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UPDATED TO 2023 SYLLABUS

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CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE UNIT 4: RATES, EQUILIBRIA AND FURTHER ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (W
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Plot a graph for the volume of gases collected (y-axis)

against time(x-axis) and draw a tangent to determine
1. Kinetics the reaction rate at certain times.
If gases produced are soluble in water, do not use
water collection method.
1.1. Rate of Reactions
Electrical Conductivity:
Rate of Reactions could be expressed in two ways: A conductivity meter is used to measure changes in
change in concentration of products d[products] the electrical conductivity of a reaction.
Rate = =
time dt Like a colourimeter, you need to set a calibration
​ ​

Or:
− change in concentration of reactants −d[reactants] curve with concentration and find the reaction rate.
Rate = time = dt​ ​

Other physical properties: change in liquid volume,

Note that if you want to look at the change in [reactants] chirality, refractive index
to calculate the rate of reactions, remember to include
‘minus’ in your calculation.
1.3. Rate Equations
Unit of rate of reaction: mol dm-3 s-1
A + B -> C
1.2. Techniques of Measuring Reaction Rate = k[A]m [B]n

Rate k is the rate constant, m and n are the orders of the

reaction
Titration:
[A] is the concentration of A
Quenching: The process of slowing down the reaction
The total order of the reaction is m + n
in an aliquot (small samples). (e.g. immersing in an ice
The order of reaction can be zero order, first order or
bath)
second order
An aliquot of reactions was removed at regular
K has units that can be calculated by cancelling: \n K =
intervals and quenching to stop/slow down the rate
reaction in the aliquot. [A]m [B]n ​

[A] and [B] are in mol dm−3 and rate is in moldm−3 s−1
Aliquot is then titrated to determine the concentration
of a reactant or product species. Solids and liquids are not included in the rate equation.
Plot a graph to determine the rate of reaction by Gaseous and aqueous substances are included in the rate
drawing tangents. equation.
Mass change:
Mass of marble chips reacted=mass of flask and 1.4. Orders of Reaction
contents before reaction- mass of flask and contents
after reaction Zero Order: the reactant has no impact on the overall
All of the masses are measured by digital balance rate, i.e., the rate does not change when the
Record time dissipated for the complete reaction concentration of the reaction changes. Rate = k
Plot a graph of mass against time. First Order: the change of reactant is directionally
proportional to the change in the rate of reaction. Rate =
Most suitable for gases with high density. k[A]
Second order: The rate of reaction is proportional to the
Colorimetry:
concentration squared. Rate = k[A]2
The colourimeter is more reliable as it detects
The order can be worked out from concentration-time
changes that human eyes cannot.
Colorimeter uses the principles of the amount of light graphs:
If the graph is linear, the order is 0 as the rate is the
absorbed by the light-sensitive device (photocell), and
it is recorded as absorbance of light. gradient, and the gradient does not change.
Create a calibration curve between different Second-order reaction curves for concentration-time
concentrations of reactants and the absorbance of graphs will have a larger ‘kink’ or ‘curve’ in the graph than
first order
light.
You can work out the rate equation using an initial rates
Record the concentration regularly by recording
table
absorbance and convert it to concentration.
Half-life: the time it takes for the concentration of
Find the rate of reaction by using tangent.
The volume of gas evolved: reactants to halve
Measure the change in volume of gas using water In first-order reactions, the half-life is constant throughout
the reaction, and you can work it out using a graph:
over a measuring cylinder or gas syringe.
Record the volume of gases collected at regular time
intervals.

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In Sn 1 , the halogen group leaves the halogenoalkane

​

first, creating a carbocation where the nucleophile can

attack. The rate-determining step is the slowest step,
which is creating the carbocation. The nucleophile attracts
regions with a positive charge and attacks very quickly.
In Sn 2 , the halogen group leaves simultaneously as the
​

nucleophile reacts, making an unstable intermediate. This

is the only step in the reaction, so it is the rate-
determining step, so there are two reactants in the rate
equation.
Tertiary halogenoalkanes react via Sn 1 as they form the
​

most stable carbocations.

The order of a reaction can be determined experimentally Primary halogenoalkanes react via Sn 2 as smaller groups
​

by measuring the rate of the product or reactant over are attached to the carbocation, making it easily
time and then drawing a concentration-time/mass- accessible. Secondary halogenoalkanes can react by
time/volume-time graph either mechanism ( Sn 1 or Sn 2 )
​ ​

1.5. Measuring the Rate of Reaction 1.8. Catalysts

If a gas is produced in the reaction, then the mass will Catalysts lower a reaction's activation energy, providing
decrease over time. an alternate pathway for the reaction to take place. There
A gas syringe or an upside-down measuring cylinder can are two types of catalysts: homogeneous and
measure the volume of gas produced. heterogeneous catalysts.
Titrations can be used to measure the concentration of a Homogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in the same
product or reactant at different points in the reaction. state as the reactants. These catalysts are used in the
Colorimetry uses a colourimeter to see a product's reaction and are regenerated by the end of the reaction.
formation by measuring the liquid's opacity. A calibration Heterogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in a
curve is generated by the absorption values, from which a different state from the reactants. These work by
concentration-time graph can be calculated. adsorption, where molecules are adsorbed onto the
active site on the catalyst surface so the reaction can
1.6. Rate Determining Step occur. This allows closer proximity of the reactants and
weakens the bonds in the reactants so the products can
The overall rate of a reaction is determined by the rate- form more easily. The products are then desorbed from
determining step, which is the slowest step in a multi-step the catalyst.
reaction:
The rate-determining step can be used to write the rate
equation and to predict the mechanism for the reaction \n 2. # Introduction to Entropy
−Ea
Ae Ea
K= RT / lnk = lnA − RT
​ ​

K is the rate constant, R is the gas constant, T is the Some reactions can occur spontaneously at room
temperature in Kelvins, A is the Arrhenius constant, and temperature, so enthalpy and entropy are both involved in
Ea is the activation energy. the feasibility of a reaction.
The Ink form of the equation can be used to plot a graph Entropy is a measure of disorder. Gas > liquid > solid, as
of y = mx + c so the activation energy can be found. gas has the greatest entropy value as it has the most
disorder
As temperature increases, entropy increases as the
1.7. Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions particles become more spread apart - more disorder.
When there are more moles of the product than a
Two nucleophilic substitution reactions can occur: Sn 1
​

reactant, or when a substance is changing state from a

and Sn 2 .
​

solid to a liquid or liquid to a gas, or when a lattice is

Sn 1 has only one reactant in the rate equation: rate =k[A]
​
dissolving (as the ions can move), there is a sudden
| This reaction is a two-step reaction, and two different increase in entropy as there is more disorder.
enantiomers can be formed If entropy change is positive, then the products are more
Sn 2 has two reactants in the rate equation: rate = k[A][B]
​
disordered than the reactants, and if entropy change is
| This reaction is a one-step reaction that has an negative, then the products are less disordered than the
intermediate. Only one product is formed. reactants.
[A] is the halogenoalkane | [B] is the nucleophile The reaction will naturally want to increase its entropy by
increasing its disorder.

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Gibbs Free Energy is measured in KJ mol−1 , an indicator The less exothermic (more endothermic) the enthalpy of
of reaction feasibility, and can be represented graphically. hydration is, the more soluble it will be.

Entropy 3. Chemical Equilibria

2.2. Equations 3.1. Equilibrium Constant of an Ideal
ΔStotal = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings
​ ​ ​
Gaseous Mixture (Kc and Kp)
ΔSsurroundings = −ΔH
​

T ​

There are some equilibrium constants: K c and K p for

​ ​

ΔSsystem = ΔSproducts − ΔSreactants

​ ​ ​

concentration and pressure, respectively

ΔG = ΔH − T ΔSsystem ​

K c is equal to the concentration of products divided by

​

the concentration of the reactants, and depending on the

2.3. Enthalpies number of moles used, the concentrations could be raised
to the power of the number of moles used.
Thermodynamic feasibility and kinetic feasibility are Solids and liquids are not included in the K c calculations.
​

different as a reaction has to have enough energy to Gaseous and aqueous substances are included in the K c ​

occur spontaneously or the kinetic rate could be calculations.

prolonged, so the reaction would not appear to have K p is a constant for gaseous equilibria.
​

happened at all. Like the rate constant, K c and K p can also have varying
​ ​

Lattice Dissociation Enthalpy: The enthalpy changes when units depending on the powers of the concentrations or of
one mole of a solid ionic compound is completely the partial pressures.
dissociated into its gaseous constituent ions under K p is calculated using partial pressures, where the partial
​

standard conditions. pressure equals the mole fraction * total pressure.

Enthalpy of Lattice Formation: The enthalpy changes when Mole fraction is calculated by moles of A (at
one mole of a solid ionic compound is completely equilibrium)/total moles (at equilibrium)
dissociated into its gaseous constituent ions under Partial pressure is shown by (pA)
standard conditions. K c and K p are calculated similarly, where the partial
​ ​

Atomisation Enthalpy: the energy required to form 1 mole pressures of the products are divided by the partial
of gaseous atoms from the element in its standard state pressure of the reactants, and depending on the number
under standard conditions. of moles, the partial pressures are raised to the power of
Enthalpy of Electron Affinity: The enthalpy change when the number of moles used.
one mole of electrons is added to one mole of gaseous K c and K p are unaffected by catalysts, concentration
​ ​

atoms to form one gaseous 1- ions under standard changes or pressure changes as the equilibrium will shift
conditions. to counteract those changes. The position of the
Enthalpy of solution: enthalpy change when one mole of equilibrium will remain the same.
solute is dissolved in water to infinite dilution so that the Temperature does affect K c and K p as it affects the
​ ​

ions no longer interact under standard conditions. position of the equilibrium, therefore changing the
Enthalpy of hydration: The enthalpy changes when one concentration of the products and reactants.
mole of gaseous ions is dissolved in water to form one
mole of aqueous ions under standard conditions.
Born Haber Cycles works like Hess’s Law, allowing
3.2. Temperature and Equilibrium
enthalpy values to be measured indirectly. This value may Constant
differ from the theoretical value as it assumes that every
ionic compound is in a perfect ionic lattice when some If the forward reaction is exothermic, an increase in
ionic bonds have a covalent character. temperature will shift the equilibrium to the left,
The perfect ionic model assumes that the ions have no increasing the concentration of the reactants while
covalent character, that the ions are spherical, and that decreasing the concentration of the products - K c and
​

the charge is distributed evenly across the ionic bond. K p will decrease as the denominator is increasing.
​

Some covalent character happens when the ions are of If the forward reaction is endothermic, an increase in
different sizes and have different charges, as the cation temperature will shift the equilibrium to the right,
can polarise the anion. The charge distribution is uneven. increasing the concentration of the products while
Hess’s Law can be used to find the enthalpy of solution, decreasing the concentration of the reactants - K c and​

hydration or lattice dissociation. K p will increase as the numerator is increasing.

​

Attractions are larger with ions with a large charge and Similar arguments can be said for a decrease in
smaller, so the enthalpy of hydration and lattice temperature, where if the forward reaction is
dissociation increases. endothermic, the concentration of reactants will increase,

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and the concentration of products will decrease - K c and ​

4.3. The Equilibrium Constant of Water

K p will decrease. If the forward reaction is exothermic,
(Kw)
​

the concentration of reactants will decrease, and the

concentration of products will increase - K c , and K p will
​ ​

increase. K w = [OH − ][H + ] = 1 x 10 −14 at 25 degrees Celsius

​

H2 O -> H + + OH −
​

As temperature increases, the equilibrium will favour the

3.3. ΔG
forward reaction as it is endothermic, and water will
ΔG is an indicator of reaction feasibility, and the equation become more acidic as the concentration of H + ions will
increase
determines it: ΔG = −RTlnK , where R is the gas
constant, T is the temperature in Kelvins, and K is the pK w = −logK w ​ ​

equilibrium constant. K w = 10 −pKw

​
​

When ΔG is less than or equal to 0, the reaction is feasible pH of a strong base can be calculated using the
when the equilibrium constant is large. concentration of the OH − ions and K w to find the [H + ]
​

ΔStotal = RlnK ​
ions

4.4. pH curves
4. Acid-Base Equilibria
pH curves show how the pH of a buffer solution changes,
4.1. Key Terms and these curves can have different equivalence points
depending on the reaction:
Bronsted-Lowry Base: A proton acceptor Strong Acid + strong base => pH 7
Bronsted-Lowry Acid: A proton donor Weak acid + weak base => equivalence point cannot be
Strong acid: An Acid that completely dissociates in determined
solution to form a high concentration of H + ions, which Strong acid + weak base => pH < 7 (more acidity)
gives a high pH (of 0-1) Strong base + weak acid => pH > 7 (more basicity)
Weak acid: An acid that does not completely dissociate in
solution; it forms a lower concentration of H + ions (pH 3-
7)
Weak base: A Base that does not completely dissociate in
solution, forming a pH of 7-11
Strong base: A base that completely dissociates in
solution, forming a pH of 12-14
Conjugate base: formed when an acid donates a proton
Conjugate acid: formed when a base accepts a proton;
these both include conjugate acid-base pairs

4.2. Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka)

pH = -log[H + ]
[H + ] = 10 −pH
[H + ] is equal to the concentration of a strong acid as it
will completely dissociate in solution in moldm−3
Weak acids and bases form acid-base equilibriums,
represented by K a , the equilibrium constant.
​

[H + ][A − ]
Ka = [HA] ​
For diprotic and triprotic acids (acids with two or three
pK a = −logK a
​ ​
protons to donate, e.g. H2 S O4 , H3 P O4 ), there are
​ ​ ​

If pK a is low, then that means that it is a strong acid

​
multiple equivalence points on the curve
K a = 10 −pKa
​
​

pK a can be found by using a pH curve as it is equal to the

​

Diluting strong acids will increase the pH, e.g., by one unit, pH at the half equivalence point
by ten times. Indicators have different ranges, so they are used for
If you dilute a weak acid, the pH will have a very small various chemical reactions as they change colour at
change (less than one unit) as an equilibrium is formed different pHs. So, selecting an indicator with the same
where the equilibrium shifts to counteract the change. range as the equivalence point is important, which can be
found in the data booklet.

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water and the C=O group. However, aldehydes and

4.5. Buffer Solution
ketones cannot form hydrogen bonds with themselves, as
A buffer solution is a solution that can resist a change in they do not have an δ+ H atom, giving them a lower
boiling point than carboxylic acids.
pH when small volumes of acid or base are added. It has
Aldehydes have the functional group R-CHO, with a
an extensive reservoir of OH − ions that can keep the
hydrogen and an oxygen atom attached to a carbon atom.
acid-base ratio constant.
This is found at the end of a carbon chain. This is formed
A buffer can be made from a weak acid and its salt or
when a primary alcohol is distilled and oxidised with
from a weak acid and a weak base.
K 2 C r 2 O7 , and when an aldehyde is heated under reflux,
Assumptions are that the salt completely dissociates in
​ ​ ​

it is oxidised to a carboxylic acid.

solution that the equilibrium concentration of the acid is
the same as the initial concentration of the acid, and that Ketones have the functional group R-CO-R, which is a
carbonyl group attached to two carbon groups. It is
the only source of H + ions is from the acid and not from
formed when secondary alcohol is oxidised with
water.
Adding small amounts of acid means that the buffer will
K 2 C r 2 O7 .
​ ​ ​

become slightly more acidic while adding small amounts

of the base means that the buffer will become slightly 5.3. Indicators
more basic as it decreases the concentration of the acid.
Buffers are used to keep the pH of the blood at a K 2 C r 2 O7 is reduced and undergoes a color change
​ ​ ​

reasonable level by the equilibrium of H2 C O3 + H2 O ->

​ ​ ​
from orange to green.
HC O3 + H3 O+ , these ions neutralize acid that enters
​ ​
The product is an aldehyde if a silver mirror is formed
the blood by converting them to carbonic acid and water, when Tollen’s Reagent is added.
as well as producing C O2 which is exhaled.
​
If Fehling’s solution/Benedict’s Reagent is warmed and
Enzymes require a specific pH to function, which a buffer turns blue to red, the product is an aldehyde.
solution maintains. Lithium aluminum hydride ( LiAlH4 ) is a reducing agent
​

in dry ether to reduce carboxylic acids and ketones back

to alcohols. LiAlH4 is reactive with water, so dry ether is
5. Organic Chemistry I
​

used.
Nucleophilic addition reactions occur with C N − ions and

5.1. Optical Isomers a carbonyl group, which is used to extend the carbon
chain. The product is a hydroxynitrile. KCN is used as the
reagent as HCN is a toxic gas and is hard to store.
A chiral centre is a molecule with four different
atoms/groups of atoms bonded around one carbon atom, The iodoform test is for C H3 C O− groups. When iodine
​

displaying optical isomerism. solution is added to a sample, then NaOH solution is

Optical isomers are also called enantiomers. added, a pale yellow precipitate will form, which is C HI 3 ​

Optical isomers are a type of stereoisomer with the same (triiodomethane)

molecular formula but a different arrangement in space; 2,4-DNPH (2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone) can be used to
they are mirror images of each other. make an orange precipitate with an aldehyde or ketone,
Each enantiomer can rotate plane-polarised light in which can then be melted to identify the aldehyde and
opposite directions, except for racemic mixtures, which ketone in the precipitate formed, which is done by
have equal amounts of each enantiomer, so the rotation comparing the melting point to a data booklet value
is cancelled out (this mixture is optically inactive)
Racemic mixtures can occur via Sn 1 reactions, as the
​
5.4. Carboxylic Acids
molecule can attack from either side of the enantiomer as
there is a planar carbocation intermediate, as well as Carboxylic acids are identified by the functional group
from nucleophilic addition reactions as the carbonyl group COOH (with a C=O group and an OH group), and they end
is also planar. with -anoic acid, e.g. butanoic acid, propanoic acid, etc.
Sn 2 reactions form a single unstable intermediate;
​
They are made by the oxidation of primary alcohols when
therefore, only one enantiomer is formed. heated under reflux with K 2 C r 2 O7 . Another method is
​ ​ ​

by the hydrolysis of nitriles.

Carboxylic acids can form hydrogen bonds with each
5.2. Carbonyl Compounds other and water because of the OH group. This gives
carboxylic acids a higher boiling point than aldehydes and
Carbonyl Compounds have a C=O bond, such as
ketones. However, as carbon chain length increases, the
aldehydes and ketones.
solubility decreases due to increased London forces.
Aldehydes and Ketones are soluble in water as the O in
Carboxylic acids are weak acids that partially dissociate in
the C=O bond is δ- and the H in the water molecules are
solution, and when they are reacted with a base, a salt is
δ+ therefore, hydrogen bonds can be formed between
formed (and water)

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C H3 C OOH + NaOH − > C H3 C OO− N a+ + H2 O

​ ​ ​
solvent. Some compounds are symmetrical, so they will
appear under the same peak, so the molecular formula is
5.5. Acyl Chlorides, Carboxylic acids, needed to deduce the compound fully.
H 1 NMR (proton NMR) analyses a molecule's different
and Esters hydrogen peaks, also measured against TMS. These
compounds must be dissolved in CC l4 as they do not
​

Acyl chlorides are derivatives of carboxylic acids that can contain hydrogen; therefore, they won’t appear on the
be formed when carboxylic acids react with PC l5 , and
​

spectrum. Compounds containing isotopes of hydrogen,

they contain the functional group -COCl, and the suffix of - such as deuterium, can also be used.
oyl chloride, e.g. propanoyl chloride, etc. The peaks in proton NMR show the relative intensity of
Carboxylic acids can also react with alcohols to form each hydrogen environment. These peaks may also have
esters in the presence of a sulfuric acid catalyst and when splitting patterns to show where each hydrogen
heated under reflux. A water molecule is formed. This is a environment is located in the molecule. These peaks
condensation reaction - also called esterification. This can follow the n+1 rule, telling you how many hydrogens are
be reversed by adding water to the ester again. on the adjacent carbon molecule. The n is the number of
Esters have a very nice smell, and they have low boiling hydrogens on the adjacent carbon. Singlets have no
points. They are used mainly in perfumes and make good hydrogens on the adjacent carbon; doublets have one
solvents for polar molecules. The functional group is - hydrogen on the adjacent carbon; triplets have two
COO- and they are named after the carboxylic acid and hydrogens on the adjacent carbon; quartets have three
alcohol used to make them, e.g. ethanol and propanoic hydrogens on the adjacent carbon, and so on.
acid make ethyl propanoate. The carboxylic acid will
always have the -oate suffix, while the alcohol has the
5.7. Chromatography
same suffix as their branch counterparts (e.g. ethyl,
methyl, etc)
These techniques can be combined to determine the
Acyl chlorides are very reactive. They can react with water
structure of a compound.
to form a carboxylic acid, they can react with an alcohol to
Chromatography involves a mobile phase and a
make an ester, they can react with ammonia to make an
stationary phase to separate and identify different
amide and they can react with a amide to make an N-
components of a mixture.
substituted amide. They react via nucleophilic
The mobile phase can be either a liquid or gas, and it is
addition/elimination reactions in aqueous conditions. the phase that allows molecules to move over or through
Esters can react with a base to form a carboxylate salt
the stationary phase. More soluble species move
and this is not reversible, which is called saponification, as
faster/further in the mobile phase.
it makes soaps (since the salts can have
The stationary phase is a substance more attracted to the
hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties). The salt can be
molecule being analyzed. The greater the attraction, the
converted into a carboxylic acid by adding H + slower/shorter distance the molecule will travel
A dicarboxylic acid and a diol can react to produce Rf value can be calculated by the distance moved by the
condensation polymers. A water molecule is released. An molecule divided by the distance traveled by the solvent,
ester linkage is formed (-COO-), making a polyester that and it is unique to every molecule, so it can identify
can be broken down when water is added, making it
molecules present in a mixture as the molecules will have
biodegradable and used for many plastic objects. They different affinities to the mobile/stationary phase. The Rf
will break down gradually in a landfill. value will change depending on which solvent is used.
Thin Layer Chromatography uses a silica-coated metal
5.6. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance plate as the stationary phase. The solvent separates the
sample, which is then analysed with UV light or iodine (to
High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry can be used to make it visible to the naked eye)
deduce the atomic structure and molecular mass of a For High-Performance Liquid Chromatography, a vertical
compound. It is a more refined version of mass column is filled with a solid, powdered substance that acts
spectrometry. as the stationary phase. The sample moves down a
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance is present in two types, column and is separated by the mobile phase. High
carbon 13 NMR and proton NMR they both allow you to pressures are used to force the mobile phase down the
deduce the structure of a molecule as different bonds column. The time the substance moves down the column
absorb different energies, so they are displayed on is called the retention time.
different peaks. Gas chromatography uses a high-pressured gas forced
TMS peak (tetramethylsilane) has a peak of 0 so it is used through a tube as a mobile phase, with a solid powdered
to compare the other peaks to it as it has four identical substance as the stationary phase. It is used to separate
carbon environments volatile liquids (it is fed through the apparatus as a
Carbon 13 NMR analyses the different number of carbon vapour)
environments in a molecule after it is dissolved in a

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Chromatography can be used in forensics, drug testing in advanced analysis of different compounds (GC-MS - Gas
sports, and deduction of compounds. It can also be chromatography-mass spectrometry)
combined with mass spectrometry to have a more

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Chemistry

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