INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
• A user’s view of a computer system depends on the
degree of abstraction provided by the underlying software.

• At the highest level 5, the user interaction is limited to the

interface

• At the level 4, problem solving is done in one of the high-level languages such as C
and Java

• Both levels 4 and 5 are system-independent, i.e., independent of a particular

processor used in the system

• By contrast, software development done at all levels below level 4 is

system-dependent
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

• Assembly language programming is referred to

as low-level programming
• Programming in the assembly language also requires
knowledge about system internal details such as the processor architecture, memory
organization etc.
• Machine language in Level 2 is a close relative of the assembly language
• The processor understands only the machine language, whose instructions consist of
strings of 1’s and 0’s.
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

• Our operating system hides several of the

low-level details so that the assembly language
Programmer can work easily

• System hardware, which consists of digital logic circuits and the associated
support electronics execute the machine language instructions.
EXPLANATION

• A microprocessor is a programmable silicon chip that contains a central

processing unit(CPU), that is, it has computing and decision making capabilities.
In other words, it is an integrated circuit(IC) containing the arithmetic and
logical unit (ALU), control unit (CU) and register arrays on a single chip
required to interpret and execute instructions from a program.
EXP

• Microprocessor = Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) + Control Unit (CU) + General

Purpose Registers (GPRS)

• Microcontroller = Microprocessor + Memory (RAM and ROM) + System Buses

(Data Bus, Address Bus, Control Bus) + Clocks + Input/Output (I/O) ports
EXP

• When we bring a microprocessor together with the other needed peripherals

on a single integrated circuit, it becomes a microcontroller.

• A microcontroller can thus be defined as a complete microprocessor

system where memory (RAM/ROM), clocks, system buses, I/O ports, etc, all
the necessary components and peripherals(other devices) are integrated with
the microprocessor on a single chip.
CISC PROCESSOR

• CISC means Complex Instruction Set Computers

• CISC is a type of processor where single instructions can execute several
low-level operations (such as a load from memory, an arithmetic operation,
and a memory store)
or are capable of multi-step operations or addressing modes within single
instructions. This makes the CISC instructions short but ‘complex’.

• CISC processors were helpful in simplifying the code and making it shorter in
order to reduce the memory requirement.
CISC PROCESSOR

• Microprocessors and microcontrollers that have CISC architecture includes

Motorola 6800, 6809 and 68000-families; the Intel 8080, and x86-family;
Intel 8051-family.

• Advantages:
• The code size is comparatively shorter which minimizes the memory requirement.
• Execution of a single instruction accomplishes several low-level tasks.
• Complex addressing mode makes the memory access flexible.
• CISC instruction can directly access memory locations.
CISC PROCESSOR
• Disadvantages:
• Though the code size is minimized but it requires several clock cycles to
execute a single instruction. Thereby reduce the overall performance of
the computer.
• Implementing pipelining for CISC instruction is a bit complicated.
• The hardware structure needs to be more complex to simplify software
implementation.
• Designed to minimize the memory requirement when memory was smaller
and costlier. But today the scenario has changed nowadays memory is
inexpensive and mostly all computers have a large amount of memory.
CISC VS RISC
CISC RISC
Emphasis on hardware Emphasis on software Single-clock,
Includes multi-clock complex instructions reduced instruction only

Memory-to-memory: "LOAD" and "STORE" Register to register: "LOAD" and "STORE"

incorporated in instructions are independent instructions

Small code sizes, high cycles per second Low cycles per second, large code sizes

Transistors used for storing complex instructions Spends more transistors on memory registers

The machine language instructions of CISC RISC processors use fixed-length machine
processors vary in length language instructions
• Transistor – a semi conductor device , a building block of modern electronics
RISC PROCESSOR

•RISC means Reduced Instruction Set Computers

•RISC is a type of microprocessor architecture that utilizes a small,
highly-optimized set of instructions, rather than a more specialized
set of instructions.

•RISC systems assume that the required operands are in the

processor’s registers, not in the main memory
RISC PROCESSOR
• RISC designs use uniform instruction length for almost all instructions, and
employ strictly separate load/store-instructions.
• The many varieties of RISC designs include MIPS, SPARC, IBM POWER
instruction set, Alpha, RISC-V, ARM architecture, ARC.
• RISC
processors are also used in supercomputers, Unix workstation,
embedded processors in laser printers, routers and similar products
• Theuse of ARM architecture processors in smartphones and tablet
computers such as the iPad and Android devices provided a wide user
base for RISC-based systems.
RISC PROCESSOR

• Advantages of RISC Processor

• RISC instructions are simpler and fewer machine instruction.
• RISC instructions are hardwired to fasten the execution.
• RISC instruction has simple addressing modes.
• RISC instruction executes faster because most of instruction operates on
processor register and there is no need to access memory for each
instruction.
• RISC instructions execute one instruction per clock cycle.
RISC PROCESSOR

• Disadvantages of RISC Processor

• RISC instruction size is reduced but more instructions are required to
perform an operation when compared with CISC.
• The machine instructions are hardwired in RISC so, it would cost if any
instruction needs modification.
• It finds is difficulty in processing complex instruction and complex
addressing mode.
• RISC instructions do not allow direct memory to memory transfer, it
requires Load and Store instructions to do so.
WHAT IS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE?

• Assembly Language is a low-level programming language. It helps in

understanding the programming language to machine code.

• Assembly language is directly influenced by the instruction set and architecture

of the processor

• The assembly language code must be processed by a program in order to

generate the machine language code.

• Assembler is the program that translates assembly language code into the
machine language.
WHAT IS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE?

• Here are some Assembly language of Pentium Processor examples:

• inc result

• The first instruction increments the variable result. This assembly language
instruction is equivalent to result++;
• mov class_size, 45

• The second instruction initializes class_size to 45. The equivalent statement in C

is class_size = 45;
WHAT IS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE?

• and mask1, 128

• The third instruction performs the bitwise and operation on mask1 and can be
expressed in C as
mask1 = mask1 & 128;
• add marks, 10 ---The last instruction updates marks by adding 10. This is equivalent to

marks = marks + 10;

WHAT IS ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE?

• In contrast, the MIPS instructions use three addresses as shown below:

• andi $t2, $t1,15
• addu $t3,$t1,$t2
• move $t2,$t1

• The operands in these instructions are in processor registers. The processor registers t1, t2,
and t3 are identified by $.

• The andi instruction performs bitwise and of t1 contents with 15 and writes the result in t2.
• The second instruction adds contents of t1 and t2 and stores the result in t3.
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES

• Program development is faster

• Programs written in a high-level language are relatively small
• These programs are also easier to code and debug

• Programs are easier to maintain.

• easier to understand and when good programming practices are followed easier to maintain

• Programs are portable.

• can be used with little or no modification on different computer systems
ADVANTAGES OF ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

• 1. It allows complex jobs to run in a simpler way.

• 2. It is memory efficient, as it requires less memory
• 3. It is faster in speed, as its execution time is less.
• 4. It is mainly hardware oriented.
• 5. It requires less instruction to get the result.
• 6. It is used for critical jobs i.e. time-critical jobs
• 7. It is not required to keep track of memory locations.
ADVANTAGES OF ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

• Having an understanding of assembly language makes one aware of −

• How programs interface with OS, processor, and BIOS;
• How data is represented in memory and other external devices;
• How the processor accesses and executes instruction;
• How instructions access and process data;
• How a program accesses external devices.
DISADVANTAGES OF ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

• It takes a lot of time and effort to write the code for the same.
• The syntax is difficult to remember
• It has a lack of portability between different computers
WHY PROGRAM IN THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE?

• Assembly language serves many purposes, such as improving program speed,

reducing memory needs, and controlling hardware

• However, there are two main reasons why programming is still done in the
assembly language: (1) efficiency, and (2) accessibility to system hardware

• Efficiency refers to how “good” a program is in achieving a given objective.

Here we consider two objectives based on space (space efficiency) and time
(time efficiency).
WHY PROGRAM IN THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE?

• Space efficiency refers to the memory requirements of a program, i.e., the size
of the executable code
• Time efficiency refers to the time taken to execute a program. Obviously a
program that runs faster is said to be better from the time-efficiency point of
view
• Assembly language programs have direct control over system hardware. For
example, writing a device driver to a new scanner on the market almost
certainly requires programming in the assembly language
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

• Time efficiency: Applications for which the execution speed is important fall
under two categories:
• 1. Time convenience (to improve performance)
• 2. Time-critical (to satisfy functionality)
1. Applications in the first category benefit from time-efficient programs
because it is convenient or desirable. For example, a graphics package that
scales an object instantaneously is more pleasant
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

• In time-critical applications, tasks have to be completed within a specified time

period. These applications, also called real-time applications, include aircraft
navigation systems, process control systems, robot control software, and target
acquisition (e.g., missile tracking) software.

• Accessibility to hardware: System software often requires direct control over

the system hardware. Examples include operating systems, assemblers,
compilers, linkers, loaders, device drivers, and network interfaces.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

• Space efficiency: For most systems, compactness of application code is not a

major concern. However, in portable and handheld devices, code compactness
is an important factor. Space efficiency is also important in spacecraft control.
REFERENCES

• Text book
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computer
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computer
• https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/risc/risccisc/