole is 0.012 Wb, determine (a) frequency of the generated emf; (b) speed of the rotor. Solution (a) From Eq. (1-25), f= = 2 = 12513 = — 125Hz 444 XNX bmx 4.44 X 15 X 0.012 (b) From Eq. (1-30), _ Ff _ 2X 125.13 P 4 n = 62.57 1/s or 60 X 62.57 = 3754 r/minimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableMagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, Generated Voltage, and Energy Conversion | 35 FIGURE 1.17 Magnetic circuit for Problem 1-6/5. 1-7/5 1-8/5 1-9/5 1-10/6 117 1-12/7 The mean length and cross-sectional area of the core shown in Figure 1.18 are 1.5 m and 0.08 m?, respectively. The core is made of cast steel and the magnetization curve for the material is shown in Figure 1.3. The 260-turn magnetizing coil has a resistance of 27.75 ©, and is connected to a 240-V DC supply. Determine (a) magnetic field intensity; (b) core flux density and core flux; (c) relative permeability of the core; (d) reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Repeat Problem 1~7, assuming a sheet steel core. Repeat Problem 1-7, assuming a cast-iron core. A magnetic circuit, composed of two half-rings of different core materials, is joined at the ends to form a doughnut. The cross-sectional area of the core is 0.14 m®, and the reluctances of the two halves are 650 A-t/Wb and 244 A-t/Wb, respectively. A coil of 268 turns and 5.2-0 resistance is wound around the doughnut and connected to a 45-V battery. Determine (a) the core flux; (b) repeat (a), assuming the half-rings are separated 0.12 cm at each end (assume no fringing), and the reluctance of the half-rings does not change; (©) the magnetic drop across each air gap in (b). A coil wound around a ferromagnetic core is supplied from a 25-Hz source. Determine the percent change in hysteresis loss if the coil is connected to a (60-Hz sources and the resultant flux density is reduced by 60%. Assume the Steinmetz coefficient is 1.65, and voltage is constant. A certain electrical apparatus operating at rated voltage and rated frequency has an hysteresis loss of 250 W. Determine the hysteresis loss if the fre FIGURE 1.18 Magnetic circuit for Problem 1-7/5. 240 V ==image not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 39 Liquid-Immersed Transformers Liquid-immersed transformers, such as that shown in Figure 2.2, have hermetically sealed tanks filled with insulating liquid to provide both insulation and cooling. Cool- ing fins on the tank provide for convection cooling of the insulating liquid. Forced cooling with pumps and/or fans is also provided on larger power transformers. The FIGURE 2.2 Cutaway view of a large three-phase oil-cooled power transformer. (Courtesy, TECO Westinghouse)image not availableimage not availableimage not available‘Transformer Principles | 43 (©) From Eq. (1-2), Nel n=" agnetic field intensity (A-t/m, rms) = tums in primary winding jagnetizing current (A, rms) € = mean length of core (m) Solving for /y, and substituting known values, HE _ 450 x 0.667 y= = = 0.25 A ‘Np 1201 2.5 NO-LOAD CONDITIONS With no load connected to the secondary, the current in the primary is just enough to establish the magnetic flux needed for transformer action, and to supply the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the iron.’ This no-load current, called the exciting current, varies between 1 and 2 percent of rated current in large power transformers, and may be as high as 6 percent of rated current in very small distribution transformers. The exciting current can be divided into two right-angle components: a core-loss component that supplies the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the iron, and a mag- netizing component that establishes the mutual flux (,,) that links both primary and secondary windings. These components are shown in Figure 2.4(a), and form the equivalent-circuit model of a transformer operating at no load. The corresponding phasor diagram for the exciting current and its right-angle components is shown in Figure 2.4(b). Note that the exciting current lags the applied voltage by a large angle; 5 In effect, at no load, the transformer is nothing more than an impedance coil lre Vr @) () FIGURE 2.4 (2) Equivalent-circuit model of transformer with no load on secondary; (b) phasor diagram showing no-load conditions.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 47 munf of its own in opposition to the primary mmf, This is shown in Figure 2.5. Thus, for a very brief instant of time the core flux will decrease to Noein — Nei oy = “~— (2-9) The decrease in flux causes a decrease in cemf, which, in accordance with Eq. (2-8), causes an increase in primary current. The additional primary current (Ips), Called the load component of primary current, adds its mmf to the magnetizing component, causing the flux to increase. Thus, _ Nein + Nips ~ Nois by (2-10) The primary current increases until Nplpjoaa = Nels, at which point both ,, and Ep will have returned to essentially the same values they had before the switch was closed; any difference between Ep at no load and Ep under load conditions is due to the additional (but small) increase in voltage drop due to the resistance of the primary winding. Thus, the final steady-state primary current under load conditions will be Tp = Tee + I+ rat Tp = Io + Tress Q-11l Removing load from the secondary causes the opposite effect to take place. Opening the switch in Figure 2.5 causes Is and hence NL, to drop to zero. The resultant tran- sient increase in mutual flux produces a transient increase in cemf, causing the primary current to drop back to its initial no-load value. Although described as a step-by-step process, the actual behavior, when loading or unloading, is essentially simultaneous and takes place in a fraction of a second. Note. This entire discussion assumed constant permeability and no leakage flux. Ip=lo + IP, toad FIGURE 2.5 Relative directions of secondary current and secondary mmf for one-half cycle when load switch is closedimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 51 Applying Ohm’s law to the secondary circuit in Figure 2.7, E. Zia = (2-18) I; Substituting Eq. (2-18) into Eq. (2-17), Dig = @ Zroas (2-19) Equation (2-19) indicates that a well-designed transformer, with very low leakage flux, can be used as an impedance multiplier. The multip! m factor is equal to the square of the turns ratio. Transformers specifically designed for this purpose are called impedance-matching transformers, and have applications in audio systems [2]. EXAMPLE 24 An ideal transformer with a primary of 200 turns and a secondary of 20 turns has its pri- mary connected toa 120-V, 60-Hz supply, and its secondary connected to a 100 /30°-0 load. Determine (a) the secondary voltage; (b) the load current; (c) the input current to the primary; (d) the input impedance looking into the primary terminals. Note: For purposes of simplification in problem solving, unless otherwise specified it will be assumed (throughout the text) that the phase angle of the input voltage is zero degrees. Solution (a) Using Figure 2.7 as a guide, a = Nus _ 200 Ms 20 Ep nu E's _ 12/0? _ \e (b) Zass = 10 fag" ~ Or12Z=30" A 0.12/—30° © fat, = HEE = 012/-A (d) Zin = @ Liou = 10° X 100/30° = 10/30° k 2.9 LEAKAGE REACTANCE AND THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A REAL TRANSFORMER Calculations to determine the overall voltage drop in a transformer, for different mag- nitudes and different power factors of loads, must take into consideration the effect of leakage flux. To facilitate such calculations, voltage drops caused by leakage flux are expressed in terms of fictitious leakage reactances; these derived mathematical quan- tities, when multiplied by the current in them, will result in voltage drops equal to those brought about by the respective leakage fluxes.image not availableimage not availableimage not available‘Transformer Principles | 55 WR — eiXep Trot Is WXes —IsRs FIGURE 2.9 Leakage reactance in equivalent-circuit model. a fictitious resistance Rj. that dissipates heat energy at the same rate as does the ac- tual hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the core, and a fictitious magnetizing reac- tance X,, that draws the same magnetizing current as does the actual transformer. 2.10 EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER ‘The equivatent-circuit models of the transformer, shown in Figures 2.8(b) and 2.9, are very useful for analyzing the individual effects of winding resistance and leakage effects in primary and secondary windings. For purposes of simplified calculations of engineering problems, however, the actual transformer is replaced by an equivalent impedance in series with the source voltage and the load. Applying the relationships developed for the ideal transformer in Section 2.8 to the ideal transformer in Figure 2.9, Zi,= a —* 2-17) Is Applying Ohm's law to the secondary circuit in Figure 2.9, E's ee (2-35) SRF Re Dana ess) TT Rs + Kee t+ Lions (2-36) 5 Substituting Eq. (2-36) into Eq. (2-17) and multiplying through, Zin = @(Rs + iXez + Zyoas) (237) Lig = ORs + jPX, + FZyoua (2-38)image not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 59 if Referred to tr | low side tet I J Mish Ins 1 ES 4 esl few ore tt tot J L.. td (a) Zeq, HS is Tas Ree ws JXea, HS a ie rn Output J e=¥us fess terminals n &) Ideal FIGURE 2.12 Equivalent circuits for step-up operation: (a) in terms of low-side values; (b) in terms of high-side values. (2-43a) The circuit models shown in Figures 2.11(a) and 2.12(a) are used to determine the input impedance of the combined transformer and load. The circuit models shown in Figures 2.11(b) and 2.12(b) are used to determine the no-load voltage and the volt- age regulation.® * See Section 2.11 for a discussion of voltage regulation.image not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 63 EXAMPLE The equivalent low-side parameters of a 250-kVA, 4160—480-V, 60-Hz transformer 27 are Regis = 0.00920 , and Xequs = 0.0433 ©. The transformer is operating in the step-down mode and is delivering rated current at rated voltage to a 0.840 power- factor lagging load. Determine (a) the no-load voltage; (b) the actual input voltage at the high side; (c) the high-side current; (4) the input impedance; (e) the voltage reg- ulation; (f) the voltage regulation if the power factor of the load is 0.840 leading; (g) sketch the tip-to-tail phasor diagram of the secondary circuit for the 0.840 power- factor lagging load. Show all voltage drops. Solution 250,000 An = 520.83A 0 = cos” 10.840 = 32.86° i hs = 80 For a lagging power-factor load, the load current lags the load voltage as shown in Figure 2.13(a). Thus, from Figure 2.13(a), Vis = 480/0°V Is = 520.83/-32.86° A Using Figure 2.11(b) as a guide, Ets = IisReqis + Ns iXeqis + Vis Ej\s = 520.83/-32.86° X 0.0092 + 520.83/—32.86° x j0.0433 + 480/0° Ej 19 /—32.86° + 22.55/57.14° + 480/0° Es = 4.024 — j2.599 + 12.235 + j18.94 + 480 + j0 = 496.53/1.886° V — Fins _ Vas _ 4160 » “Fis Vis 480 = 8.667 From Figure 2.11(b), V7 = Elus = aE's = 8.667 X 496.53/1.886° = 4303.4/1.886° V ThgiXeq. 5 E.s al Vis Vis Its NsReyis @ ) ©) FIGURE 2.13 Phasor diagrams for Example 2.7: (a) low-side output; (b) component phasors; (c) tip-to-tail addition.image not availableimage not availableimage not available(@) The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2.14. Zig = Logs + Ean — d= Faq = 10 Vas _ _ 230000" _ ono y-23.54° Zus 2499/2354 ons A Transformer Principles | 67 = 0.691 + j0.998 + 10°(0.016) = 2.499/23.54° 0 Calculating Voltage Regulation From Per-Unit Values The voltage regulation of a transformer (operating at rated voltage and rated current) may be determined from the power factor of the load and the known per-unit values of transformer reactance and resistance, without having to calculate load currents and voltage drops. Referring to Figure 2.15(a), Ets = WisReqis + Is iXeqis + Vis mutput voltage, breaker closed output voltage, breaker open where: Vis Eis (2-54) ‘The component phasors in Eq. (2-54) are shown on the phasor diagram in Figure 2.15(b) for a lagging power-factor load, with the current phasor drawn as the reference phasor at 0°. The diagram is not drawn to scale. The magnitude of the no-load low-side voltage is obtained by resolving Vs into vertical and horizontal components, and applying the Pythagorean theorem. Thus, re- ferring to Figure 2.15(b), Tus _ - FIGURE 2.14 Equivalent circuit for Example 2.8. VilisRegis + Visc0s 0) + (hsXeuis + Vissin®)? (2-85) =a Zapontsimage not availableimage not availableimage not available‘Transformer Principles | 71 where: Spy = per-unit apparent power of load (PU) 5 = apparent power of load (VA) Sruea = Fated apparent power of transformer (VA) Ty = per-unit load current (PU) load current (A) Trea = rated current of secondary (A) EXAMPLE 211 ‘A 25-kVA, 7620—480-V distribution transformer is supplying a 10-kVA load at 0.65 power-factor lagging. The percent /R drop and the percent IX drop are 1.2 and 1.4, respectively. Determine the transformer regulation for the specific load. Solution Ss Su =< = x = 0.0394 @ = cos"!0,65 = 49.49° sin 49.49° = 0.76 rated Substituting into Eq. (2-58a), regey = V(0.0394 X 0.0124 + 0.65)° + (0.0394 x 0.014 + 0.76) — 1 regpy = 0.738 or 73.8% 2.13 TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY Transformer losses include the /°R losses in the primary and secondary windings, and the hysteresis and eddy-current losses (core losses) in the iron. These losses are the same whether operating in the step-up or step-down mode. The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power out to the power in, and may be expressed in decimal form, called per-unit efficiency, or expressed as percent efficiency by multiplying by 100, Pout P (2-59) where: 9 = efficiency Peore = Pa + Pe (2-60) Po = keh Binax (2-61) Pr = ky fBroox (2-62) From Eq. (2-1), Vr pag & f Thus, Baimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 75 Equation (2~72) is applicable to all loads. When operating at rated conditions, Spy = Ipy = 1, and Eq, (2-72) reduces to Fp =——_7r ___ 7: Malet = FF Poo pa F Row (2-73) ‘The components in Eqs. (2~72) and (2-73) may be expressed all in per-unit or all in percent. However, the calculated efficiency will be in per-unit. EXAMPLE A 100-kVA, 4800—240-V, 60-Hz transformer is operating at rated conditions and 2.13 80.0 percent power factor. The core loss, resistance, and leakage reactance, expressed in percent, are 0.450, 1.46, and 3.38, respectively. Determine the efficiency at (a) rated load and 80% power factor; (b) 70% load and 80% power factor. Solution (a) Substituting into Eq. (2-73), 0.800 = ——__—_—_——_—_. = 0.977 97.71% Test = 7500 + 0.0045 + 0.0146 ~ 2277 oF 97.78% — Sinus 10 (b) Seu = 5 = 09 0.70 and since Jugs is proportional t0 Sisas Tou = Spy = 0.70 Substituting into Eq. (2-72), 0.70 x 0.80 7 .979 or 97.9% efficient ~ 0,70 * 0.80 + 0.0045 + 0.70? x 0.0146 Note: There is very little change in efficiency. 2.14 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS If transformer parameters are not readily available from the nameplate or from the manufacturer, they can be approximated from an open-circuit test (also called a no- oad test) and a short-circuit test. Open-Circuit Test ‘The purpose of the open: the equivalent core-loss resistance Rj. The connections and instrumentation required for this test are shown in Figure 2.16(a). For safety in testing and instrumentation, the open-circuit test is generally made on the low-voltage side. The test is performed at rated frequency and rated low-sideimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableTransformer Principles | 79 (b) From the short-circuit test, shown in Figure 2.17, Teo = oa 163 = 1008 eas oats Zeguns = 9.865 2 Poo = FcRegus = 1200 = 16.3°Reg.us Regs = 4.5179 Zens = VRegns + Xcqus > Xeqns = VZiqns — Regus Xequs = V(0.865) — (4.517) = 8.770 _S_ _ 75,000 I 4S Vis 4600 _ AusRegs _ 16.3 X 4.517 _ = 163A Rou = 01 ae Vas 4600 o.016 IsXeqns _ 16.3 X 8.77 eu a6 = 2.031 Zou = Row + iXeu = 0.016 + j0.031 = 0.035/62.7° © regpy = V(Rpy + cos @)* + (Xpy + sin 0)? — 1 @ = cos”'0.75 = 41.41° sin 41.41° = 0.661 regpy = V(0.016 + 0.75)" + (0.031 + 0.661) — 1 regeu = 0.0326 or 3.26% SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING 4AIN pf Prax (2-1) AMIN Sf Pax (2-2) In = Te + I (2-4) N; Oy = we (2-6) Ip = Io + To. toad (2-11) Ideal Transformer = Nas _ Vus amen ye (2-14)image not availableimage not available82 | Chapter 2 3. Standards publication: Dry type transformers for general applications. NEMA Pub- lication No. ST20-1972, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, Washing- ton, DC. 4. Stevenson, W. D., Jr. Elements of Power System Analysis. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982. GENERAL REFERENCES. Heathcote, Martin J. JSP Transformer Book: A Practical Technology of the Power Transformer, 12th ed. Oxford, Boston, 1998. Blume, L. F. Transformer Engineering. Wiley, New York, 1938. MIT EE Staff. Magnetic Circuits and Transformers. Wiley, New York, 1943. Lawrence, R. R. Principles of Alternating Current Machinery. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940. Westinghouse Staff. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book. West- inghouse Electric Corp., 1964. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Describe the difference in construction between core-type and shell-type trans- formers and state the advantages of each, 2. Describe the different methods used for cooling power and distribution trans- formers. . Why is the iron core of a transformer laminated? Explain why the core loss of a transformer does not change with changes in load. 5. Explain why the current in the primary of a transformer increases when a load is placed across the secondary. What causes the primary current to level off to a value that is just sufficient to carry the load plus losses? . What is leakage flux and how does it affect the output of a transformer? . Explain how leakage flux in the primary and leakage flux in the secondary affect the secondary voltage. 8. If it were possible to design a transformer with no leakage flux, would this be desirable? Explain. 9. What is meant by the voltage regulation of a transformer and how is this informa- tion useful to an applications engineer? 10. Explain why a leading power-factor load tends to cause a rise in voltage above the no-load value? 11. Distinguish between equivalent impedance, per-unit impedance, and percent impedance as they apply to a transformer, and indicate the unique advantages offered by the per-unit system. 12. (a) Explain the nature of hysteresis and eddy-current losses. (b) How are these losses affected by the magnitude and frequency of the applied voltage? (c) How are the core losses minimized during transformer design? Be ryTransformer Principles | 83 13. Explain why core loss remains essentially constant over the kilovoltampere load range of a transformer. 14, Explain the effect powering a transformer at higher than its rated primary voltage will have on (a) its output voltage; (b) its efficiency. 15, What transformer parameters are determined by the short-circuit test? Sketch the appropriate circuit and indicate how the parameters are determined. 16, What transformer parameters are determined by the open-circuit test? Sketch the appropriate circuit and indicate how the parameters are determined. 17. What precautions should be observed when making the open-circuit test? 18. Explain why the short-circuit test minimizes the core losses. 19. Explain why the open-circuit test minimizes the copper losses. PROBLEMS 2-1/4 A 22,000-V, 60-Hz generator is connected to the high-voltage side of a 22,000—2200-V, 500-kVA step-down transformer. If the resultant core flux is 0.0683 Wb (max), determine (a) the number of turns of wire in the secondary coil; (b) the new core flux if the driving voltage is increased by 20 percent and the frequency is decreased by 5 percent. 2-2/4 A 2400—115-V transformer has a sinusoidal flux expressed by = 0.113 sin 188.5¢. Determine the primary and secondary turns. 2-3/4 A core-type transformer rated at 37.5 kVA, 2400—480 V, and 60 Hz has a core whose mean length is 1.07 m and whose cross-sectional-area is 95 cm?. The application of rated voltage causes a magnetic field intensity of 352 A-U/m (rms), and a maximum flux density of 1.505 T. Determine (a) the number of turns in the primary and the secondary; (b) the magnetizing cur- rent when operating as a step-up transformer. 2-4/4 A 2000-kVA, 4800—600-V, 60-Hz, core-type transformer operating at no load in the step-down mode draws a magnetizing current equal to 2 percent rated current. The core has a mean length of 3.15 m, and is operated at a flux density of 1.55 T. The magnetic field intensity is 360 A-t/m. Determine (a) the magnetizing current; (b) the number of turns in the two coils; (c) the core flux; (d) the cross-sectional area of the core. 2-5/5 The exciting current for a certain 50-k VA, 480—240-V, 60-Hz transformer is 2.5 percent of rated current at a phase angle of 79.8°. Sketch the equiva- lent circuit and phasor diagram for the no-load conditions and, assuming operation isin the step-down mode, determine (a) the exciting current; (b) the core-loss component of the exciting current; (c) the magnetizing current; (d) the core loss. 2-6/5 A single-phase oil-cooled distribution transformer rated at 200 kVA, 7200—460 V, and 60 Hz has a core loss of 1100 W, of which 74 percent is due to hysteresis. The magnetizing current is 1.5 percent of rated current.84 | Chapter 2 2-115 2-8/8 2-9/8 2-108 2-118 2-12/10 2-13/10 Sketch the appropriate equivalent circuit and phasor diagram and, assuming step-down operation, determine (a) the magnetizing current and the core- loss component of exciting current; (b) the exciting current; (c) the no-load power factor; (d) the eddy-current losses. The hysteresis and eddy-current losses for a 75-kVA, 480—120 V, 60-Hz transformer are 215 W and 115 W, respectively. The magnetizing current is 2.5 percent rated current, and the transformer is operating in the step-up mode. Sketch the appropriate equivalent circuit and phasor diagram and determine (a) the exciting current; (b) the no-load power factor; (c) the reactive power input at no load. A 480—120-V, 60-Hz transformer has its high-voltage winding connected to a460-V system, and its low-voltage winding connected to a 24/32.8°-0 load. Assume the transformer is ideal. Determine (a) the secondary voltage; (b) secondary current; (c) primary current; (d) input impedance at the pri- mary terminals; (e) active, reactive, and apparent power drawn by the load. A 7200—240-V, 60-Hz transformer is connected for step-up operation, and a 144/46°-2 load is connected to the secondary. Assume the transformer is ideal and the input voltage is 220 V at 60 Hz. Determine (a) secondary volt- age; (b) secondary current; (c) primary current; (d) input impedance at pri- mary terminals of transformer; (e) active, reactive, and apparent power input to the transformer. A.200-kVA, 2300—230-V, 60-Hz transformer operating at rated voltage in the step-down mode is supplying 150 kVA at 0.654 power-factor lagging. Assume the transformer is ideal. Determine (a) secondary current; (b) im- pedance of the load; (c) primary current. A 50-Hz ideal transformer with a 5-to-1 turns ratio has a low-side current of 15.6/—32° A when operating in the step-down mode and feedit impedance of 8 /32° 0. Sketch the circuit and determine (a) low. age; (b) high-side voltage; (c) high-side current; (d) active, reactive, and apparent power input to the transformer. A 100-kVA, 60-Hz, 7200—480-V, single-phase transformer has the fol- lowing parameters. Rys = 2980 — Xys = 6.520 Ris = 0.0210 Xs = 0.0310 Determine the equivalent impedance of the transformer (a) referred to the high side; (b) referred to the low side. A 30-KVA, 60-Hz, 2400—600-V transformer has the following parameters in ohms: Rus Ris 86 Xys= 3.41 Xusts = 4962 IS Xs = 0.28 — Rests = 19,5012-14/10 2-15/10 2-16/10 2-17/1 2-18/11 Transformer Principles | 85 Determine the equivalent impedance of the transformer (a) referred to the high side; (b) referred to the low side. A single-phase, 25-kVA, 2200—600-V, 60-Hz transformer used for step- down operation has the following parameters expressed in ohms: Rus = 1.40 Xys = 3.20 Xyus = SOU Rs=O.1l Xs=0.25 Rens = 18,694 Sketch the appropriate equivalent circuit and determine (a) the input volt- age required to obtain an output of 25 kVA at 600 V and 0.8 power-factor lagging; (b) the load component of primary current; (c) the exciting current. ‘A 100-kVA, 60-Hz, 7200—480-V. single-phase transformer has the fol- lowing parameters expressed in ohms: Rus = 3.06 Xys = 6.05 Xusis = 17,809 Ris =0.014 Xs = 0.027 Res = 71,400 The transformer is supplying a load that draws rated current at 480 V and 75 percent power-factor lagging. Sketch the appropriate equivalent circuit and determine (a) the equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance referred to the high side; (b) the input impedance of the combined transformer and load; (c) the load component of high-side current; (d) the input voltage to the transformer; (e) the exciting current and its components; (f) the input impedance at no load. A 75-kVA, 60-Hz, 4160—240-V, single-phase transformer operating in the step-down mode is feeding a 1.45/—38.74°-0 load at 270 V. The transformer parameters expressed in ohms are: 0072 Xs = 0.0128 = 3.84 Rs = Rus = 2.16 Xi ‘Sketch the appropriate equivalent circuit and determine (a) the equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the high side; (b) the input imped- ance; (c) the voltage impressed at the high-side terminals that results in a load voltage of 270 V. (d) Sketch the phasor diagram for the low-side volt- age and current, and determine the power factor at the high side of the transformer. The parameters for a 250-kVA, 2400—480-V, single-phase transformer operating at rated voltage, rated kVA, and 0.82 power-factor lagging, are Xequs = 1.08 0 and Reqs = 0.123 2. The transformer is operating in the step-down mode. Sketch the appropriate equivalent circuit and determine (a) the equivalent low-side parameters; (b) the no-load voltage; (c) the volt- age regulation at 0.82 power-factor lagging. Re-solve Problem 2-17/11(b) and (c) assuming operation in the step-up mode and 0.70 power-factor leading.86 | Chapter 2 2-19/11 2-20/11 2-2/1 2-211 2-23/12 2-24/12 2-25/12 2-26/12 A 333-KVA, 60-Hz, 4160—2400-V transformer operating in the step- down mode has an equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance referred to the high side of 0.5196 0 and 2.65 02, respectively. Assume operation is at rated voltage, rated load, and 0.95 power-factor leading. Sketch the ap- propriate equivalent circuit and determine (a) the no-load voltage, (b) the voltage regulation; (c) the combined input impedance of the transformer and load. A 100-kVA, 4800—480-V, 60-Hz, single-phase distribution transformer has 6 V/turn and an equivalent impedance referred to the high side of 8.48/71° Q. The transformer is operating in the step-down mode supplying a 50-KVA, unity power-factor load at 480 V. Determine (a) the output volt- age when the load is removed; (b) the inherent voltage regulation of the transformer when operating at 78 percent power-factor lagging. Note: By definition, inherent voltage regulation infers rated kVA. A 37.5-kVA, 6900—230-V, 60-Hz, single-phase transformer is operating in the step-down mode at rated load, rated voltage, and 0.68 power-factor lagging. The equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the low side are 0.0224 and 0.0876 0, respectively. The magnetizing reactance and equivalent core-loss resistance (high side) are 43,617 © and 174,864 0, re- spectively. Determine (a) the output voltage when the load is removed; (b) the voltage regulation: (c) the combined input impedance of transformez and load; (d) the exciting current and input impedance at no load. A 500-kVA, 7200—600-V, 60-Hz transformer is operating in the step- down mode at rated kVA and 0.83 power-factor lagging. The output voltage when the load is removed is 625 V. Determine the equivalent impedance of the transformer referred to the high side (assume the equivalent resistance is negligible). Hint: Draw a phasor diagram showing I, E, V, and the imped- ance drop. Use trigonometry to solve for IX, and then determine Xoy. A.25-kVA, 480—120-V, 60-Hz transformer has a 2.1 percent impedance. Determine (a) the equivalent impedance referred to the high side; (b) the equivalent impedance referred to the low side. The percent impedance and the percent resistance of a 25-kVA, 7200— 600-V, 60-Hz transformer are 2.3 and 1.6 percent, respectively. Determine (a) the percent reactance; (b) the equivalent resistance, equivalent reac- tance, and equivalent impedance referred to the high side; (c) repeat (b) for the equivalent low-side values. A 500-kVA, 7200—240-V, 60-Hz transformer with a 2.2 percent imped- ance was severely damaged as a result of a dead short across the secondary terminals. Determine (a) the short-circuit current; (b) the required percent impedance of a replacement transformer that will limit the low-side short- circuit current to 60,000 A. A 167-KVA, 60-Hz, 600—240-V, 60-Hz, 4.1 percent impedance distribu- tion transformer with 46 turns on the high side is operating at rated load and 0.82 power-factor lagging. Determine (a) the voltage regulation; (b) the