Internet of Things

Software platforms and services

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 Wireless Sensor (and Actuator)
Networks
Services?

End-user
Operating
Systems? Core network
Gateway e.g. Internet
Protocols?
Protocols?

Sink
Gateway Computer services
node

- The networks typically run Low Power Devices

- Consist of one or more sensors, could be different type of sensors (or actuators)
Operating Systems
− An Operating System (OS) in an embedded system is a thin
software that resides between the node’s hardware and the
application layer.

− OS provides basic programming abstractions to the

application developer.

− The main task of the OS is to enable applications to interact

with hardware resources, to schedule and prioritise tasks and
mediate between applications and services that try to use the
memory resources.

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Features of the OS in embedded
systems

− Memory management
− Power management
− File management
− Networking
− Providing programming environment and tools (commands,
interpreters, compiler, etc.)
− Providing entry points to access sensitive resources such as
writing to input components.
− Providing and supporting functional aspects such as
scheduling, multi-threading, handling interrupts, memory
allocations.

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Threads and events

− A “thread” in a programming environment is the smallest

sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed
and run independently by a scheduler.

− An event driven program typically runs an event loopss. It

keeps waiting for an event, e.g. input from internal alarms.
When an event occurs, the program collects data about the
event and dispatches the event to the event handler software
to deal with it.

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Thread-based vs Event-based
Programming

− In WSN it is important to support concurrent tasks, in

particular tasks related to I/O systems.
− Thread-based programming uses multiple threads and a single
address space.
− This way if a thread is blocked by an I/O operation, the
thread can be suspended and other tasks can be executed in
different threads.
− The programmer must protect shared data structures with
locks, coordinate the execution of threads.
− The program written for multiple threading can be complex,
can include bugs and may lead to deadlocks.

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Thread-based vs Event-based
Programming- II

− The event-based programming uses events and event

handlers.
− Event handlers are registered at the OS scheduler and are
notified when a named event occurs.
− The OS kernel usually implements a loop function that polls
for events and calls relevant event handlers when an event is
occurred.
− An event is processed by an event handler until completion
unless it reaches a blocking operation.
− In the case of reaching a blocking operation it registers a new
call back and returns control to scheduler.

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 Embedded Operating Systems

− OS running on devices with restricted functionality

− In the case of sensor nodes, there devices typically also have limited
processing capability
− e.g. TinyOS
− Restricted to narrow applications
− industrial controllers, robots, networking gear, gaming consoles,
metering, sensor nodes…
− Architecture and purpose of embedded OS changes as the
hardware capabilities change (i.e. mobile phones)

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Source: The Web of Things, Marko Grobelnik, Carolina Fortuna, Jožef Stefan Institute.
TinyOS

− “TinyOS is an open source, BSD-licensed operating

system designed for low-power wireless devices,
such as those used in sensor networks .”
− TinyOS applications are developed using nesC
− nesC is a dialect of the C language that is optimised
for the memory limits of sensor networks.

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 TinOS - programming

− “TinyOS is completely non-blocking:

− It has one stack.
− All I/O operations that last longer than a few hundred
microseconds are asynchronous and have a callback.
− “To enable the native compiler to better optimise across
call boundaries, TinyOS uses nesC's features to link these
callbacks, called events, statically.”

TinyOS home page: http://www.tinyos.net/

TinyOS tutorial: http://docs.tinyos.net/tinywiki/index.php/TinyOS_Tutorials

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The Contiki OS

Loadable programs
Loaded program Can be easily updated

Communication service

Core Language runtime

Service Core: single binary
Program Loader Usually never modified

Kernel

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Sensor Network Programming

− Sensor Network programming can be: node centric or it can be

application centric.
− Node-centric approaches focus on development of a software for nodes
(on a per-node level).
− Application-centric approaches focus on developing software for a part or
all of the network as one entity.
− The application centric programming will require collaboration among
different nodes in the network for collection, dissemination, analysis
and/or processing of the generated and collected data.
− While in node centric programming the main focus is on developing a
software on a per-node level.

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Nodes and Applications in
Wireless Sensor Networks

− Sensor Networks consist of nodes with different capabilities.

− Large number of heterogeneous sensor nodes
− Spread over a physical location
− It includes physical sensing, data processing and networking
− In ad-hoc networks, sensors can join and leave due to
mobility, failure etc.
− Data can be processed in-network, or it can be directly
communicated to the endpoints.
Types of nodes

− Sensor nodes
− Low power
− Consist of sensing device, memory, processor and radio
− Resource-constrained
− Sink nodes
− Another sensor node or a different wireless node
− Normally more powerful/better resources
− Gateway
− A more powerful node
− Connection to core network
− Could consist service representation, cache/storage, discovery and
other functions
Types of applications

− Event detection
− Reporting occurrences of events
− Reporting abnormalities and changes
− Could require collaboration of other nearby or remote nodes
− Event definition and classification is an issue
− Periodic measurements
− Sensors periodically measure and report the observation and measurement
data
− Reporting period is application dependent
− Approximation and pattern detection
− Sending messages along the boundaries of patterns in both space/time
− Tracking
− When the source of an event is mobile
− Sending event updates with location information
Requirements and challenges

− Fault tolerance
− The nodes can get damaged, run out of power, the wireless
communication between two nodes can be interrupted, etc.
− To tolerate node failures, redundant deployments can be necessary.
− Lifetime
− The nodes could have a limited energy supply;
− Sometimes replacing the energy sources is not practical (e.g.
underwater deployment, large/remote field deployments).
− Energy efficient operation can be a necessity.
Requirements and challenges – Cont’d

− Scalability
− A WSN can consists of a large number of nodes
− The employed architectures and protocols should scale to these
numbers.
− Wide range of densities
− Density of the network can vary
− Different applications can have different node densities
− Density does not need to be homogeneous in the entire network and
network should adapt to such variations.
Requirements and challenges – Cont’d

− Programmability
− Nodes should be flexible and their tasks could change
− The programmes should be also changeable during operation.
− Maintainability
− WSN and environment of a WSN can change;
− The system should be adaptable to the changes.
− The operational parameters can change to choose different trade-offs
(e.g. to provide lower quality when energy efficiency is more
important)
Required mechanisms

− Multi-hop wireless communications

− Communication over long distances can require intermediary nodes as
relay (instead of using high transmission power for long range
communications).
− Energy-efficient operation
− To support long lifetime
− Energy efficient communication/dissemination of information
− Energy efficient determination of a requested information
− Auto-configuration
− Self-xxx functionalities
− Tolerating node failures
− Integrating new nodes
Required mechanisms

− Collaboration and in-network processing

− In some applications a single sensor node is not able to handle the given task
or provide the requested information.
− Instead of sending the information form various source to an external
network/node, the information can be processed in the network itself.
− e.g. data aggregation, summarisation and then propagating the processed data with
reduced size (hence improving energy efficiency by reducing the amount of data to
be transmitted).
− Data-centric
− Conventional networks often focus on sending data between two specific
nodes each equipped with an address.
− Here what is important is data and the observations and measurements not
the node that provides it.
Communication and Network Protocol Support
Communication Protocols

− Wired
− USB, Ethernet
− Wireless
− Wifi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, IEEE 802.15.x
− Single-hop or multi-hop
− Sink nodes, cluster heads…
− Point-to-Point or Point-to-Multi Point
− (Energy) efficient routing
 Wireless Communications

− Mostly performed in unlicensed bands according to open standards

− Standard: IEEE 802.15.4 -Low Rate WPAN
− 868/915 MHz bands with transfer rates of 20 and 40 kbit/s, 2450 MHz band with a
rate of 250 kbit/s
− Technology: ZigBee, WirelessHART
− Standard: ISO/IEC 18000-7 (standard for active RFID)
− 433 MHz unlicensed spectrum with transfer rates of 200kbit/s
− Technology: Dash7

Adapted from: The Web of Things, Marko Grobelnik, Carolina Fortuna, Jožef Stefan Institute.
 Wireless Communications - continued

− Standard: IEEE 802.15.1 –High Rate WPAN

− 2.40GHzbands with transfer rates of 1-24 Mbit/s
− Technology: Bluetooth (BT 3.0 Low Energy Mode)
− Standard: IEEE 802.11x –WLAN
− 2.4, 3.6 and 5GHz with transfer rates 15-150 Mbit/s
− Technology: Wi-Fi

− Licensed bands
− Standard: 3GPP –WMAN, WWAN cellular communication
− 950 MHz, 1.8 and 2.1 GHz bands with data rate ranging from 20 Kbit/s to 7.2
Mbit/s, depending on the release
− Technology: GPRS, HSPA

Adapted from: The Web of Things, Marko Grobelnik, Carolina Fortuna, Jožef Stefan Institute.
IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN

− IEEE standard for WPAN applications

− MAC protocol
− Single channel at any one time
− Combines contention-based and schedule-based schemes
− Asymmetric: nodes can assume different roles
− It does not define other higher-level layers and
interoperability sub-layers are
− ZigBee is built on this standard
− TinyOS stack also uses some items of IEEE 802.15.4 hardware.
Network protocols

− The network (or OSI Layer 3 abstraction) provides an

abstraction of the physical world.
− Communication protocols
− Most of the IP-based communications are based on the IPV.4 (and
often via gateway middleware solutions)
− IP overhead makes it inefficient for embedded devices with low bit
rate and constrained power.
− However, IPv6.0 is increasingly being introduced for embedded
devices
− 6LowPAN
 IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks
(6LowPAN)

− 6LoWPAN typically includes devices that work together to connect the

physical environment to real-world applications, e.g., wireless sensors.
− Small packet size
− the maximum physical layer packet is 127 bytes
− 81 octets (81 * 8 bits) for data packets.
− Header compression
− Fragmentation and reassembly
− 6LoWPAN defines a header encoding to support fragmentation when
IPv6 datagrams do not fit within a single frame and compresses IPv6
headers to reduce header overhead.
− Support for both 16-bit short or IEEE 64-bit extended media access
control addresses.
− Low bandwidth
− Data rates of 250 kbps, 40 kbps, and 20 kbps for each of the currently defined
physical layers (2.4 GHz, 915 MHz, and 868 MHz, respectively).

Source: Jonathan W. Hui and David E. Culler, IPv6 in Low-Power Wireless Networks, Proceedings of the IEEE (Volume:98 , Issue: 11 ).
 6LowPAN

− IPv6 requires the link to carry a payload of up to 1280 Bytes.

− Low-power radio links often do not support such a large
payload - IEEE 802.15.4 frame only supports 127 Bytes of
payload and around 80 B in the worst case (with extended
addressing and full security information).
− the IPv6 base header, as shown, is relatively large at 40 Bytes.

Source: Jonathan W. Hui and David E. Culler, IPv6 in Low-Power Wireless Networks, Proceedings of the IEEE (Volume:98 , Issue: 11 ).
Using gateway and middleware

− It is unlikely that everything will be IP enabled and/or will run

IP protocol stack
− Gateway and middleware solutions can interfaces between
low-level sensor island protocols and IP-based networks.
− The gateway can also provide other components such as QoS
support, caching, mechanisms to address heterogeneity and
interoperability issues.
Gateway and IP networks

Gateway

Frieder Ganz, Payam Barnaghi, Francois Carrez and Klaus Moessner, "Context-aware Management for
Sensor Networks", in the Fifth International Conference on COMmunication System softWAre and
middlewaRE (COMSWARE11), July 2011.
Service interfaces to WSN

− Supporting high-level request/response interactions

− Asynchronous event notifications
− Identifying and accessing data
− By location, by observed entity,
− By semantically meaningful representations – “Room 35BA01”
− Accessibility of in-network processing functions
− Accessing node/network status information (e.g., battery level)
− Security, management functionality, …
− There are emerging solutions and standards in this domain supported by
Semantic Web technologies and Linked-data (we study some of these next
week).
Service interfaces and Web connectivity

− WSN nodes are typically resource constrained

− Memory and process limitations
− Communication load
− Often none-IP or use 6LowPAN
− Using gateway and middleware is a clear solution
− Or can the nodes directly connect to the Web and or
support service interfaces?
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

− CoAP is a transfer protocol for constrained nodes and networks.

− CoAP uses the Representational State Transfer (REST) architecture.
− REST make information available as resources that are identified by URIs.
− Applications communication by exchanging representation of these resources
using a transfer protocol such as HTTP.
− Clients access servicer controlled resources using synchronous
request/response mechanisms.
− Such as GET, PUT, POST and DELETE.
− CoAp uses UDP instead of TCP and has a simple “message layer” for re-
transmitting lost packets.
− It also uses compression techniques.

C. Bormann, A. P. Castellani, Z. Shelby, "CoAP: An Application Protocol for Billions of Tiny Internet Nodes," IEEE Internet Computing,
vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 62-67, Feb. 2012, doi:10.1109/MIC.2012.29
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

Server

200 OK
GET/temperature, Txt/plain
Room A 17, Celsius

Client
 CoAP protocol stack and interactions

C. Bormann, A. P. Castellani, Z. Shelby, "CoAP: An Application Protocol for Billions of Tiny Internet Nodes," IEEE Internet Computing,
vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 62-67, Feb. 2012, doi:10.1109/MIC.2012.29
Further reading and examples

− Processes and protothreads: https://github.com/contiki-

os/contiki/wiki/Processes

− Examples: https://github.com/contiki-
os/contiki/tree/master/examples

− Cooja simulator (if you are interested in advance

programming and simulation): https://github.com/contiki-
os/contiki/wiki/An-Introduction-to-Cooja

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