Designation: E 1861 – 97

Standard Guide for

Use of Coal Combustion By-Products in Structural Fills1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 1861; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope C 595/C595M Specification for Blended Hydraulic Ce-

1.1 This guide covers procedures for the design and con- ments2
struction of engineered structural fills using coal combustion D 75 Practice for Sampling Aggregates4
by-products (CCBs). D 420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering, De-
1.2 The utilization of CCBs under this guide is a component sign, and Construction Purposes5
of a pollution prevention program; Guide E 1609 describes D 422 Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils5
pollution prevention activities in more detail. Utilization of D 653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
CCBs in this manner conserves land, natural resources, and Fluids5
energy. D 698 Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Character-
1.3 This guide applies only to CCBs produced solely by the istics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600
combustion of coal. It does not apply to ash or other combus- kN-m/m3))5
tion products derived from the burning of waste; municipal, D 854 Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils5
industrial, or commercial garbage; sewage sludge or other D 1195 Test Method for Repetitive Static Plate Load Tests
refuse, or both; derived fuels; wood; wood waste products; rice of Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use in
hulls; agricultural waste; or other non-coal fuels or other such Evaluation and Design of Airport and Highway Pave-
fuels blended with coal, or some combination thereof. ments5
1.4 The testing, engineering, and construction practices for D 1196 Test Method for Nonrepetitive Static Plate Load
CCB fills are similar to generally accepted practices for natural Tests of Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use
soil fills. The CCB structural fills should be designed with in Evaluation and Design of Airport and Highway Pave-
generally accepted engineering practices. ments5
1.5 Laws and regulations governing the use of CCBs vary D 1452 Practice for Soil Investigation and Sampling by
by state. The user of this guide has the responsibility to Auger Borings5
determine and comply with applicable requirements. D 1556 Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil In
1.6 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded Place by the Sand-Cone Method5
as the standard. The SI units given in parentheses are for D 1557 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Charac-
information only. teristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56 000 ft-lbf/ft3
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the (2700 kN-m/m3))5
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the D 1586 Test Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- Sampling of Soils5
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- D 1883 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. Laboratory-Compacted Soils5
D 2166 Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength
2. Referenced Documents of Cohesive Soil5
2.1 ASTM Standards: D 2167 Test Method for Density and Unit Weight of Soil in
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement2 Place by the Rubber Balloon Method5
C 188 Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement2 D 2216 Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water
C 311 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or (Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock5
Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture in D 2435 Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation
Portland-Cement Concrete3 Properties of Soils5
D 2850 Test Method for Unconsolidated, Undrained Com-
pressive Strength of Cohesive Soils in Triaxial Compres-
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-50 on Environ- sion5
mental Assessment and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E50.03on
Pollution Prevention, Reuse, Recycling, and Environmental Efficiency.
Current edition approved March 10, 1997. Published May 1997.
2 4
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.01. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.03.
3 5
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.02. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.08.

Copyright © ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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 E 1861
D 2922 Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil- 3.2.3 boiler slag, n—a molten ash collected at the base of
Aggregate in Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth)5 slag tap and cyclone boilers that is quenched in a water-filled
D 3080 Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under hopper and shatters into black, angular particles having a
Consolidated Drained Conditions5 smooth, glassy appearance.
D 3550 Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils5 3.2.4 bottom ash, n—agglomerated ash particles formed in
D 3877 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Expansion, pulverized coal boilers that are too large to be carried in the
Shrinkage, and Uplift Pressure of Soil-Lime Mixtures5 flue gases and impinge on the boiler walls or fall through open
D 4253 Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and Unit grates to an ash hopper at the bottom of the boiler. Bottom ash
Weight of Soils Using a Vibratory Table5 is typically grey to black in color, is quite angular and has a
D 4254 Test Method for Minimum Index Density and Unit porous surface texture.
Weight of Soils and Calculation of Relative Density5 3.2.5 coal combustion by-products, n—fly ash, bottom ash,
D 4318 Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and boiler slag, or flue gas desulfurization (FGD) material resulting
Plasticity Index of Soils5 from the combustion of coal.
D 4429 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of 3.2.6 drainage blanket, n—a uniform layer of permeable
Soils in Place5 material (such as sand, crushed stone, or bottom ash) installed
D 4643 Test Method for Determination of Water (Moisture) with properly designed filter media at the base of a structural
Content of Soil by the Microwave Oven Method5 fill to maintain the fill in a drained condition.
D 4959 Test Method for Determination of Water (Moisture) 3.2.7 electrostatic precipitator, n—a facility constructed at
Content of Soil by Direct Heating Method6 some coal-fired power plants to remove particulate matter (fly
D 4972 Test Method for pH of Soils6 ash) from the flue gas by producing an electric charge on the
D 5084 Test Method for Measurement of Hydraulic Con- particles to be collected and then propelling the charged
ductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a Flexible particles by electrostatic forces to collecting curtains.
Wall Permeameter6 3.2.8 flue gas desulfurization (FGD) material, n—by-
D 5239 Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in Soil products of FGD systems that have been processed using
Stabilization6 forced oxidation or chemical fixation and stabilization to
E 1527 Practice for Environmental Site Assessments: Phase produce a soil-like material.
I Environmental Site Assessment Process7 3.2.9 fly ash, n—coal ash that exits a combustion chamber
E 1528 Practice for Environmental Site Assessments: in the flue gas. Fly ash is typically a pozzolan. Some fly ash
Transaction Screen Process7 also exhibits self-hardening properties in the presence of
E 1609 Guide for Development and Implementation of a moisture.
Pollution Prevention Program7 3.2.10 internal erosion, n—piping; the progressive removal
G 51 Test Method for pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion of soil particles from a mass by percolating water, leading to
Testing8 the development of channels.
G 57 Test Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity 3.2.11 pozzolans, n—siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
Using the Wenner Four-Electrode Method8 materials that in themselves possess little or no cementitious
2.2 AASHTO Standards:9 value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
T 288 Determining Minimum Laboratory Soil Resistivity moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
T 289 Determining pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion Testing temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious
T 290 Determining Water Soluble Sulfate Ion Content in properties.
Soil
3.2.12 stabilized CCBs, n—CCBs that are blended with a
T 291 Determining Water Soluble Chloride Ion Content in
cementitious binder to induce or enhance a pozzolanic reac-
Soil
tion.
3. Terminology 3.2.13 structural fill, n—an engineered fill with a projected
beneficial end use that is typically constructed in layers of
3.1 Definitions—Definitions are in accordance with Termi-
uniform thickness and compacted to a desired unit weight
nology D 653.
(density) in a manner to control the compressibility, strength,
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
and hydraulic conductivity of the fill.
3.2.1 baghouse, n—a facility constructed at some coal-fired
power plants consisting of fabric filter bags that mechanically 3.2.14 thixotropic, adj—the property of a material that
trap particulate (fly ash) carried in the flue gases. enables it to stiffen in a relatively short time on standing, but
3.2.2 beneficial use, n—projects promoting public health upon agitation or manipulation to change to a very soft
and environmental protection, offering equivalent success rela- consistency or to a fluid of high viscosity, the process being
tive to other alternatives, and preserving natural resources. completely reversible.

4. Significance and Use

6

7
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.09. 4.1 General—The CCBs can be effective materials for the
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 11.04.
8
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.02.
construction of engineered, structural fills. The CCBs may be
9
Available from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation used as: structural fill for building sites and foundations;
Officials, 444 N. Capitol St., NW, Washington, DC 20001. embankments for highways and railroads, dikes, and levees;

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 E 1861
and in any other application requiring a compacted fill mate- addition of water. Compaction criteria are usually not specified
rial. Their low unit weight, relatively high shear strength, ease for FGD material that exhibits thixotropic properties.
of handling, and compaction all make CCBs useful as fill 4.2.2.2 Bottom ash is generally placed and compacted in a
material. The CCBs may be a cost-effective fill material in manner similar to non-cohesive coarse-grained soils or fine
many areas because they are available in bulk quantities and aggregate. Smooth drum vibratory rollers typically are most
reduce the expenditures required for the purchase, permits, and effective for the compaction of these materials. Bottom ash
operation of a soil borrow pit. Also, because CCBs are may or may not exhibit consistent moisture-density relation-
abundantly produced by-products, their use in large-volume ships.
applications such as in the construction of structural fills
4.2.2.3 Boiler slag is generally placed and compacted in a
provides an outlet for material, provided that the CCB is
environmentally and geotechnically suitable for the desired manner similar to non-cohesive coarse-grained soils or fine
use. aggregate. Smooth drum vibratory rollers typically are most
effective for the compaction of these materials. As with bottom
4.1.1 Fly ash is typically a pozzolan, however, certain fly
ash and FGD by-products may exhibit self-hardening proper- ash, boiler slag may or may not exhibit consistent moisture-
ties as well. The laboratory testing and design considerations density relationships.
for self-hardening and non-self-hardening CCBs vary in some 4.2.3 Strength:
instances. Guidance is provided in Sections 6-9. 4.2.3.1 Shear Strength—For non-self-hardening fly ash and
4.2 Engineering Properties and Behavior—The CCB struc- bottom ash, shear strength is derived primarily from internal
tural fills may be constructed with fly ash, bottom ash, boiler friction. Typical values for angles of internal friction for
slag, FGD material, or combinations thereof. Each of these non-self-hardening fly ash are higher than many natural soils.
materials typically exhibits general engineering properties that These ashes are non-cohesive and although the ash may appear
must be considered in the design of a CCB structural fill. These cohesive in a partially saturated state, this effect is completely
general engineering properties are discussed in the following lost when the material is either completely dried or saturated.
sections; however, it should be noted that the specific engi- (1) Due to its angular shape, the shear strength of bottom ash
neering properties of these materials can vary greatly from is typically greater than fly ash and is similar to the shear
source to source and must be evaluated for each material, or strength of natural materials of similar gradation. However,
combination of materials, to be utilized for a structural fill. friable bottom ash may exhibit lower shear strength than
4.2.1 Unit Weight—Many CCBs have relatively low unit natural materials of similar gradation.
weights. The low unit weight of these materials can be (2) The shear strength of boiler slag may be higher than that
advantageous for some structural fill applications. The lighter of natural materials of similar gradation, in part due to the
weight material will reduce the load on weak layers or zones of typically angular shape and hardness of the particles.
soft foundation soils such as poorly consolidated or landslide-
prone soils. Additionally, the low unit weight of these materials 4.2.3.2 Compressive Strength—Self-hardening and stabi-
will reduce transportation costs since less tonnage of material lized CCBs and FGD material undergo a cementing process
is hauled to fill a given volume. that increases with time. Hydration of dry self-hardening CCBs
4.2.1.1 Fly ash is typically lighter than the fill soils it commences immediately upon exposure to water and can
replaces with unit weight ranging from about 50 to 100 pcf (8 cement the CCB particles in a loose state, reducing the
to 16 kN/m3). compacted density and strength. Compressive strengths in
excess of 1000 psi can be achieved if the CCBs are compacted
4.2.1.2 Bottom ash is also typically lighter than coarse-
immediately after incorporation of water.
grained soils of similar gradation.
4.2.1.3 Boiler slag is typically as heavy, if not heavier, than 4.2.4 Consolidation Characteristics—Structural fills con-
natural soils of similar gradation. structed of fly ash or FGD material typically exhibit small
4.2.1.4 The FGD materials are also relatively lightweight, amounts of time-dependent, post-construction consolidation.
with unit weights ranging from about 50 to 100 pcf (8 to 16 This is because excess pore water pressures dissipate relatively
kN/m3). rapidly, and thus, most of the embankment settlement or
deformation occurs due to elastic deformation of the material,
4.2.2 Compaction Characteristics—Most CCBs can be
rather than by classical consolidation. Most deformation due to
placed and compacted in a manner very similar to soil and
aggregate fill materials. In fact, most CCBs exhibit very little the mass of the fill or structure thereon generally occurs during
cohesion and are not as sensitive to variations in moisture construction.
content as natural soils. 4.2.4.1 Bottom ash and boiler slag are free-draining mate-
4.2.2.1 Fly ash and FGD material are typically placed and rials that can be compacted into a relatively dense, incompress-
compacted in a manner similar to non-cohesive fine-grained ible mass. For these reasons, structural fills constructed of
soils. Smooth drum vibratory rollers typically compact these bottom ash or boiler slag also typically exhibit small amounts
materials most effectively. Although not always, fly ash and of time-dependent, post-construction consolidation or defor-
FGD material typically exhibit a measurable moisture-density mation, with most deformation occurring during construction.
relationship that can be utilized for compaction quality control. 4.2.4.2 Self-hardening fly ash and FGD material typically
It should be noted that fly ash and FGD material that exhibit exhibit minimal post-construction consolidation or deforma-
self-hardening properties must be compacted soon after the tion due to cementing and solidification of the CCBs.

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4.2.5 Permeability—The permeability of non-self- Some states have specific beneficial use provisions, while other
hardening fly ash is similar to values observed for natural silty states have no regulations addressing beneficial use.
soils. 4.3.2 Water Quality—The design and construction of CCB
4.2.5.1 Self-hardening fly ash and FGD material are rela- structural fills should consider the potential impacts on ground
tively impermeable, with permeability values similar to natural water and surface water to ensure protection of human health
clays. and the environment.
4.2.5.2 Bottom ash and boiler slag are typically as perme- 4.3.2.1 The CCB structural fills should typically be de-
able as granular soils of similar gradation. signed to provide separation between the CCB fill material and
4.2.6 Erosion Characteristics: the seasonal high ground water table. Measures taken to protect
4.2.6.1 Internal Erosion (piping)—Non-self-hardening fly both ground water and surface water include proper compac-
ash is subject to internal erosion due to its fine-grained, tion to reduce permeability and erosion and placement of
non-cohesive nature. Internal erosion can be controlled by suitable cover material to minimize infiltration and erosion.
providing adequate surface water controls to minimize infil- Structural fills should also be sloped to encourage runoff while
tration and by providing internal drainage when warranted. minimizing erosion concerns.
(1) Bottom ash and boiler slag typically are well graded and 4.3.3 Air Quality:
capable of being compacted to a stable mass. These attributes 4.3.3.1 Dust Control—Dusting must be controlled during
usually preclude any problems arising from internal piping of placement of CCBs in structural fills in order to avoid fugitive
material. dust and to protect workers. See 9.2.1 for recommended dust
(2) Self-hardening fly ash and FGD material are usually not control measures.
subject to internal erosion. 4.3.3.2 Radionuclides—As with other structural fill materi-
4.2.6.2 Surface Erosion—All CCBs may be eroded by wind als, certain radioactive elements are known to occur naturally
or water and require use of erosion controls similar to those in CCBs. The model standards and techniques for controlling
commonly used on earthwork construction projects. radon in accordance with Ref (4) are recommended for new
4.2.7 Swelling—Some self-hardening CCBs may swell with building construction, where needed.
time. Paragraph 6.3.9 provides guidance on evaluating the 4.4 Economic Benefits—The use of CCBs in structural fill
swelling potential of CCBs. can have economic benefits. These benefits are affected by
4.2.8 Liquefaction and Frost Heave—Although fine-grained local and regional factors including production rates, process-
and non-cohesive materials such as fly ash are susceptible to ing and handling costs, transportation costs, availability of
liquefaction and frost heave when saturated, these problems are competing materials, environmental concerns, and the experi-
readily controlled by design practices that allow for drainage ence of materials specifiers, design engineers, purchasing
away from the ash fill. Because of its sensitivity to moisture, it agents, contractors, legislators, regulators, and other profes-
is standard practice to design fly ash fills to be well drained. sionals.
Typically, drainage blankets to provide internal drainage and 4.4.1 The CCBs can be a cost-effective fill material. In
serve as a capillary barrier are included at the base of fills. many areas, it is available in bulk quantities. Use of CCBs
Also, locating fills in areas where they are not subject to reduces the expenditures for the purchase, permits, and opera-
saturation or infiltration by surface or ground water is normally tion of a soil borrow pit.
considered in design. Self-hardening and stabilized fly ash and
FGD material are not susceptible to liquefaction. 5. Site Characterization
4.2.8.1 Well-compacted bottom ash and boiler slag are not
typically susceptible to either liquefaction or frost heave. 5.1 General—The siting and design of a CCB structural fill
However, some of the finer bottom ash materials may behave requires the same characterization of site conditions that is
quite similarly to that of fly ash and would require the same typically required of earthwork construction projects of similar
consideration for design as fly ash embankments. size. An investigation of the geologic and hydrologic condi-
4.3 Environmental Considerations tions at the site is required to determine design parameters for
4.3.1 Regulatory Framework: the structural fill. In addition, consideration of environmental
4.3.1.1 Federal—The U.S. Environmental Protection resources at or near the site is required to avoid or minimize
Agency (USEPA) has completed a study of CCBs for the U.S. negative environmental consequences. Practices E 1527 and
Congress and has issued a formal regulatory determination E 1528 may be applied whenever a real estate transaction is
(1,2).10 The EPA “encourages the utilization of coal combus- involved.
tion by-products and supports State efforts to promote utiliza- 5.2 Geologic and Hydrologic Investigation—Subsurface
tion in an environmentally beneficial manner” (3). There is conditions at the site must be understood. This typically
currently no regulatory program at the Federal level that involves a review of available information about the site, a site
regulates the use of CCBs in structural fills. reconnaissance by a geologist or geotechnical engineer, and
4.3.1.2 State and Local—There is considerable variation in extraction of soil and rock samples from the subsurface for
state-mandated permitting and other regulatory requirements. classification and testing. Guide D 420 provides guidance for
conducting subsurface investigations.
5.3 Environmental Resources—Many sensitive environ-
10
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end of mental resources such as wetlands, floodplains, rare and
this guide. endangered species, and cultural resource areas are afforded

4
 E 1861
protection by federal, state, and local regulations and ordi- of the rate of hydration on compaction characteristics. Com-
nances. Appropriate action should be taken to comply with the paction criteria are not typically developed for FGD material
requirements of the regulatory agencies having jurisdiction at that exhibits thixotropic properties because excessive compac-
the structural fill site. tion may cause the material to liquefy.
6. Laboratory Test Procedures 6.3.4.2 Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag—Test Methods D 4253
and D 4254 may be used for the determination of maximum
6.1 General—Laboratory testing of the proposed fill mate- and minimum density of coarse-grained CCBs that do not
rials is needed to determine and confirm material properties for exhibit a moisture-density relationship.
design. Test results also provide documentation that may be
6.3.5 Strength—Material strength is defined by shear
requested or required by site owners and regulatory agencies.
The tests to be conducted should be determined based on site strength and compressive strength.
conditions, knowledge of the CCBs, end use, and local 6.3.5.1 Shear Strength—Test Method D 3080 can be used to
environmental considerations. determine the shear strength parameters of compacted CCB
6.2 Sampling and Handling—Sampling CCBs for testing specimens under drained conditions. This test is preferred
purposes should conform to Practice D 75 or Test Methods because it models the drained conditions that typically exist in
C 311 as appropriate. Guide D 420 with sample extraction a structural fill constructed of CCBs. When using Test Method
conducted in accordance with Practice D 1452, Test Method D 3080, the method is modified in that the shear box is not to
D 1586, or Practice D 3550, as appropriate, should be consid- be filled with water as required by Test Method D 3080.
ered. Proper laboratory protocols for handling finegrained 6.3.5.2 Compressive Strength of Non-Self-Hardening
material should be followed. CCBs—Test Method D 2850 can be used to predict the
6.3 Physical and Engineering Characteristics—Several as-constructed compressive strength of the CCB fill and to
standard test methods developed for soils may be used to design for specific site conditions, loading conditions, and fill
determine CCB properties for use in structural fills. These test height. Specimens tested for strength parameters shall be
methods define physical and engineering parameters for use in compacted to the unit weights and water contents required by
design, construction control, and for comparison to other the project compaction specifications.
materials. 6.3.5.3 Compressive Strength of Self-Hardening Fly Ash
6.3.1 Grain-Size Distribution—Test Method D 422 is com- and FGD Material—Test Method D 2166 can be used to
monly used for determining the grain size distribution of determine the unconfined compressive strength at various ages
CCBs. For fly ash and FGD material, a substantial portion of to evaluate short-term and long-term strength development.
the material will be finer than the No. 200 sieve, and hydrom- 6.3.6 Hydraulic Conductivity—Test Method D 5084 is com-
eter analyses will also be required. Distilled water is used in the monly used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of satu-
hydrometer test with a deflocculating agent added to prevent
rated CCBs. Hydraulic conductivity is used to estimate the
fly ash or FGD material from forming flocs. Self-hardening fly
quantity of infiltration for designing underdrains.
ash(es) and FGD material may require use of alcohol or other
nonreactive solution in place of the standard solution used. Fly 6.3.7 Compressibility—Samples should be prepared at the
ash often has a relatively uniform particle size and precautions degree of compaction specified for construction and at the
against overloading sieves are warranted. Specimen loss optimum water content determined by the compaction test.
through dusting can also be a problem. Specific gravity may This is because fly ash and FGD material tend to lose surface
vary with particle size. Specific gravity values used in hydrom- stability in the field when compacted at water contents greater
eter analyses should be appropriate to the portion of the sample than the optimum for compaction. Test Method D 2435 can be
being tested. used to determine the compressibility of saturated or unsatur-
6.3.2 Specific Gravity—Test Method D 854 is normally ated samples. The CCBs consolidate rapidly, therefore, com-
used for CCBs. For some fly ash and FGD samples, a pressibility, typically, is not a design concern. Because of the
significant portion of the particles may have a density less than non-cohesive nature of some CCBs, extra care in sample
water and float. Agitation of the slurry may be needed to keep handling is needed.
the particles in suspension so that the average specific gravity 6.3.8 Plasticity Index—Test Method D 4318 is a commonly
can be obtained. Alternately for this ash, self-hardening fly ash, used test for classifying and comparing fine-grained soils.
and FGD material, Test Method C 188, which uses kerosene as Because fly ash is nonplastic and is vitrified, correlations
the fluid, may be used. developed for cohesive soils with clay particles may not be
6.3.3 Water Content—Test Method D 2216 is normally used applicable to fly ash. The plastic limit determination may be
for CCBs. For self-hardening fly ash and FGD material, performed to ensure that the fly ash is nonplastic.
lowering the drying temperature to 140°F (60°C) may be 6.3.9 Swelling—Test Methods D 3877 can be used to deter-
considered to avoid driving off the water of hydration. mine the swelling potential of self-hardening fly ash and FGD
6.3.4 Compaction: material. Reactions producing the expansive properties do not
6.3.4.1 Fly Ash and FGD Material—Test Methods D 698 or commence for a period of more than 30 days after initial ash
D 1557 may be used depending on end use. For dry self- hydration. The test procedures must address this delayed
hardening fly ash and FGD material, the time interval between reaction. The procedure should be modified to extend the
wetting and compaction in the laboratory should be similar to wetting and drying cycles to a frequency determined by a
that anticipated during construction to account for the influence qualified design engineer.

5
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6.4 Chemical Characteristics—Chemical analyses are rou- whether the site development plan is satisfactory. Adjustments
tinely conducted by many CCB producers as a means of to the development plan or material properties are made to
determining material variation. The results of these analyses accomplish the project goals.
should be communicated to users of this material by means of 7.2.1 Conceptual Site Model—Initially a conceptual site
a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or some similar com- model is developed that identifies specific site characteristics
munication. For the structural fill designer, these results pro- regarding geology, hydrology, and topography. The pertinent
vide information on characteristics that may need to be material characteristics such as shear strength, load-bearing
considered in design, particularly with regard to assessing capability, and other properties regarding compaction, particle
chemical interaction between fill and other materials or struc- (grain) size, hydraulic conductivity, and general chemical
tures. Tests for soluble species may also be required by local properties should be determined for design use. The model
regulatory agencies. should address the changes in CCB material properties that
6.4.1 Chemical Composition—Test Methods C 311 is often occur with age, such as strength gain. Site and material
used to determine the major chemical constituents of CCB characteristics are determined by experience, literature search,
samples. site reconnaissance, field testing and sampling, and laboratory
6.4.2 pH—Test Method D 4972 or Practice D 5239 may be testing.
used to determine CCB pH. In assessing the test results, 7.2.2 Conceptual Design—Conceptual design involves pre-
consideration should be given to the possibility that the pH of paring a plan for site development that meets project goals
the CCB may vary with age, water content, and other condi- within the constraints of site and material characteristics and
tions. project finances. A general site layout that balances desired
6.4.3 Resistivity—Test Method G 57, a field test, is used to final configuration against current topography, material prop-
measure CCB resistivity as an indicator of possible corrosion erties and volumes, and site features is prepared. Since the
potential for embedded metals. An alternate laboratory proce- engineering properties (hydraulic conductivity, strength, and
dure is AASHTO Interim Method of Test T288. Likely, field compressibility) of CCBs are a function of the degree of
water contents should be considered in assessing test condi- compaction, a study must be performed to establish the degree
tions and results. Field water contents in drained CCB fills are of compaction that will satisfy the project goals. A general
likely to be close to the optimum water content for compaction. assessment of project feasibility is normally conducted as part
AASHTO Interim Methods of Test T289, T290, and T291 of conceptual design.
provide measurements of the pH, water-soluble sulfate ion 7.2.3 Detailed Design—The detailed design involves drain-
content, and water-soluble chloride ion content of the CCBs age design for surface water and ground water, planning of site
that are useful in evaluating corrosion potential. Test Method preparation, and determination of final cover. Analyses of
G 51 is also used to determine the pH of soil for use in structural performance are performed. If needed, corrosion
corrosion testing. protection for buried metal or concrete is specified.
6.4.4 Sulfate—Sulfate content as determined from the 7.2.4 Other Design Considerations—Consideration must be
CCBs chemical analysis by Test Methods C 311, or other given to potential water quality and air quality impacts in
method is used in a preliminary assessment of the potential for accordance with 4.3.2 and 4.3.3, respectively.
sulfate attack on concrete. As with corrosivity, likely field
7.2.4.1 During the design process it is also appropriate to
water conditions and variations in concentrations with time
resolve any questions and approvals needed from local or state
should be considered.
environmental agencies. While requirements vary from state to
7. Design Considerations state, a thorough geologic and hydrologic survey of the site is
7.1 General—Design involves developing a plan that satis- commonly required.
fies the site-specific design requirements within the physical 7.2.4.2 The ultimate end use of the site can present special
and engineering constraints of the fill material and the pro- design considerations. For example, fly ash or FGD material is
posed function of the completed project. The underlying not an appropriate medium for septic systems. A thicker soil
material and CCB must support its own mass and that of the cover may be appropriate depending on the planned end use of
load to be placed on it without excessive settlement, and the site. Deed restrictions may be warranted in some instances.
require no long-term maintenance beyond that typically exer- 7.3 Site Preparation and Internal Drainage—Some struc-
cised for the intended use. If applicable, the CCB must have tural fills constructed of non-self-hardening fly ash or FGD
sufficient shear strength to provide stable slopes. The design material must be well drained because of the sensitivity of the
process for CCBs is similar to that normally followed for material to the flow of water (that is, piping). Problems such as
cohesionless natural soil materials. Cohesion developed by slope stability, liquefaction, and frost heave that may result
self-hardening CCBs can also be considered in the design of fill from saturation of the CCBs are thus avoided. When necessary,
slopes and determination of bearing capacity. References (5-9) a drainage blanket can be used to provide internal drainage and
provide additional information regarding laboratory testing, serve as a capillary barrier. Also, locating CCBs in areas where
design, and construction procedures. they are not subject to inundation by surface or ground water
7.2 Design Process—The design process is an iterative is normally considered in design.
procedure whereby information concerning site and material 7.3.1 Site Preparation—Site preparation involves develop-
constraints are balanced against project goals. Information is ing the site in a suitable condition to facilitate construction of
developed in increasing detail and analyzed to evaluate the structural fill. Surface drainage is diverted and controlled.

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Erosion and sedimentation controls are installed. If needed, wet 7.4.3 Surface Drainage—Positive surface drainage is
areas are allowed to drain and dry. Unsuitable materials such as needed to prevent ponding that can lead to erosion problems.
vegetation and topsoil are removed and the subgrade is Suitable channel linings designed to accommodate storm flows
prepared. Provisions to stockpile any soil needed for final without damage are needed. Slopes on surface areas and in
cover are included. drainage channels should be sufficient to prevent ponding and
7.3.2 Site Drainage—Provisions for positive site drainage avoid long-term maintenance problems.
are essential if the structural fill is to be reliably maintained in 7.5 Structural Performance—In order to perform satisfac-
an unsaturated condition. Drainage of seeps and springs torily, any fill material must support its own mass, that of the
encountered during construction should be provided for in loads to be placed on it, and have acceptable settlement. Each
design of a site drainage system. A series of perforated pipe of these aspects is analyzed as part of the design process.
drains or aggregate-filled trenches are commonly used for this 7.5.1 Slope Stability—Embankment slopes should be stable
purpose. These systems are flexible and can be expanded in and able to stand without slumping or sliding. Stability
areal extent as needed to accommodate conditions encountered analyses should consider static, dynamic and seismic loadings,
during construction. Adequate filter protection of drains to and seepage forces, as appropriate. Desired factors of safety
ensure long-term, maintenance-free performance should be typically range from 1.2 (seismic and dynamic) to 1.5 (static).
included. Any provisions needed to control site ground-water Stability of exterior slopes, foundation soils and embankment
levels through collection and drainage should be included in combined, and cover soils should be analyzed.
the design. 7.5.2 Bearing Capacity—Structures located on or within the
7.3.3 Drainage Blanket—For non-self-hardening fly ash fill should be stable and function without excessive settlement
and FGD material, a drainage blanket of free-draining material or tilting. The bearing capacity of foundations supported by the
may be used. The drainage blanket also serves as a barrier to fill and underlying materials should be analyzed. The ability of
capillary saturation. Coarser CCBs such as bottom ash often the fill to support slabs and pavements to be located on the fill
have a suitable particle size range to serve as a drainage surface should be assessed.
blanket. Sand, gravel, or other aggregate can also be used 7.5.3 Settlement—As with any fill material, settlement due
depending upon the gradation of these materials. Adequate to consolidation and compression of the fill and the underlying
filter protection such as a geotextile between the fill and materials should be considered in design. Settlement may
drainage blanket must be considered and included to ensure adversely affect project performance if not considered in
satisfactory long-term performance. The drainage blanket design. Alternately, consideration of settlement magnitude and
should be designed so that the outlets will remain freely duration is commonly compensated for in the design process
drained. Including outlet pipes with rodent screens is one without difficulty.
method that is often satisfactory. 7.6 Compaction—Proper and uniform compaction (includ-
7.4 Surface Cover and Drainage—Provisions must be made ing control of molding water content) of CCBs placed in the
for controlling erosion of CCB fills. Due to its fine-grained, structural fill increases the strength of the material, reduces the
non-cohesive nature, non-self-hardening fly ash is readily compressibility, and produces a relatively uniform structural
eroded. Unprotected, compacted CCBs are erodible when fill. The CCBs are readily spread and compacted by conven-
exposed to surface runoff or high winds. Erosion control is tional construction equipment; vibratory compactors operated
normally accomplished by controlling surface drainage and at or near resonant frequency are particularly effective.
establishing permanent cover with pavement or soil and 7.6.1 Fly Ash and Non-Thixotropic FGD Material—
vegetation. Because they are fine-grained, fly ash and non-thixotropic FGD
7.4.1 Cover—Effective cover to control erosion can be material exhibit compaction behavior under static compaction
either pavement or soil depending upon the final use of the similar to natural soils in that compaction is sensitive to
surface. Surface configuration should include provisions for molding water content. Most fly ash and non-thixotropic FGD
controlled, positive drainage of surface runoff. Minimum material have well-defined compaction relationships, that is,
slopes to prevent ponding both on surfaces and in drainage for a given static compactive energy, there exists an optimum
ways of approximately 1 to 3 % are desirable so that settlement water content at which compaction of the CCB will achieve the
and minor surface variations can be accommodated. maximum dry unit weight. Attempting to compact fly ash or
7.4.2 Soil Thickness/Vegetation—The required thickness of FGD material above the optimum water content results in
soil cover varies and will depend upon site use, climate, and the displacement of the fly ash or FGD material and limited
type of vegetation to be established. The most important densification is attained. Using static compaction, the compac-
consideration is to control wind and water erosion of the tion of fly ash or FGD material with water contents below the
surface. On sites where erosion potential is small, 6 in. (150 optimum water content requires more compactive effort to
mm) of cover may provide protection, but 1 ft is probably a achieve desired results. However, the compaction of fly ash is
practical minimum thickness in most cases. Where erosion not especially sensitive to variations in water content when
potential is greater, or deeper rooted vegetation is planned, using vibratory compactors operated at the resonant frequency.
greater thicknesses may be warranted. In some cases CCB soil Thus, fly ash that is several percent below the optimum water
blends are used as part of the cover to reduce the need for soil content can be readily compacted using vibratory compactors
borrow. In these applications, testing of the blend to determine operated at the resonant frequency. Compaction characteristics
its suitability as a growing medium should be conducted. of dry self-hardening ash or FGD material change rapidly with

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time after exposure to water. fill material for the project. Method specifications have the
7.6.1.1 This property is a result of the rapid rate of hydration advantage of providing continuous quality control by monitor-
that produces a cementitious reaction. A reduction in maximum ing the ongoing construction activities. If the material source
density of more than 30 lb/ft3 can occur and must be addressed changes or the material itself changes during construction, then
by the design and compaction procedures. the field testing should be repeated on the new material.
7.6.2 Thixotropic FGD Material—It is not appropriate to Method specifications may also be useful for situations where
specify compaction criteria for thixotropic FGD material as variations in material properties make determination of the
excessive compaction may cause the material to liquefy. For appropriate compaction curve difficult.
this material, strength is not derived from the internal friction 7.6.7 Performance Specifications:
between particles, but from the cementitious reaction that 7.6.7.1 Fly Ash and FGD Material—The compaction crite-
occurs as the material cures. For this reason, temperature ria are typically expressed as a percentage of the maximum dry
effects should be considered in developing the placement unit weight, in accordance with Test Method D 698 or D 1557
procedure. and at molding water contents that do not exceed the optimum
7.6.3 Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag—These CCBs are typi- water content plus a given percentage and that prevent dusting
cally free-draining, therefore, unless saturated, the moisture during placement and compaction. When using static-type
content of these materials has little influence on their compac- compaction, an allowable range of water contents is also
tion characteristics. Simply wetting the bottom ash or slag usually specified so that the material will be in the range where
sufficiently to prevent bulking will promote adequate compac- the required unit weight can be readily achieved. Fly ash and
tion. FGD material have a tendency to be displaced under the mass
7.6.4 Placement of CCBs—The CCBs should be placed in of the compactor when placed above the optimum water
loose layers of uniform thickness. Each layer should be content. Specifications requiring placement over a range of
compacted to the required density because strength is derived water content less than the optimum water content will control
from internal friction, and this value is dependent on the this phenomenon. Experience has shown that vibratory com-
relative compaction/unit weight of the CCB. A maximum layer pactors operating at the resonant frequency can achieve the
thickness is usually specified to ensure that the required density required degree of compaction in a minimum of passes over a
is achieved through the full depth of the layer. Control of layer wide range of water contents, but not excessively wet of the
thickness is not as important for self-hardening CCBs because optimum water content. For FGD material that exhibits thixo-
additional strength is derived from the cementitious products tropic properties, the performance specification will typically
formed during the hydration process. specify the allowable layer thickness and strength requirements
7.6.5 Degree of Compaction: of samples tested in unconfined compression at specified time
7.6.5.1 Fly Ash and FGD Material—A typical requirement intervals.
is that the fill be compacted to a minimum of 95 to 100 % of 7.6.7.2 Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag—Performance specifi-
the maximum dry unit weight, in accordance with Test Method cations for bottom ash or boiler slag typically specify the
D 698, or 90 to 95 % of the maximum dry unit weight in compaction criteria as a percentage of the relative density in
accordance with Test Method D 1557. Similar requirements are accordance with Test Method D 4254, and may require use of
usually applied for the subgrade. In contrast to some soils, vibratory compaction equipment.
variation in absolute values of unit weights determined by the 7.6.8 Dust Control—Dusting does not occur during place-
range in percentage of maximum dry unit weights previously ment and compaction of CCBs when the molding water content
specified for the two methods are usually relatively small with of the CCB is sufficient to achieve the desired degree of
fly ash. Therefore either method is suitable. However, the compaction. The CCB surfaces exposed to the sun and wind
desired performance of the site in terms of safe slopes and can dry out and become susceptible to dusting. Dusting can be
adequate performance of foundations, structures, roadways, controlled by wetting the CCB, applying a dust suppressant,
and so forth, will dictate the degree of compaction needed. constructing wind screens, or by placing the final soil cover.
Compaction criteria should not be established for FGD mate- 7.7 Protection of Embedded Materials—When materials are
rial that exhibits thixotropic properties. to be embedded in the structural fill, it is prudent during design
7.6.5.2 Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag—Granular bottom ash to assess whether any deleterious reactions are likely to occur.
and boiler slag are typically compacted to 70 % relative Specifically, the potential for corrosion of pipes, conduits, and
density, in accordance with Test Method D 4254. Compaction other metal structures should be evaluated. Concrete structures
and water content specifications may dictate either the con- such as culverts, footings, and retaining walls should be
struction method to be used or the performance standard to be evaluated for sulfate attack.
attained. 7.7.1 Corrosion Protection—Low resistivity is commonly
7.6.6 Method Specifications—Method specifications specify used as an indicator of the corrosion potential of soil or
the type of compaction equipment, the fill material placement aggregates. Field tests with CCBs have shown that additional
methods, and the number of equipment passes to be used in contributing factors are high or low pH, high soluble sulfate
compaction. Method specifications are based on the results of and soluble chlorides, and partially saturated field moisture
field compaction tests on trial test strips. The test strips are conditions. It is appropriate to check all of these factors and
normally conducted at the construction site using the equip- consider the lifetime and sensitivity of the embedded material.
ment proposed for use and materials or sources that will supply Appropriate test methods are described in 6.4.3. The standards

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used by the local state transportation agency for evaluating structures bearing on or within the fill can be calculated by
corrosion potential of soil fill may be used as a reference. conventional procedures used for natural soils.
7.7.2 Sulfate Attack on Concrete—Sulfate attack on con- 8.4.1 Footings—Ultimate bearing capacity analysis is ap-
crete in CCB fills has received attention because of the sulfate propriate for footings bearing on compacted CCB structural
content in some CCBs. The sulfate exposure is considered fills. The analysis is simplified by the drained, non-cohesive
severe when the water-soluble sulfate in soil (or CCB) exceeds nature of the fill (except for self-hardening fly ash and FGD
0.20 % by weight, or when sulfate in water exceeds 1500 ppm. material). The relatively low unit weight of CCBs as compared
As with corrosion, other factors such as moisture will be to natural soils should be considered in the analyses. Footings
contributing factors. Also as with corrosion, there is a need to that are wider than the thickness of the fill below the footing or
assess sensitivity and lifetime of the structure, and the difficulty that are located near the edge of slopes are cases that may
of replacement or, repair. If sulfate exposure is a concern, the require special consideration.
use of blended or sulfate-resistant cements such as those 8.4.2 Slabs and Pavements—The ability of the fill to sup-
described in Specifications C 595/C 595M and C150, or appli- port slabs and pavements to be located on the fill surface can
cation of polymer or bituminous coatings may provide protec- be assessed by standard pavement design procedures and by
tion. determining the modulus of subgrade reaction by Test Methods
D 1195 or D 1196, or bearing ratio by Test Methods D 1883 or
8. Design Methods D 4429, as appropriate.
8.1 General—The underlying materials and the CCB fill 8.5 Lateral Earth Pressure—Conventional methods of
must support its own mass and the loads to be placed on it analysis of lateral earth pressure can be used for CCBs
without excessive settlement, and require no long-term main- considering that the material is cohesionless (except for self-
tenance beyond that typically exercised for the intended use. In hardening CCBs) and has a lower unit weight than many
addition, settlement due to the consolidation of the soils that lie natural soils. For structures that are fixed and unable to yield,
beneath the fill must be evaluated and maintained within earth pressure at rest coefficients of 0.5 are typically used in
tolerable limits considering the intended use of the site. The estimating loads. For most yielding retaining walls, active earth
process of analyzing these conditions for CCBs is similar to pressures are determined by Rankine’s method. Coulomb’s
that normally followed for conventional natural soil materials. method is generally used for walls over 20 ft (6.1 m) in height.
The procedure entails developing an analytical model of the fill
and underlying soils, the relevant site conditions, and deter- 9. Construction
mining whether expected physical behavior is within allowable 9.1 General—Construction procedures for CCB structural
limits. All design work and materials testing should be per- fills are similar to conventional earthwork operations. Routine
formed in accordance with established engineering practices methods employed with soil fills to control dusting, erosion,
and in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. and sedimentation are similarly required.
8.2 Slope Stability—As is done with conventional fill ma- 9.2 Weather Restrictions—Construction should be sus-
terials, analysis of structural fill slopes should consider pos- pended during severe weather conditions. Operations may
sible failure of the CCB fill as well as failure of the foundation proceed during moderately wet periods by reducing the amount
soils resulting from the load of the fill. of water added at the plant or job site to compensate for
8.2.1 Seepage and Drainage—Consideration of high water precipitation. Dry CCBs can also be disked into excessively
tables, seepage forces, seismic loadings, and excess pore wet CCBs to reduce the water content to an acceptable level.
pressures in foundation soils should be considered, as appro- Because fly ash obtained directly from silos or hoppers
priate. Adequacy of drainage provisions to maintain the fill in dissipates heat slowly, it may be placed during cold weather. If
a drained condition should be considered. frost penetrates the surface a few inches, it can be removed
8.2.2 Material Properties—Material properties for CCBs from the surface or recompacted upon thawing and drying.
should be as determined by laboratory testing. Characterization 9.2.1 Dust Control—When exposed to the elements and
of site materials and conditions should be in accordance with allowed to dry out, CCB surfaces are quite susceptible to
Guide D 420 with sampling, laboratory, and field testing produce dust. Dust control measures routinely used on earth-
conducted as appropriate. work projects are effective in minimizing airborne particulate
8.2.3 Stability Analyses—Stability analyses are typically at CCB fill sites. Typical controls include appropriate hauling
conducted for circular failure surfaces using the friction circle methods, use of wind breaks, moisture-conditioning of the
method that is conservative for most cases. For situations CCB, wetting or covering of exposed CCB surfaces, chemi-
where noncircular failure surfaces are to be analyzed, complex cally treating CCB surfaces and paving, wetting, and covering
conditions are to be assessed, or more precise estimates are of high-traffic haul roads with coarse materials.
required, other appropriate procedures may be used. 9.2.2 Erosion Control—The CCBs typically do not require
8.3 Settlement—Settlement analyses should consider com- additional sedimentation and erosion control measures beyond
pression of the fill resulting from foundations and other loads those normally employed for soil fills in accordance with state
placed on the structural fill as well as compression of the and local requirements.
foundation soils beneath the fill due to the combined mass of 9.3 Source and Delivery—The CCBs are typically supplied
the fill and the superimposed loads. Conventional methods of from sources containing little or no extraneous or deleterious
analyses are used as with natural soils. material. Non-self-hardening fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag
8.4 Bearing Capacity—The ability of the fill to support and FGD material are usually hauled in covered dump trucks

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with tightly sealed tailgates. These CCBs may be conditioned placement operations. Top surfaces should also be covered
with water at the plant, if necessary. Self-hardening fly ash is promptly to reduce infiltration of precipitation and runoff into
hauled in pneumatic tank trucks and conditioned with water at the fill and to minimize surface erosion.
the project site or may be partially conditioned and hauled in 9.8 Quality Control—Quality control programs for CCB
covered dump trucks to the project site. Care should be taken structural fills are similar to quality control programs for
to not overfill the trucks so that spillage does not occur. earthwork projects. These programs typically include visual
Adequate measures must be taken to ensure proper water observation of CCB placement operations, supplemented with
content when using fly ash or bottom ash that has been stored laboratory and field testing to confirm that the structural fill is
in landfills, ponds, and lagoons. Trucks should be spray-
constructed as designed. The testing requirements will vary
cleaned with water at the plant to reduce spillage and dust
depending on whether a method specification or performance
during transport. Provisions should be made for cleaning of
specification is used.
public roads in the event spillage does occur.
9.4 On-site Storage—Limit on-site storage of CCBs to the 9.8.1 Visual observations are typically made to verify lift
minimum quantity required to maintain the construction sched- thickness, the number of passes of the compactor on each lift,
ule. For stockpiles, provide sedimentation and erosion controls and the behavior of the CCB under the weight of the compac-
in accordance with state and local requirements. Self- tion equipment. Laboratory compaction tests (Test Methods
hardening fly ash that is not partially conditioned should be D 698, D 1557, D 4253, and D 4254) are performed to estab-
stored dry in pneumatic tank trucks or in suitably protected lish baseline data needed to control compaction in the field.
storage silos. Precautions normally taken for bulk storage of Field unit weight and water content tests are conducted
cement and lime may be required. regularly on compacted lifts to verify that the required degree
9.5 Site Preparation—The base of the fill should be stripped of compaction is achieved. Test Methods D 1556, D 2167, or
of vegetation and organic soils. The subgrade should be D 2922 may be used to determine the field unit weight. Test
compacted to the desired dry unit weight and underdrains Methods D 2216, D 4643, or D 4959 may be used to estimate
installed, when required. the water content.
9.6 Placement and Compaction—Place CCBs in uniform 9.8.2 It is prudent to maintain daily job logs documenting
layers not exceeding the thickness specified. The CCB must be site conditions, weather, and work activities. Water content and
spread uniformly; otherwise, the compaction equipment will unit weight tests should be taken as specified by the design
ride on uneven hard spots in the fill, resulting in softer areas engineer and whenever visual observations indicate the desired
between the high spots. Tracking the CCBs with a dozer or degree of compaction is possibly not being achieved. As a
truck prior to compaction will facilitate compaction to the guide in performance specifications, one test for every 1000 to
required density. Typically a CCB fill is compacted with a 2000 yd3 of fill is suggested.
vibratory or pneumatic-tired roller. Fill should not be placed on
saturated or frozen material. If water must be added to obtain
10. Keywords
optimum water content condition, allow adequate time for the
entire lift to equilibrate, yet compact before the surface dries 10.1 boiler slag; bottom ash; coal ash; coal combustion
out. Water should be sprayed uniformly. by-products; embankment; flue gas desulfurization materials;
9.7 Cover—Structural fill slopes should be covered with fly ash; pollution prevention; resource conservation; structural
soil and revegetated as soon as practicable following the fill fill; utilization

REFERENCES

(1) Report to Congress, Wastes from the Combustion of Coal by Electric (6) GAI Consultants, Inc., Fly Ash Design Manual for Road and Site
Utility Power Plants, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/ Applications (Vol 1), Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI TR-
530-SW-88-002, February 1988. 100472, Palo Alto, CA, 1992.
(2) “Final Regulatory Determination on Four Large Volume Wastes from (7) GAI Consultants, Inc., Fly Ash Construction Manual for Road and Site
the Combustion of Coal by Electric Utility Power Plants,” Federal Applications (2 Vols), Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI CS-
Register, Aug. 9, 1993, pp. 42466–42482. 5981, Palo Alto, CA, 1988.
(3) Ibid, p. 42480. (8) U.S. Department of Transportation, Fly Ash as a Construction Mate-
(4) “Model Standards and Techniques for Control of Radon in New rial for Highways, A Manual, Federal Highway Administration,
Residential Buildings,” Federal Register, March 21, 1994, pp. PB-259302, Washington, DC, 1976.
13402–13416. (9) Baker Environmental Consulting Engineers, FGD By-Product Dis-
(5) American Coal Ash Association, “Structural Fill Applications of Coal posal Manual, Fourth Edition, Electric Power Research Institute,
Ash,” Alexandria, VA, 1993. EPRI TR-104731, Palo Alto, CA, 1995.

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