New it skill

Masters of Business Administration (Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University)

Memory, Input/output Devices

 A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535. Memory is primarily of three
types:

• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD

Input/output Devices
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
• Optical Character Reader (OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
 No K e y s & Description
Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09)
Which generally, give the same layout as that of typewriters.
Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement.
1 Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
Function Keys: The twelve function keys are present on the
keyboard which are 3 arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each
function key has a unique
meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
Control keys: These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
4 directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End,
Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate
(Alt), Escape (Esc).
Special Purpose Keys: Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such
Mouses
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical
system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the
ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form
that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers
 that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a
picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and

pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to
be processed every day. The bank’s code number and cheque number are printed on
the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that
are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).

The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine-
readable code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value,
which is then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having

multiple choice questions.
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer

Monitors
 Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged
in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated
pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes – fixed location on the screen where a
standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT:

• Large in Size
• High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on
walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel display include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays: Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

• Non-Emissive Displays: Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert

sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example,
LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device). Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print

information on paper. There are two types of printers:

• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then
pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to
produce an image These printers are of two
types:

• Character printers

Line printer Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one

character at a time. These are further divided into two
types:

• Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

• Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers
are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character
printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size
(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called
Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
•Slow Speed
• Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally
used for word- processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there
with very nice quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
• Slower than DMP
• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP
Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one

line at a time. These are of two types:

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
 Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the
drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the
paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character
set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the market are 48-
character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum
printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

• Character fonts can easily be changed.

• Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
• Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print
a complete page at a time; thus, they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types:

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print
a complete page at a time; thus, they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types:

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed
to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
• Very high speed
• Very high-quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new

technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of
printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
• High quality printing
• More reliable
Disadvantages
• Expensive as the cost per page is high
• Slow as compared to laser printer

Storage Devices: Magnetic Storage Devices, Optical

storage Devices, Flash Memory

Magnetic Storage Devices

The most common type of storage device is magnetic storage device. In magnetic
storage devices, data is stored on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses
different patterns of magnetization to in a magnetizable medium to store data.

There are primarily 3 types of Magnetic Storage Devices as follows,

1. Disk Drives:

Magnetic storage devices primarily made of disks are Disk Drives. Hard Disk Drive
is a Disk Drive. HDD contains one or more disks that runs in a very high speed and
coated with magnetizable medium. Each disk in a HDD comes with a READ/WRITE
head that reads and write data from and onto the disk.

2. Diskette Drives:

Diskette drives or floppy disks are removable disk drives. The discs in Hard Disk
Drives are not meant to be removed, but in case of Floppy disks, the disks are
removable from the drive which is called Floppy Disk Drive or FDD. Floppy disks
comes with very little storage capacity and meant to be used as portable storage to
transfer data from one machine to another. The FDD reads and writes data from and
to the floppy disk. The floppy disk itself is covered with plastic and fabric to remove
dust. Floppy disk does not contain any read and write head, the FDD contains the
head.
3. Magnetic Tape:

Magnetic tapes are those reels of tapes which are coated with magnetizable elements
to hold and server written on it in one of the many magnetizing data storage patterns.
Tape drives come with very high capacity of storage and still in use though personal
computers, server etc. uses hard disk drives or other modern type of storage
mechanism, tape drives are still in use for archiving hundreds of terabytes of data.

Operating Storage Types

Optical storage refers to recording data using light. Typically, that’s done using a
drive that can contain a removable disk and a system based on lasers that can read or
write to the disk. If you’ve ever used a DVD player to watch a movie, put a CD in a
player to listen to music or used similar disks in your desktop or laptop computer,
you’ve used optical storage.

Compared to other types of storage such as magnetic hard drives, the disks used in
optical storage can be quite inexpensive and lightweight, making them easy to ship
and transport. They also have the advantage of being removable, unlike disks in
typical hard drive, and they’re able to store much more information than previous
types of removable media such as floppy disks.

Among the most familiar types of optical storage devices are the CD, DVD and Blu-
ray disc drives commonly found in computers. Initially, many of these drives were
read-only, meaning they could only access data on already created disks and couldn’t
write new content to existing or blank disks. Still, the read-only devices called CD-
ROM drives revolutionized home and business computing in the 1990s, making it
possible to distribute multimedia material like graphically rich games,
encyclopedias and video material that anyone could access on a

computer. Now, most drives can both read and write the types of optical disks they
are compatible with.

Disks are available that can be written once, usually marked with the letter “R” as in
“DVD-R,” or that can be written multiple times, usually marked with the letters
“RW.” Similar drives are also found in most modern home video game consoles in
order to read game software. Drives in computers and gaming systems can typically
play movies and music on optical disks as well. Make sure you buy disks that are
compatible with your drives and players.

small code instructions program. It referred to Code-storage applications. It used for

low-density applications.

NOR flash provides support to bad block management. Bad block in memory is
handled by controller devices to improve functionality.

We can use the combination of both NOR and NAND memory. NOR (software
ROM) used for instruction execution, and NAND used for non-volatile data storage.
Limitation of Flash Memory
 Although Flash memory gives many advantages, yet it has some flaw.

1) We can quickly read or programmed a byte at a time, but we cannot erase a

byte or word. It can delete data in blocks at a time.

2) Bit flipping: Bit Flipping problem is more occur in NAND memory as compare to
NOR. In Bit Flipping, a bit get reversed and create errors. For checking and
correcting the bit error (EDC/ECC) detection and error correction code are
implemented.

3) Bad block: Bad block are the blocks which can’t be used for storage. If scanning
system gets fails to check and recognize bad block in memory. Then reliability of
system gets reduced.

4) Usage of NOR and NAND memory: NOR is easy to use. Just connect it and use
it. However, NAND not used like that. NAND has I/O interface and requires a driver
for performing any operation. Read operation from NOR do not need any driver.

Types of Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function.
A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

Software is the language of a computer. And like human language, there are many
different computer languages. Essentially, computer software can be divided into
three main groups depending on their use and application. These are system software
or operating system referred simply as the OS, application software and
programming languages. Usually most of us interact with a computer using
application software.
There are two types of software:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
1. System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and

extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally
prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of
programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very
basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end
users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,

Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

• Close to the system

• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language
2. Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular

environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under
the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft’s notepad

for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs,
often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as
a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software is the following:

• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software
• Inventory Management Software
• Income Tax Software
• Railways Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows:
• Close to the user
• Easy to design
• More interactive
• Slow in speed
• Generally written in high-level language
• Easy to understand
• Easy to manipulate and use
• Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Types of Computer languages

Just as humans use language to communicate, and different regions have different
languages, computers also have their own languages that are specific to them.

Different kinds of languages have been developed to perform different types of work
on the computer. Basically, languages can be divided into two categories according to
how the computer understands them.

Two Basic Types of Computer Language

1. Low-Level Languages

Low-level computer languages are either machine codes or are very close them. A
computer cannot understand instructions given to it in high-level languages or in
English. It can only understand and execute instructions given in the form of machine
 language i.e. binary. There are

two types of low-level languages:

• Machine Language: a language that is directly interpreted into the hardware

• Assembly Language: a slightly more user-friendly language that directly

corresponds to machine language

(i) Machine Language

Machine language is the lowest and most elementary level of programming language
and was the first type of programming language to be developed. Machine language
is basically the only language that a computer can understand and it is usually written
in hex.

In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one language, its machine
code, which is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits (bits) 0 and
1. The symbol 0 stands for the absence of an electric pulse and the 1 stands for the
presence of an electric pulse. Since a
computer is capable of recognizing electric signals, it understands machine language.

(ii) Assembly Language

Assembly language was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of

machine language. This is another low-level but very important language in which
operation codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead
of 0’s and l’s.

These alphanumeric symbols are known as mnemonic codes and can combine in a
maximum of five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction,
START, LABEL etc. Because of this feature, assembly language is also known as
‘Symbolic Programming Language.’ This language is also very difficult and needs a
lot of practice to master it because there is only a little English support in this
language. Mostly assembly language is used to help in compiler orientations. The
instructions of the assembly language are converted to machine codes by a language
translator and then they are executed by the computer.

2. High-Level Languages

High-level computer languages use formats that are similar to English. The purpose
of developing high-level languages was to enable people to write programs easily, in
their own native language environment (English).

High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or
mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high-level
language is translated into many machine language instructions that the computer can
understand.

Types of High-Level Languages

Many languages have been developed for achieving a variety of different tasks. Some
are fairly specialized, and others are quite general.
 These languages, categorized according to their use, are:

These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for solving
mathematical and statistical problems.
Examples include:
• BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
• FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
• PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1)
• ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
• APL (A Programming Language)

These languages are best able to maintain data processing procedures and
problems involved in handling files. Some examples include:

• COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

• RPG (Report Program Generator)
(iii) String and List Processing

These are used for string manipulation, including search patterns and
inserting and deleting characters. Examples are:

• LISP (List Processing)

• Prolog (Program in Logic)
(iv) Object-Oriented Programming Language

• C++
• Java
(v) Visual Programming Language

These programming languages are designed for building Windows-based applications.

Examples are:

• Visual Basic
• Visual Java
• Visual C
•

Translators and Languages: Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler

COMPILER

A compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one

programming language (the source language) into another programming language
(the target language). The name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate
source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g.,
assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program.

However, there are many different types of compilers. If the compiled program can
run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which
the compiler runs, the compiler is a cross-compiler. A bootstrap compiler is written in
the language that it intends to compile. A program that translates from a low-level
language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between
high-level languages is usually called a source-to- source compiler or transpiler. A
language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without
a change of language. The term compiler-compiler refers to tools used to create
parsers that perform syntax analysis.

A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations:

preprocessing, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed
translation), conversion of input programs to an intermediate representation, code
optimization and code generation. Compilers implement these operations in phases
that promote efficient design and correct transformations of source input to target
output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to
track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant
effort to ensure compiler correctness.

Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs.
An interpreter is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated
operations. The translation process influences the design of computer languages
which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In practice, an interpreter
can be implemented for compiled languages and compilers can be implemented for
interpreted languages.

INTERPRETER

In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that directly executes

instructions written in a programming or scripting language, without requiring them
previously to have been compiled into a machine language program. An interpreter
generally uses one of the following strategies for program execution:

(i) Parse the source code and perform its behavior directly;

(ii) Translate source code into some efficient intermediate representation and
immediately execute this;

(iii) Explicitly execute stored precompiled code made by a compiler which

is part of the interpreter system.

Early versions of Lisp programming language and Dartmouth BASIC would be

examples of the first type. Perl, Python, MATLAB, and Ruby are examples of the
second, while UCSD Pascal is an example of the third type. Source programs are
compiled ahead of time and stored as machine independent code, which is then linked
at run-time and executed by an interpreter and/or compiler (for JIT systems). Some
systems, such as Smalltalk and contemporary versions of BASIC and Java may also
combine two and three. Interpreters of various types have also been constructed for
many languages traditionally associated with compilation, such as Algol, Fortran,
Cobol and C/C++.

While interpretation and compilation are the two main means by which programming
languages are implemented, they are not mutually exclusive, as most interpreting
systems also perform some translation work, just like compilers. The terms
“interpreted language” or “compiled language” signify that the canonical
implementation of that language is an interpreter or a
compiler, respectively. A high level language is ideally an abstraction independent of
particular implementations.

ASSEMBLER

An assembler is a type of computer program that interprets software programs written

in assembly language into machine language, code and instructions that can be
executed by a computer.

An assembler enables software and application developers to access, operate and

manage a computer’s hardware architecture and components.

An assembler is sometimes referred to as the compiler of assembly language. It also

provides the services of an interpreter.

An assembler primarily serves as the bridge between symbolically coded instructions

written in assembly language and the computer processor, memory and other
computational components. An assembler works by assembling and converting the
source code of assembly language into object code or an object file that constitutes a
stream of zeros and ones of machine code, which are directly executable by the
processor.

Assemblers are classified based on the number of times it takes them to read the
source code before translating it; there are both single-pass and multi-pass
assemblers. Moreover, some high- end assemblers provide enhanced functionality by
enabling the use of control statements, data abstraction services and providing
support for object-oriented programming structures.

Introduction to Operating System

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and
computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment
in which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.

An operating system is software that manages the computer hardware. The hardware
must provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the computer
system and to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper operation of the
system.

An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs

and acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.

A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at
all times on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being application
programs.

An operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such
as memory, processors, devices, and information. The operating system
correspondingly includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic
controller, a scheduler, memory management module, I/O programs, and a file
system.
 Operating system as User Interface:
1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
Hardware
Every general-purpose computer consists of the hardware, operating system, system
programs, and application programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU,
and I/O devices, peripheral device, and storage device. System program consists of
compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc. The application program consists of business
programs, database programs.
The operating system is a set of special programs that run on a computer system that
allows it to work properly. It performs basic tasks such as recognizing input from the
keyboard, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, sending output to the
display screen and controlling peripheral devices.

OS is designed to serve two basic purposes:

• It controls the allocation and use of the computing System’s resources among the
various user and tasks.

• It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the programmer

that simplifies and makes feasible for coding, creation, debugging of
application programs.

The Operating system must support the following tasks. The task are:

(i) Provides the facilities to create, modification of programs and data files using an
editor.

(ii) Access to the compiler for translating the user program from high level language
to machine language.

(iii) Provide a loader program to move the compiled program code to the computer’s
memory for execution.

(iv) Provide routines that handle the details of I/O programming.

• Windows (GUI based, PC)

• GNU/Linux (Personal, Workstations, ISP, File and print server, Three-tier client/Server)
• macOS (Macintosh), used for Apple’s personal computers and work stations (MacBook,
iMac).
• Android (Google’s Operating System for smartphones/tablets/smartwatches)
• iOS (Apple’s OS for iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch)

Functions of Operating System

An operating system includes all the programs of a computer system that control and
monitor the operations of the system. Operating systems typically consist of a kernel
that manages the hardware of the computer, as well as basic system programs that are
used to boot the operating system and configure it. We are going to discuss main
functions of operating system.
 Functions of Operating System
Operating system performs the following functions;
1. Booting

Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system starts the

computer to work. It checks the computer and makes it ready to work.
2. Memory Management

It is also an important function of operating system. The memory cannot be managed

without operating system. Different programs and data execute in memory at one
time. if there is no operating system, the programs may mix with each other. The
system will not work properly.

3. Loading and Execution

A program is loaded in the memory before it can be executed. Operating system

provides the facility to load programs in memory easily and then execute it.

4. Data Security

Data is an important part of computer system. The operating system protects the data
stored on the computer from illegal use, modification or deletion.

5. Disk Management

Operating system manages the disk space. It manages the stored files and
folders in a proper way.

6. Process Management

CPU can perform one task at one time. if there are many tasks, operating
system decides which task should get the CPU.

7. Device Controlling

Operating system also controls all devices attached to computer. The hardware devices
are controlled with the help of small software called device drivers.

8. Printing Controlling

Operating system also controls printing function. It a user issues two print
commands at a time, it does not mix data of these files and prints them separately.

9. Providing Interface

It is used in order that user interface acts with a computer mutually. User interface
controls how you input data and instruction and how information is displayed on
screen. The operating system offers two types of the interface to the user;
 (i) Graphical-line interface: It interacts with of visual environment to
communicate with the computer. It uses windows, icons, menus and other
graphical objects to issues commands.

(ii) Command-line interface: It provides an interface to communicate with the

computer by typing commands.

Types of Operating System

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file,process, and memory.
Thus operating system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus
operating system becomes an interface between user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some of the widely used operating systems are as follows:
1. Batch Operating System
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is
the responsibility of operator to sort the jobs with similar needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

• It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
• Multiple users can share the batch systems
• The idle time for batch system is very less
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
• The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
• Batch systems are hard to debug
• It is sometime costly
• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System:- Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets
time of CPU as they use single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking
Systems. The task can be from single user or from different users also. The time that each
task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to
next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Each task gets an equal opportunity
• Less chances of duplication of software
• CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
• Reliability problem
• One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
• Data communication problem

3. Distributed Operating System

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology
and are being widely accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various
autonomous interconnected computers communicate each other using a shared
communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU.
These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These system’s
processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of
operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software
which are not actually present on his system but on some other system connected within this
network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
• Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:-
• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet
• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only
that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet

Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS etc.

• Real time operating system in embedded system: Since size of programs are
small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.

• Error Free: These types of systems are error free.

• Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in

these type of systems. Disadvantages of RTOS:

• Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is
very less on few applications to avoid errors.

• Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so
good and they are expensive as well.

• Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to
write on.

• Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and
interrupt signals to response earliest to interrupts.

• Thread Priority: It is not g`````ood to set thread priority as these systems are
very less prone to switching tasks.
 Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are:- Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.

Introduction to graphical user interface (GUI)

GUI is an interface that uses icons or other visual indicators to interact with
electronic devices, rather than only text via a command line. For example, all
versions of Microsoft Windows is a GUI, whereas MS-DOS is a command line. The
GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Douglas Engelbart, and a
group of other researchers in 1981. Later, Apple introduced the Lisa computer with a
GUI on January 19, 1983.

The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the
graphical elements. Beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile
devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones
and smaller household, office and industrial controls. The term GUI tends not to be
applied to other lower-display resolution types of interfaces, such as video games
(where head-up display (HUD) is preferred), or not including flat screens, like
volumetric displays because the term is restricted to the scope of two- dimensional
display screens able to describe generic information, in the tradition of the computer
science research at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center.

How does a GUI work?

A GUI uses windows, icons, and menus to carry out commands, such as opening,
deleting, and moving files. Although a GUI operating system is primarily navigated
using a mouse, the keyboard can also be used to navigate using keyboard shortcuts or
the arrow keys.

As an example, if you wanted to open a software program on a GUI operating

system, you would move the mouse pointer to the program’s icon and double-click
the icon.

Benefits of GUI

Unlike a command line operating system or CUI, like Unix or MS-DOS, GUI
operating systems are much easier to learn and use because commands do not need to
be memorized. Additionally, users do not need to know any programming languages.
Because of their ease of use, GUI operating systems have become the dominant
operating system used by today’s end-users.

What are examples of a GUI operating system?

• Microsoft Windows
• Apple System 7 and macOS
• Chrome OS
• Linux variants like Ubuntu using a GUI interface.
Are all operating systems GUI?

No. Early command line operating systems like MS-DOS and even some versions
of Linux today have no GUI interface.
 What are examples of a GUI interface?
• GNOME

• KDE
• Any Microsoft program (e.g., Word, Excel, and Outlook).
• Internet browser (e.g., Internet Explorer, Chrome, and Firefox).
How does the user interact with a GUI?

The user uses a pointing device such as the mouse to interact and use most aspects of
the GUI. However, it is also possible to interact with a GUI using a keyboard or
other input devices.

Dictionary, File, Volume, Label, Drive Name

DICTIONARY

A dictionary is an alphabetical listing of words and their meanings. Dictionaries help

users look up definitions to get a better understanding of the word and an overall
better understanding of a language or field. Many computers do not include an
electronic dictionary, however, with access to the Internet, there are hundreds of free
online dictionaries.

What’s the difference between a dictionary and a thesaurus?

A dictionary is used to describe the meaning of a word. A thesaurus is used to group

different words with the same meaning (synonyms) and similar words. For example,
looking up the word “computer” in a dictionary would define the word like what is
found on our computer definition. Looking up the word “computer” in a thesaurus
may give words like PC, CPU, calculator, abacus, and laptop that could be used in
place of the word computer.

Why would someone need a dictionary on a computer?

A dictionary is used on a computer most often to find the meaning words and as a
way to find the correct spelling of a word.

FILE

A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information, settings, or commands

used with a computer program. In a GUI (graphical user interface), such as Microsoft
Windows, files display as icons that relate to the program that opens the file. For
example, the picture is an icon associated with Adobe Acrobat PDF files. If this file
was on your computer, double-clicking the icon in Windows would open that file in
Adobe Acrobat or the PDF reader installed on the computer.

How are files created?

A file is created using a software program on the computer. For example, to create a
text file you would use a text editor, to create an image file you would use an image
editor, and to create a document you would use a word processor.

VOLUME
 (i) When referring to sound, volume refers to the amplitude of the sound being
projected from a speaker. As seen in this picture, two knobs are used to change the
volume level: one controls the subwoofer, and one controls the main (overall) sound
volume.

(ii) When referring to data storage, a volume refers to a logical drive, which has a
single file system and is usually located on a single partition. For instance, on a
typical Microsoft Windows computer, the volume named C: contains the operating
system. In Windows, any drive which has an assigned drive letter is a volume.

LABEL
A label may refer to any of the following:

1. In general, a label is a sticker placed on a floppy diskette drive, hard drive, CD-
ROM or other equipment that contains printed information to help identify that
object or its data.

2. In a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel, a label is text within a

cell, usually describing data in the rows or columns surrounding it.

3. When referring to a chart, a label is any text over a section of a chart that gives
additional information about the charts value. For example, in our pie chart example
each section of the pie chart is labeled to give the value of each percentage.

4. When referring to HTML, the <label> tag is used to create labels for items in a user
interface.

5. In programming, a label is either a reference point or command used to move

throughout a program. See the goto definition for an example of how this may be used.

6. Label is also an MS-DOS and Windows command line instruction used to change the
identity of a hard or floppy disk drive.

DRIVE

A drive is a location (medium) that is capable of storing and reading information that is not
easily removed, like a disk or disc. All drives store files and programs that are used by your
computer. For example, when you write a letter in a word processor the program is loaded
from you hard drive and when you save the document it is saved to the hard drive or other
disk or drive.

In the example shown on this above, drive A: is the floppy drive, C: is the primary hard drive,
D: and E: are partitions of the hard drive, and F: is the CD-ROM drive. The CD-ROM drive
is usually the last drive letter, so in most situations the hard drive is the C: drive and a CD-
ROM or other disc drive is the D: drive.

Types of Internet Networks: LAN

It is a privately-owned network and stands for local area network. A network is a group of
computers and other devices connected so they can pass information back and forth. The
local area network (LAN) is a network which is designed to operate over a small physical
area such as an office, factory or a group of buildings up to a few kilometers in size. LANs
very widely used in a variety of computers to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information.
The personal computers and workstations in the offices are interconnected via LAN to share
resources. The resources to be shared can be hardware like a printer or software or data. A
LAN is a form of local (limited-distance), shared packet network for computer
communications. In LAN all the machines are connected to a single cable. The data rates for
LAN range from 4 to 16 Mbps with the maximum of 100 Mbps.
The term LAN can also refer just to the hardware and software that allows you to connect all
the devices together. In this sense, Local Talk is one kind of LAN, Ethernet is another.
(AppleTalk is the protocol for Local Talk.)
The components used by LANs can be divided into cabling standards, hardware, and
protocols.

Various LAN protocols are Ethernet, Token Ring: TCP/IP, 5MB, NetBIOS and NetBeui, IPX/SPX,
Fiber Distributed Data Interchange (FDDI) and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). LANs can be
distinguished from different types of networks by their size, their transmission technology, and their
topology

A local-area network (LAN) restricted in size, which means that it can span in a
relatively small area.

LANs use a transmission technology consisting of a cable. Traditional LANs

technology transmits at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and makes very few errors.
However, current LANs technology transmits at up to 10 Gbps.

Various network topologies are possible for broadcast LANs. In a linear cable
network (Bus), at any given time, one client machine is the master machine, and that
is only allowed to transmit. All other machines refrain from sending data. The second
type of broadcast LANs is the ring. In it, LAN operating at 4 and 16 Mbps. FDDI is
another example of a ring network.

Types of LAN

Ethernet is the most common type of LAN. Different Lan can be differentiated on
the behalf of following characteristics.

Topology: The topology is the geometric arrangement of a network elements. For

example, Network devices can be interconnected in a ring topology or in a bus
topology or linear bus. Protocols: It is a guideline for communicating data between
two devices. The protocols also determine type of error and data compression.
Media: The cable used in Lan to connect devices are twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cables, or fiber optic.

LAN Applications and Benefits

LANs are used almost exclusively for data communications over relatively short
distances such as within an office, office building or campus environment. LANs
allow multiple workstations to share access to multiple host computers, other
 workstations, printers and other peripherals, and connections to other networks.
LANs are also being utilized for imaging applications, as well. They are also being
used for video and voice communications, although currently on a very limited basis.

LAN applications include communications between the workstation and host

computers, other workstations, and servers. The servers may allow sharing of
resources. Resources could be information, data files, e-mail, voice mail, software,
hardware (hard disk, printer, fax, etc.) and other networks.

LAN benefits include the fact that a high-speed transmission system can be shared
among multiple devices in support of large number of active terminals and a large
number of active applications in the form of a multi-user, multi-tasking computer
network. LAN-connected workstations realize the benefit of decentralized access to
very substantial centralized processors, perhaps in the form of mainframe host
computer and storage capabilities (information repositories). Additionally, current
technology allows multiple LANs to be inter-networked through the use of LAN
switches, routers and the like.
Disadvantages of LANs include concern for security of files and accounts.
LAN Advantages and Services
A LAN has the following advantages:

• They work on higher operating speed than WAN and MAN.

• They suit the requirements of a specific organization.
• They are easy to install and maintain.

• They exist as connected (wired) and wireless

configurations. LAN can provide the following
services. They are:

File-based services Transfer of files from one node to another within the LAN
area. For

example, in a typical LAN used for local banking, the file containing the detailed
transactions of a specific customer is transferred form sever to the client, whenever
new transactions are made on behalf of the customer. It also provides efficient ways
of storing and retrieving the data. When multiple copies of the same file exist, it
provides necessary synchronization in updating the files. LAN also provides backup
for the critical data so that safe recovery is possible when a failure occurs. It also
provides data encryption facility to control the access to certain data to only selected
persons.

laws are updated to reflect these rights in the extended environment. Theft,
harassment, and bullying while online is still theft, harassment, and bullying,
period.

• Acknowledging cultural differences. Even when national boundaries no longer

apply, cultural respect and tolerance should remain. This requires finding a way to
accept that the social values and norms of some netizens will not be the social values
and norms of all netizens.

For Businesses:
 For companies, being a good netizen, applying online ethics, and using netiquette
include:

• Respecting rights of privacy for offline employees. Information possessed by

citizens in their offline interactions should be respected.

• Maintaining transparency in information policies. By taking action so that

consumers can easily and quickly understand how that company is using their
information and protecting them from harm, companies can provide users with a clear
means of ownership and self-determination as to what is, and isn’t shared about them,
which strengthens the consumer relationship.

Most internet users automatically apply the same responsible respectful behavior
online as they do in every other environment and by nature apply netiquette an online
ethics, and are good netizens. The minority that fails to apply societal values in some
or any environment- including the internet- are quickly identified as exceptions to be
dealt with on a social, or criminal level. When you choose to partner with technology
companies, especially for something as important as internet security, it’s imperative
you ensure that the partner shares your understanding of what it means to act
ethically online.

Basic Services of Internet like: WWW, FTP

WWW

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in
HTML and accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages
that can be accessed over the Internet. The World Wide Web was originally designed
in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee while he was a contractor at CERN.
The World Wide Web is most often referred to simply as “the Web.”

The World Wide Web is what most people think of as the Internet. It is all the Web
pages, pictures, videos and other online content that can be accessed via a Web
browser. The Internet, in contrast, is the underlying network connection that allows
us to send email and access the World Wide Web. The early Web was a collection of
text-based sites hosted by organizations that were technically gifted enough to set up
a Web server and learn HTML. It has continued to evolve since the original design,
and it now includes interactive (social) media and user-generated content that
requires little to no technical skills.

We owe the free Web to Berners-Lee and CERN’s decision to give away one of the
greatest inventions of the century.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for transmitting files
between computers on the Internet over TCP/IP connections. FTP is a client-server
protocol where a client will ask for a file, and a local or remote server will provide it.
The end-users machine is typically called the local host machine, which is
connected via the internet to the remote host—which is the second machine
running the FTP software. Anonymous FTP is a type of FTP that allows users to
access files and other data without needing an ID or password. Some websites
 will allow visitors to use a guest ID or password- anonymous FTP allows this.

Although a lot of file transfer is now handled using HTTP, FTP is still commonly
used to transfer files “behind the scenes” for other applications — e.g., hidden behind
the user interfaces of banking, a service that helps build a website, such as Wix or
Square Space, or other services. It is also used, via Web browsers, to download new
applications.

How FTP works

FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications channels between

client and server: a command channel for controlling the conversation and a data
channel for transmitting file content. Clients initiate conversations with servers by
requesting to download a file. Using FTP, a client can upload, download, delete,
rename, move and copy files on a server. A user typically needs to log on to the FTP
server, although some servers make some or all of their content available without
login, known as anonymous FTP.

FTP sessions work in passive or active modes. In active mode, after a client initiates a
session via a command channel request, the server initiates a data connection back to
the client and begins transferring data. In passive mode, the server instead uses the
command channel to send the client the information it needs to open a data channel.
Because passive mode has the client initiating all connections, it works well across
firewalls and Network Address Translation (NAT) gateways.

How to FTP

Files can be transferred between two computers using FTP software. The user’s
computer is called the local host machine and is connected to the Internet. The second
machine, called the remote host, is also running FTP software and connected to the
Internet.

• The local host machine connects to the remote host’s IP address.

• The user would enter a username/password (or use anonymous).

• FTP software may have a GUI, allowing users to drag and drop files between the
remote and local host. If not, a series of FTP commands are used to log in to the
remote host and transfer files between the machines.

Telnet, Gopher
Telnet is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol for accessing remote
computers. Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone
else’s computer remotely. On the Web, HTTP and FTP protocols allow you to
request specific files from remote computers, but not to actually be logged on as a
user of that computer. With Telnet, you log on as a regular user with whatever
privileges you may have been granted to the specific application and data on that
computer.

The result of this request would be an invitation to log on with a userid and a prompt
for a password. If accepted, you would be logged on like any user who used this
computer every day. Telnet is most likely to be used by program developers and
anyone who has a need to use specific applications or data located at a particular host
computer.

Gopher

Gopher is an application-layer protocol that provides the ability to extract and view
Web documents stored on remote Web servers. Gopher was conceived in 1991 as one
of the Internet’s first data/file access protocols to run on top of a TCP/IP network. It
was developed at University of Minnesota and is named after the school’s mascot.
Gopher was designed to access a Web server or database via the Internet. It requires
that files be stored in a menu-style hierarchy on a Gopher server that is accessible
through a Gopher-enabled client browser and/or directly. It initially supported only
text-based file/document access but later came to support some image formats such
as GIF and JPEG.

Gopher was succeeded by the HTTP protocol and now has very few implementations.
Gopher- based databases, servers or websites can be accessed through two search
engines: Veronica and Jughead.
ISPs, URL
An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides customers with
Internet access. Data may be transmitted using several technologies, including dial-
up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects.

Typically, ISPs also provide their customers with the ability to communicate with one
another by providing Internet email accounts, usually with numerous email addresses
at the customer’s discretion. Other services, such as telephone and television services,
may be provided as well. The services and service combinations may be unique to
each ISP.

An Internet service provider is also known as an Internet access provider (IAP).

The Internet began as a closed network between government research laboratories

and universities and colleges. As universities and colleges began giving Internet
access to their faculty and other employees, ISPs were created to provide Internet
access to those employees at home and elsewhere. The first ISP began in 1990 as The
World, based in Brookline, Massachusetts.

Individual customers and businesses pay ISPs for Internet Access. ISPs are
interconnected to one another at network access points. In turn, ISPs pay other, larger
ISPs for their Internet access, which in turn pay still other ISPs. This cascades
multiple times until transmissions reach a Tier 1 carrier, which is an ISP capable of
reaching every other network on the Internet without purchasing IP transit or paying
settlements. However, it is difficult to determine the status of a network because the
business agreements to pay settlements are not made public.

However, the situation is more complex than simply a single connection established
to an upstream ISP. ISPs may have more than one point of presence (PoP), which is
an access point to the Internet comprised of a physical location housing server,
routers, ATM switches and digital/analog call aggregators. Some ISPs have
thousands of PoPs. Multiple PoPs may have separate connections to an upstream
ISP. And each ISP may have upstream ISPs and connections to each one of them at
 one or multiple PoPs.
URLs

A uniform resource locator (URL) is the address of a resource on the Internet. A

URL indicates the location of a resource as well as the protocol used to access it. A
URL contains the following information:

• The protocol used to a access the resource

• The the location of the server (whether by IP address or domain name)
• The port number on the server (optional)
• The location of the resource in the directory structure of the server
• A fragment identifier (optional)

Also known as a Universal Resource Locator (URL) or Web address. A URL is a

type of uniform resource identifier (URI). In common practice, the term URI isn’t
used, or is used synonymously with URL, even though this is technically incorrect.

Tim Berners-Lee and the Internet Engineering Task Force working group is credited
with developing the URL in 1994. It is formally specified in RFC 1738.

All URLs are presented in the following order:

• Scheme name

• Colon and two slashes

• Location of the server
• The port (optional) and the location of the resource on the server
• Fragment identifier (optional)

Multimedia and its applications :

Multimedia is the field concerned with the computer controlled integration of text,
graphics, drawings, still and moving images (Video), animation, audio, and any other
media where every type of information can be signified, stored, communicated and
handled digitally.

Applications for Multimedia System

1. Text

2. Images

3. Audio

4. Video

5. Animation

1. Text
 This seems so obvious that many people forget about it. Text content is the most
common type of media used throughout multimedia systems and applications.
Chances are, your multimedia system uses text and at least one other type of media to
have functionality. Whether your text relays information or reinforces information, it
is a crucial part of any multimedia system.

2. Images

Many multimedia systems include digital images as part of the application. Many
applications use custom buttons or interactive elements to further customize the
application. Other images can include basic digital image files like JPEGs or PNGs.
These file types allow for good image quality without a large file size.
3. Audio

In many multimedia systems, audio provides a crucial link between text and images.
In applications, many audio files automatically play. If you are using your audio on
the web, the end user might need to have a plug-in media player installed to access it.
Common audio formats include MP3, WMA, and RealAudio.

4. Video

Another common type of media found in multimedia applications is video. Digital

video can be streamed or downloaded and compressed as needed to reduce the file
size. The most common file formats are Flash, MPEG, AVI, WMV, and
QuickTime. Just like audio files, the end user might need a plug-in installed before
they can watch the video.

5. Animation

Animation is a fun and common part of both online and desktop multimedia
systems. Whether it means an interactive element that invites the user to engage
with the application or simply a fun animation to watch, animation is a unique
multimedia system element. Adobe Flash is commonly used to create animations
viewable online.

Multimedia Application in Education:

Using images, video and animations alongside a text stimulates the brain. Student
attention
and retention increase. Under these circumstances, in a multimedia learning
environment, students can identify and solve problems more easily compared to
the scenario where teaching is made possible only by textbooks.

Multimedia Application in Entertainment:

Multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop

special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia
games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-
ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia features.