7 The systems life cycle

In this chapter you will learn about the:

★ analysis stage:
– methods of analysing the current system
– identifying the inputs, outputs and processing in the current system
– hardware and software requirements for the new system
★ design stage:
– file structures, input and output formats
– use of data capture forms
– screen and report layouts
– validation routines
★ development and testing stage:
– test strategies and test plans
– use of test data (including live data)
★ implementation stage:
– direct changeover
– parallel running
– pilot running
– phased implementation
★ documentation stage:
– technical documentation
– user documentation
★ evaluation stage:
– evaluation of new solution
– compare solution to original system.

In this chapter we will consider the stages and processes involved when
replacing computer systems, from analysis of an existing system right
through to evaluation of the new system.

Suppose a company has been using an existing computer system for a number
of years. They have decided to replace the current system with a new one. After
a number of years of successful operation, what would initiate this need to
upgrade?
» The existing computer equipment is now obsolete (it cannot be repaired
anymore).
» Changes to laws or taxes requiring radical overhaul of software.
» More suitable hardware is now available to improve efficiency and reliability.
» There is a need to expand the company.
There could be many more reasons.
The changes will involve an ICT solution, which means a systems analyst
needs to be brought in to oversee the whole upgrade process. Their first task
will be to analyse the existing (current) system, and then suggest a number
of improvements that can be made. All these improvements need to be costed
and their advantages over the current system need to be reported back to the
company’s management team.
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 7 The systems life cycle

Once a new system is agreed and it has been fully tested, it is then installed.
It then needs to be fully evaluated and any changes made where necessary.
Therefore, a cycle of events take place until a fully-working system is signed
off and handed over to the management team. This whole process is called the
systems life cycle.
There are many stages in the systems life cycle, which have been summarised in
Figure 7.1.
ANALYSIS

EVALUATION DESIGN
This is a two-way process,
since development and
testing may uncover a need
to redesign the solution
DOCUMENTATION DEVELOPMENT/ several times
TESTING

IMPLEMENTATION

▲ Figure 7.1 Systems life cycle

7.1 Analysis
The first stage in the process is the analysis of the current system. Figure 7.2
shows the stages in analysis.

Research the current system

Identification of input and output

What processing takes place?

ANALYSIS Problems with the current system

User requirements for the new system

What are the information requirements?

Identify hardware and software for the new system

▲ Figure 7.2 Analysis stage

7.1.1 Analyse the current system

There are four methods used to research the current system. The four methods
used are:
» observation
» questionnaires
» interviews
» examination of existing documents.

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 7.1 Analysis

▼ Table 7.1 Methods of researching the current system

Name of research Description of research method Advantages of research method Disadvantages of research
method method
This method involves watching » The analyst obtains reliable » People are generally
personnel using the existing data uncomfortable being
system to find out exactly how it » It is possible to get a better watched and may work in a
works. overall view of the system different way (known as the
Observation » Relatively inexpensive Hawthorne effect)
method because it only » If workers perform tasks
involves the analyst that contravene standard
» All inputs and outputs of the procedures, they may not do
current system are seen this while being watched
This method involves a one- » It gives the opportunity to » It can be a rather time-
to-one question-and-answer motivate the interviewee consuming exercise
session between the analyst into giving open and honest » It is relatively expensive
and the user. It is a good method answers to the analyst’s (team of interviewers and
if the analyst wants to probe questions analyst needed)
deeply into one specific aspect of » The method allows the » The interviewee cannot
the existing system. analyst to probe for remain anonymous with
more feedback from the this method, and may hide
Interviews interviewee (questions can information or not be honest
be extended) with their answers
» It is possible to modify » Interviewee can give
questions as the interview answers they think the
proceeds and ask questions interviewer wants to hear
specific to the interviewee » Interviewees may not be
» Analyst can watch body available at times to suit the
language and facial analyst
expressions
This method involves distributing » The questions can be » The number of returned
questionnaires to the workforce, answered fairly quickly questionnaires can be low;
clients or system users to find » It is a relatively inexpensive not always a popular method
out their views of the existing method (only need to » The questions are rather
system and to find out how some produce questionnaires) rigid because they have to be
of the key tasks are carried out. » Individuals can remain generic; it is not possible to
anonymous if they want ask follow-up questions
(therefore give more truthful » No immediate way to
Questionnaires answers) clarify a vague answer to a
» Allows for a quick analysis of question; it is not possible to
the data expand their answers
» Interviewees can fill in » Users tend to exaggerate
questionnaire in their own their responses as they are
time anonymous
» Allows a greater number of » Because anonymous, the
people to take part interviewees may not take it
seriously
Looking at the This method allows the analyst » This method allows » It can be a very time-
existing documents to see how existing files are kept, information to be obtained consuming exercise
look at operating instructions which was not possible by » Because of the analyst’s
and training manuals, check the any of the other methods time needed, it is a relatively
accounts, etc. This allows the » The analyst can see for expensive method to use
analyst to get some idea of the themselves how the current
scale of the problem, memory system operates
size requirements, type of input/
output devices needed, etc.

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 7 The systems life cycle

7.1.2 Record and analyse information about the

current system
Inputs, outputs, processing and current problems
The next stage in the process requires the analyst to find out:
» what input and output takes place
» what processing is done
» what problems exist with the current system
» user and information requirements for the new system.

One method the analyst can use is a data flow diagram (DFD). Figure 7.3 shows
an example of a DFD that follows the reservation system when booking a flight
on an a aeroplane.

Flight schedule Flight details are

checked input by customer

Available flights

Customer makes
e-ticket is issued a flight enquiry
to customer Booking system
(database on
hard disk drive)

Flight data is
Flight booking
collected and
is confirmed
confirmation made

▲ Figure 7.3 DFD for flight booking process

Advice
Producing a DFD is not required for this syllabus.

From the DFD, we can get the following information:

» what inputs take place during the customer enquiry (in this case, a customer
keys in their flight details, such as names of passengers, passport numbers,
dates of flight, and so on)
» what outputs are produced (in this case, on-screen and e-ticket (QR code) sent
to customer’s smartphone)
» what processing is done (check flights, process customer data, allocate flight
reference number and access booking database; customer flight booking has
to be added to database once all processing completed)
» what storage may be needed (a database is needed to store all the flight
booking details).

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 7.1 Analysis

As the analyst looks at each stage in the DFD process, they will then identify:
» any problems that occur in the current system (this is done by looking at the
data flows in each stage of the process and looking for bottlenecks and other
potential areas where errors do or could occur)
» user and information requirements (see below).

User requirements
The problem to solve is this: computer system developers do not really
understand how a business works: business managers do not really know how
computer systems could help them. The user requirements are designed to help
with this problem:
» User requirements are therefore written by the analyst for the business
managers (who are the customers).
» They are written in natural language with very few technical details or jargon.
» Their purpose is to allow the customers to check that what the analyst
proposes, following the investigations, is exactly what they originally
specified; for example, if the company employs people with disabilities, does
the new hardware take that into account?
» The user requirements will also describe what the analyst thinks the customer
does with their system.

Information requirements
» This is the information needed to support the business.
» The information requirements are made up of:
» what? (that is, the data)
» when? (that is, the timing).
A systems analyst turns the information and user requirements into a functional
requirements specification (that is, how the new system will be developed and
implemented, including timescales).
The requirements are typically defined as a list of, for example:
» who the customers are and how they interface with the system
» who the vendors are (the sellers of the products), and how they interface with
the system
» who the employees are and how they interface with the system.

7.1.3 System specification

The DFD and other information gathering processes allow the analysis team to
identify what hardware and software is needed to run the new system.
Identify and justify hardware
» Identification and justification of which input devices are needed might be,
for example:
– barcode readers (using barcode readers avoids the need to manually
input data about goods, which is more efficient, less error-prone and less
expensive in the long run)

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 7 The systems life cycle

– scanners (these could be used if it is necessary to convert any existing

paper documents into an electronic format during the implementation
stage)
– touch screens (this may be the best and most cost-effective way of
gathering information from a business customer, for example, and to
ensure an employee does not miss any important data during a customer
conversation).
» Identification and justification of which output devices are needed; for
example:
– 3D printer (if the company are manufacturing toys, for example, it is much
more cost-effective to do a ‘one off’ using a 3D printer than making a toy
in the conventional way)
– very large 60” (152 cm) monitors (the company may be using CAD
software and the need for very large, expensive monitors, may be
justifiable)
– speakers (the company may employ people with disabilities, so the need
for verbal outputs from the computer may be a necessary requirement).
Identify and justify software
» Identification and justification of which software is required; for example:
– operating system (which operating system is the most appropriate to meet
the company needs)
– applications software:
– off-the-shelf software, which would save a lot of development time and
costs, but may require compromises in how the company runs; off-the-
shelf software (such as Word or Excel) also has a huge user-base in case
of problems and a minimum of training will be required, because the
software is well known
– bespoke software (written specifically for the company) – this will
require considerable time and money to develop, but will exactly meet
the company’s requirements; it will also require considerable training in
using software unknown to the employees, and there will be no user-
base to seek help (they will have to rely on the software development
technical team, which could be expensive).
» Storage requirements also need to be considered; for example:
– size of storage (how many bytes of storage are required for the systems to
run now, and in the future)
– type of storage (which storage type is the most suitable for the company:
hard disk drives, solid-state drives or even magnetic tape drives) – the
choice could depend on:
– data access and data write speeds
– number of read-write operations (there is still some doubt about
the longevity of SSD if it has to endure large numbers of read-write
operations)
– type of access – can it be serial access to the data (all read in order) or
does it need to be direct (no need to read all the data in order)
– if huge amounts of storage are required and data access time is not that
important, magnetic tape may still be the best option.

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 7.2 Design

7.2 Design
7.2.1 Design
Once the analysis of the existing system has taken place, and the systems analyst
has a better idea of the scale of the problem, then the next stage in the process
is design. Figure 7.4 summarises the design stage.

File structures and data structures

Input formats, including data capture forms

DESIGN
Output formats, including screen layouts and
report layouts

Validation routines

▲ Figure 7.4 Design stage

File structures and data structures

In this section we will consider how the files containing data will be structured;
it will also be necessary to consider the format of the data types being stored
in the files. A file is made up of a number of records, and each record is broken
up into fields. One of the fields must be unique and will act as the primary key
field – this is to allow each record to be uniquely identified. An example of a
record (in the file) is shown in Figure 7.5.

Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5

product_code year_of_manufacture product_description price_$ department
Record 1 T4131618 2022 Digital camera $405.00 T
Record 2 T5552200 2021 Memory card $35.50 T
Record 3 A3110011 2020 Tripod for T4131618 $220.00 A
Record 4 A4567777 2021 Case for T4131618 $55.75 A
Record 5 B1110000 2022 Extra battery $85.50 B

▲ Figure 7.5 Typical file structure (showing records and fields)

Each field in the record now needs to be totally defined as follows:

» field name (for example, product_code)
» field length (what is the maximum number of characters that need to be
stored)
» data type (see below)
» is any code being used (in this example, the codes T, A and B are being used –
coding saves space in the file because only a single character is being used;
this also speeds up entry and also reduces errors)
» the primary key field here will be product_code because it is unique.

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 7 The systems life cycle

Data types
We will now consider data types. The data types in Table 7.2 are the ones you are
most likely to come across:
▼ Table 7.2 Data types

Data type Description Examples

This type of data can store alpha characters (letters A345FF or
Alphanumeric
or text) and numeric data (numbers) 07432011122
Character This is just a single letter (or text) X or d
This can be a string of letters or numbers or other example_of_text_
Text
symbols string
This data type stores data in a Yes/No or True/False
Boolean Y or N
format (logical options)
This data type is used to store numeric data which is
used to perform calculations (this does not include
Numeric telephone numbers, for example, because these
have to be stored as alphanumeric data)
There are several different types of numeric data:
Integer (whole numbers) 234 or −1245
Decimal/real (non-integer values) 25.54 or −150.22
Currency (allows inclusion of currency symbols) $24.55 or €123.50
Date/time (allows dates and time to be stored) 14/05/2020 or 12:45

It is now possible to complete the file structure for the example in Figure 7.5.
▼ Table 7.3 Field lengths and data types

Field name Field length Data type

Product_code 30 Text

Year_of_manufacture 4 Numeric: integer

Product_description 40 Text

Price_$ 6 Numeric: currency

Department 1 Character/text

Please note that the field lengths given in Table 7.3 are just ‘possible’ values.
When assigning a field length, it is important to give a good estimate of what
will be the smallest value needed to store the data items. If a field length of 50
is assigned to a field and the largest data item is only five characters, then this
will be a large waste of memory space in a database because a field size of 50
would have been allocated for the whole file.

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 7.2 Design

Exercise 7a
Which data types would you use for the following data items?
i A21DD45678 v 01214444555 ix 22/10/2020
ii Y vi 200 x 21:45
iii Sample_data_items vii €55
iv T or F (only) viii 24.12

7.2.2 Validation routines

When data is input into a computer system, there is a need to check that the
data is acceptable. Validation is the process where data entered into a computer
is checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria. It is an automatic check carried
out by the computer as part of its programming.
For example, validation criteria could be that only positive numbers entered,
or eight characters must be entered; any data failing these criteria should be
rejected.
Validation is not a check on whether the data is correct or accurate; it is only a
check to see if it is reasonable.
There are a number of validation routines that can be used. Some of the more
common ones are described in Table 7.4.

▼ Table 7.4 Validation checks (routines)

Validation check Description Examples

Range This checks to see if the data input lies between Limiting a temperature range from 10 to 50
an acceptable upper value and an acceptable degrees Celsius
lower value
Type/character This checks to see if the data entered is of the A person’s name should not contain numbers
correct type (i.e. letter or number only)
A person’s height should not contain letters
Length This checks to see if the data input contains only If a password contains eight characters, then an
the required number of characters input with seven characters or nine characters,
for example, should produce an error message
Format This checks to see if the data input is in the Ensures the date is entered in a format such as
correct format dd/mm/yyyy (e.g. 10/12/2023)
Presence This checks that data has been entered into a For example, when using an online form, a
field and it has not been left empty person’s telephone number may be a ‘required
field’; if no data is entered, this should give rise to
an error message
Check digit This is an extra digit added to a number which Check digits can identify three types of error:
has been calculated from the other digits 1 if two digits have been transposed during
input; for example, 13597 instead of 13579
2 an incorrect digit has been entered; for
example, 13559 instead of 13579
3 a digit has been missed out or extra digit added;
for example, 1359 or 135799 instead of 13579
(in all three cases, the check digit (usually the
last digit) would not be 9 if an error had been
made)

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 7 The systems life cycle

Exercise 7b
1 A password (which takes the form xxxxnnxx where x = a letter and n = a
numerical digit) is being entered using an online form.
a Name three possible validation checks you could use.
b Give an example of an input that would pass each of your validation checks.
c Give an example of an input that would cause an error message for each of
your validation checks.
2 The following data is being entered into a database:

Name:

Date of birth: (dd/mm/yyyy)

Telephone number:

Order reference no. (xxxxnnnn)

Sex: M or F

▲ Figure 7.6 Data capture form

Give a suitable validation check for each of the five fields. A different validation
check must be given for each field.
Which field could be used as the primary (key) field?

7.2.3 Input formats (data capture forms)

Data capture forms are often used to input data into a computer. These forms
ensure data is input into the computer in the correct format. They need to
be designed very carefully to ensure that the format of the data matches, for
example, the database where the data is being stored.
Data capture forms will be either paper-based or electronic-based depending on
the application.
Paper-based forms need to:
» have a heading to make the purpose of the form clear
» make it clear to the person filling in the form where they must place their
answers
» make use of text boxes which will limit the amount of information collected
» make use of character boxes for data such as surnames, telephone numbers,
and so on (each box allows one character only)
» make use of printed text boxes to allow for easy input of items such as date of
birth
» make use of tick boxes to make choices easier (such as sex – male or female)
» make sure there is sufficient space to write answers
» make use of clear fonts and clear text colours to ensure the form is easy to
read.

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 7.2 Design

Figure 7.7 shows a typical example, which allows data about a car for sale to be
manually completed, for later input into a computer database.

HODDER CAR SALES

Registration number of car:

Make of car:
Model of car:
Date first registered: d d m m y y y y
Price: $
New (tick box):
Used (tick box):

▲ Figure 7.7 Paper-based data capture form

A computer-based data capture form is slightly different. These often have the
following features:
» use of text boxes to capture key data clearly
» use of on-screen help when completing the form
» use of drop-down/combo boxes where there are limited choices
» use of radio buttons and tick boxes requiring a single click of a mouse to select
» automatic validation of data as it is entered
» control buttons (such as next form, clear entry, save, etc.)
» double entry boxes (with verification rules) to check correctness of key data
(for example, when keying in an email address).

In the car sales example shown in Figure 7.7, the following differences could be
used with a computer-based data capture form:
» registration number: same as paper-based form
» make of car: make use of a drop-down box as there are a limited number of
manufacturers
» model of car: same as paper-based form
» date first registered: use of drop-down boxes for day, month and year
» price: use boxes as shown but include a validation check
» new or used: use of tick box or radio button to indicate option
» other features: a back and forward button (to complete details of all cars), and
a save button when the form is complete for each car.

Exercise 7c
Design a computer-based data capture form using the fields given above.
Remember that it has to be completed online, so it should include radio buttons,
drop-down boxes and so on. It should look a little different to the paper-based
form shown in Figure 7.7.

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 7 The systems life cycle

7.2.4 Output formats – screen layouts and report layouts

The output from any system needs careful
consideration because this is part of any user Details of employees
interface, and is the result of some form of
processing. Screen outputs should be designed:
» to make sure the size of all the output fields is Employee No : 32110

correct First name : Michael

» so that any instructions/descriptions are clear
Last name : Pitt
» so that the full screen is utilised (avoiding large
areas of ‘nothing’) Sex : Male
» so that colours and fonts (size and type) make
Date of birth : 16/10/1979
the output clear.
Department : Sales
If the output is on paper, then consideration must
also be given to the type of output. Items such
as headers and footers, fitting the page correctly, Additional notes: Has the highest sales success for 2022 and
should be considered to join the training
whether it should be in colour, and so on, all have department
to be carefully planned.
Reports (often the output from a database search) Print record Next record
should clearly show all the fields that were included
in the search criteria. The output is usually in the
form of a table – the example in Figure 7.9 outputs ▲ Figure 7.8 Screen output example
a list of all sales managers over 40.
Employees
Last Name First Names Job Title Business Phone Address
Pitt Michael Sales Manager 001 234 1235 2nd Avenue
Hawkin Jason Sales Manager 001 235 1245 4th Avenue
Amin Manjit Sales Manager 001 222 3456 9th Avenue
Clark Katie Sales Manager 001 234 1119 2nd Avenue
Fawkler Jemima Sales Manager 001 299 8745 11th Avenue

▲ Figure 7.9 Report example

7.3 Development and testing

7.3.1 Testing
The need for testing
Once the design stage is completed, it is then necessary to create the system and
fully test it. This section considers some of the development stages and testing
strategies which are often adopted by systems analysts.
» If the system contains files (for example, a database) then the file structure
would need to be finalised at this stage (for example, what type of data is
being stored in each field, length of each field, which field will be the key
field, how will the data files be linked, etc.). Once the file structure has been
determined it is then created and needs to be fully tested to make sure it is
robust when the system actually goes live.

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» Because it is important that the correct data is stored in files (etc.) there are
certain techniques that need to be adopted to make sure the data populating
the files/database is at least of the right type and that it conforms to certain
rules. Validation routines and verification methods are used to ensure this
happens. Again, these routines have to be fully tested to ensure they do trap
unwanted data, but also to make sure any data transferred from a paper-based
system to an electronic system has been done accurately.
» Obviously, any system being developed will have some form of user interface.
The types of hardware have already been considered; how these are used
to actually interface with the final system now needs to be identified. For
example, how the screens (and any other input devices) will be used to collect
the data and the way the output will be presented. If specialist hardware is
needed (for example, for people with disabilities) then it will be necessary to
finalise how these devices are used with the system when it is implemented.
This will be followed by thorough testing to ensure the user screens are user-
friendly and that the correct output is associated with the inputs to the system.

Test designs
Test designs cover how a system is to be tested. Table 7.5 shows the test designs that
need to be considered, and how we can ensure the following aspects can be achieved:
» testing the data structures
» testing the file structures
» testing the input methods
» testing the output formats
» testing the validation rules.
▼ Table 7.5 Testing designs

The test design should determine how we can test that all data is in
Data structures a correct format or has been stored in the correct way (for example,
whether tables hold data correctly)
The testing design should test that the file structures function
File structures correctly (i.e. data is stored in the correct format and can be correctly
retrieved when required)
The testing design should determine how we can test that all data can
Input formats be entered into the system correctly (for example, if a date is to be
entered does the input format permit this date to be entered correctly)
The test design should determine how we can test that screen outputs
Output formats and reports are all in the correct format (for example, are the output
results clear, complete and correctly match the input data)
The test design should determine what data is needed to test to see if
Validation
all the validation rules work (for example, does the system correctly
routines
reject unreasonable data being input)

Test strategies
» Software is often developed in modular form. This method allows it to be
broken down into smaller parts (known as modules). Each module is developed
separately by a programmer (or team of programmers).
» Each module needs to be tested separately to see if it functions correctly. Any
problems resulting from the testing require the module to be modified and
then tested again.
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 7 The systems life cycle

» Once the development of each module is completed, the whole system needs
to be tested as a whole (with all modules functioning together). Even though
each module may work satisfactorily, when they are all put together there may
be data clashes or incompatibility, memory issues, etc.
» All of this may lead to a need to improve the input and output methods, file/
database structures, validation and verification methods, etc. and then fully
test everything again. It is a very time-consuming process, but has to be as
perfect as possible before the system uses live data.

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 Module 4

Modify module if any Modify module if any Modify module if any Modify module if any
errors are found errors are found errors are found errors are found

Testing Testing Testing Testing

Modules combined to form the final program

Modify final program if

any errors are found

Testing of the final program

▲ Figure 7.10 Module testing

Test plan, test data and live data

Once the testing designs and strategy have been determined, it then becomes
necessary to formulate a test plan for each module. The test plan should include:
» a list of all the tests to be performed
» what data is to be used in the testing
» what type of testing the data is designed to check (i.e. normal, abnormal or
extreme – see notes below)
» what live data should be used
» what the expected outcomes are from the testing
» do the actual outcomes match what is expected?

The list above included the types of data referred to as: normal, abnormal and
extreme. Before looking at a sample test plan, we need to define these three
types of data.
The example we will use is inputting a date into a database field. The entered
data must take the format dd/mm/yyyy and all data must be numeric.
» normal – this is data which is acceptable/valid and has an expected (known)
outcome; for example, the month can be any whole number in the range 1 to 12
» extreme – this is data at the limits of acceptability/validity; for example, the
month can be either of the two end values i.e. 1 or 12

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 7.3 Development and testing

» abnormal – this is data outside the limits of acceptability/validity and

should be rejected or cause an error message; for example, none of the
following values are allowed as inputs for the month:
– any value less than 1 (for example, 0, −1, −15, etc.)
– any value greater than 12 (for example, 32, 45, etc.)
– letters or other non-numeric data (for example, July, etc.)
– non-integer values (for example, 3.5, 10.75, etc.).
Once a system has been fully tested, it is then tested with live data. This is data
with known outcomes. Live data is entered into the new system and the results
compared with those produced from the existing system. If the two outcomes do
not match, then further modifications to the system may be needed. Table 7.6
shows an example of live data testing.
▼ Table 7.6 Live data comparison table

Live data Expected result Actual result Any actions?

January An error message The data was accepted Validation routines on
should be output by system month element need to
be rewritten, then the
system retested
0 The message ‘a zero The new system crashed System needs an error
value is not a permitted when ‘0’ was input trap, such as: IF INPUT
input’ should be output = 0 THEN OUTPUT ‘no
zero values allowed’

Example of a test plan

The test plan shown in Figure 7.11 is designed to test a module where
temperatures are input which must be in the correct range (21 °C to 50 °C). Any
temperatures outside this range should be rejected. The input temperatures can
be integer or real (decimal).

Data set Data input Type of data input Expected outcome Actual outcome

A 35 Normal Data should be accepted

B 45 Normal Data should be accepted
C 25.5 Normal Data should be accepted
D 21 Extreme Data should be accepted
E 50 Extreme Data should be accepted
F fifty Abnormal Error message should be given
G 20 Abnormal Error message should be given
H 51 Abnormal Error message should be given
I -5 Abnormal Error message should be given
J 100.5 Abnormal Error message should be given

If the system worked

Data chosen should correctly, then test results for this
come from the test column should be the same as column
designs and strategy. 4; if there are any discrepancies, the
module will need to be modified and
the testing repeated.
▲ Figure 7.11 Test plan example

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 7 The systems life cycle

Exercise 7d
Use the example of a date in the format dd/mm/yyyy when answering the following three questions.
1 Consider the following 20 pieces of data and decide whether each data item is normal, abnormal or extreme
(tick the appropriate box in the table).
Data item Field Normal Abnormal Extreme
15 month
12 month
07 month
1.6 month
1 month
0 month
13 month
March month
1 day
31 day
18 day
Tuesday day
45 day
0 day
30 day
0001 year
2021 year
90.55 year
−25 year
1854 year

2 Describe what validation routines could be used to check the date if it was input on the screen as follows:

Day:
Month:
Year:
Describe how it would be possible to avoid errors altogether when inputting the data in the form shown above.
3 Write test data for the following fields in a database (the data should try to cover all possible types of data).
The database will store the following information:
l name of holiday resort
l average daily temperature (a whole number value is used)
l number of hours of sunshine per day (a whole number value is used).
Describe the validation routines that should be written into the database interface to check the above input
values are reasonable.

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 7.4 Implementation

7.4 Implementation
7.4.1 System implementation
Once the system is fully tested, the next stage is to fully implement it. Some of
the stages in this process are shown in Figure 7.12.
There is a need to train staff on
the new system

Scan in the documents

Transfer paper files or electronic

Key in the data
files to the new system

Download files to new database

Direct changeover

Parallel running
Changeover to the new system
Pilot implementation/running

Phased implementation

▲ Figure 7.12 The implementation stage

▼ Table 7.7 Methods used in changeover (part of implementation)

Implementation Design of implementation method Advantages and disadvantages of the method

method
Direct With this method the old system » This method can be disastrous if the new system fails because
is stopped overnight and the new the old system is no longer available
system introduced immediately » The benefits are immediate
» Costs are reduced (because only one system is used there is no
need to pay for two sets of staff)
Parallel With this method, the old and new » If this new system fails, the old system is still available as a
systems are run side by side for a backup
time before the new system takes » It is possible to gradually train staff
over altogether » It is more expensive than direct because extra staff are needed
to run both systems together
» It is also more time consuming than direct because data needs
to be entered into two systems
Pilot With this method, the new system » If the new system fails, only one part is affected; the remainder
is introduced into one branch is unaffected
or office of the company and its » It is possible to train staff in one area only, which is much faster
performance assessed before and less costly than parallel
being introduced elsewhere in the » The costs are also less than parallel because only one part of
company the system is being used in the pilot warehouse
Phased With this method, only part of » If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the
the new system is introduced system to the point of failure; hence failure is not disastrous
and, only when it proves to work » More expensive than direct because it is necessary to evaluate
satisfactorily, is the next part each phase before moving to the next stage
introduced, and so on, until the old » Very time consuming because each part needs to be fully
system is fully replaced evaluated before making any further changes to the system
» It is possible to ensure the system works properly before expanding

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 7 The systems life cycle

We will now consider changeover to the new system in more depth. As indicated
in Figure 7.12, there are four common methods used for changing over from
the old system to the new system. Each one has advantages and disadvantages
which need to be weighed up before the most appropriate method is chosen for a
particular application.

7.5 Documentation
7.5.1 Documentation
Once the new system is fully developed, a considerable amount of documentation
also needs to be produced for:
1 people who may need to modify or develop the system further at some later stage
2 the end-user.
There is some overlap between the two types of documentation, but the basic
requirements are shown below.
Technical documentation
Technical documentation is designed to help programmers/analysts to make
improvements to the system or repair/maintain the system. This can consist of
any of the following:
» program listing/coding
» programming language used
» program flowcharts/algorithms
» system flowcharts
» purpose of the system/program/software
» limitations of the system
» input formats
» hardware requirements
» software requirements
» minimum memory requirements
» known ‘bugs’ in the system
» list of variables used (and their meaning/description)
» file structures
» sample runs (with results and actual test data used)
» output formats
» validation rules
» meaning of error messages.
User documentation
User documentation is designed to help users to learn how to use the software
or system. This can consist of any of the following:
» how to load/install/run the software
» how to save files
» how to do a search
» how to sort data
» how to print out
» how to add, delete or amend records

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 7.6 Evaluation

» the purpose of the system/program/software package

» limitations of the system
» screen layouts (input format)
» print layouts (output format)
» hardware requirements
» software requirements
» sample runs (with results and actual test data used)
» error handling/meaning of errors
» troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs (frequently asked questions)
» how to log in/log out
» tutorials
» error messages/meaning of error messages
» glossary of terms.

7.6 Evaluation
7.6.1 Evaluate a solution
Once a system is up and running it is necessary to do some evaluation and carry
out any maintenance if necessary. The following is a list of some of the things
to be considered when evaluating how well the new system has worked; this can
ultimately lead to a redesign of part of the system if there is strong evidence
to suggest that changes need be made (refer back to the Figure 7.1 in the
introduction to this chapter).
» Compare the final solution with the original task requirements.
» Identify any limitations of the system.
» Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made.
» Evaluate the users’ responses to using the new system.
» Compare test results from the new system with results from the old system.
» Compare performance of the new system with performance of the old system.
» Observe users performing set tasks (compare old with new).
» Measure the time taken to complete tasks (compare old with new).
» Interview users to gather responses about how well the new system works.
» Give out questionnaires to gather responses about the ease of use of the new system.
Overall, is the new solution:
– more efficient? (this might mean ‘more efficient to use’ or ‘more efficient
for the business’)
– easy to use?
– appropriate for the task it was designed for?
Some results from the evaluation may lead to two things happening:
» update of hardware because:
– of feedback from end-users
– new hardware comes on the market, necessitating change
– changes within the company require new devices to be added or updated.
» update of software because:
– of feedback from end-users
– changes to the company structure or how the company works that may
require modifications to the software
– changes in legislation that may require modifications to the software.

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 7 The systems life cycle

Exam-style questions
1 For each of these questions, choose the correct response from the five options
given.[10]
a What validation type would make sure a post code, such as LA21 4NN,
was entered in the correct layout?
a Length check
b Presence check
c Range check
d Format check
e Type check

b What validation type would you use to make sure a number entered was > 0
but not > 100?
a Length check
b Presence check
c Range check
d Format check
e Type check

c What validation type checks that a field in an online form is not left
empty?
a Length check
b Presence check
c Range check
d Format check
e Type check

d What validation type checks that the correct number of characters has
been entered?
a Length check
b Presence check
c Range check
d Format check
e Type check

e Data is to be entered in the format DDMMYY. Which of the following is

NOT a valid date?
a 230421
b 010120
c 30th May 2024
d 050505
e 121221

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 Exam-style questions

f Which of the following statements is FALSE?

a Validation can check that data entered is sensible
b Validation can check a value lies between an upper and lower bound
c Validation can check that a field in an online form is not left blank
d Validation is an automatic check done by a computer
e Validation can check that the data entered is correct

g Temperatures (which must be in the range 20 to 80 inclusive) are being

input into a computer. Test data is being used to make sure the validation
checks work. Which of the following are examples of extreme data?
a 0 and 100
b 19 and 81
c 20 and 80
d 21 and 81
e −1 and 85

h What is the name given to data which is outside the limits of acceptability?
a Normal
b Live
c Extreme
d Abnormal
e Erroneous

i Which of the following is NOT a valid method of implementing a new

computer system?
a Serial changeover
b Direct changeover
c Parallel running
d Pilot implementation
e Phased implementation

j Which of the following data-gathering methods suffers from the Hawthorne

effect?
a Examining existing documents
b Interviewing customers who use the system
c Interviewing staff who use the system
d Observing workers doing the tasks
e Filling in questionnaires

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 7 The systems life cycle

2 Carlos is designing a new computer system to replace an existing system.

a Tick four items which will need to be designed.  [4]
Tick (✓)
Inputs to the current system.
Data capture forms.
Report layouts.
Limitations of the system.
Observation methods.
Improvements to the system.
User and information requirements.
Validation routines.
Problems with the current system.
File structures.

b Before the system is implemented it needs to be tested. Different

types of test data are used to test the system. An example of test
data is live data.
Describe what is meant by live data. [2]
c Following the implementation of the system, technical documentation
needs to be written.
Identify three components of technical documentation which are
not found in user documentation. [3]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q10,
May/June 2018
3 A farmer has purchased a computerised milking system for her cows. She has
asked a systems analyst to create a database to store details of the cows
being milked. Examples of the details of the cows which will be stored are:
Average_milk_ Animal_passport_
Breed_of_cow Date_of_birth Weight_of_cow
yield number
Holstein 25/02/2017 725.9 24.5 998/2017

Ayrshire 15/03/2016 715.0 20.1 972/2016

Jersey 25/02/2017 732.7 25.0 971/2016

Holstein 10/10/2016 715.0 25.0 765/2016

a Complete the following table by entering the most appropriate data

type for each field. For any numeric field, specify the type of number. [5]
Field name Data type
Breed_of_cow
Date_of_birth
Weight_of_cow
Average_milk_yield
Animal_passport_number

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 Exam-style questions

b State which field would be the most appropriate for the primary key. [1]
c A validation check is used when entering the animal passport number
into the database.
Name and describe the most appropriate validation check that could be
applied to this field. [2]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q9 a, b & c,
May/June 2018
4 In the table below, by using a tick (✓) indicate whether each component
is found in user documentation only, in technical documentation only or
in both types of documentation. [5]
Technical User
Description of component documentation documentation
(✓) (✓)
How to sort the data
Hardware requirements
How to load and run the software
Program flowcharts/algorithms
Troubleshooting guide/FAQs
Validation rules/routines
Purpose of the system
Program listing/coding
Glossary of terms
Meaning of error messages

5 Put the following six stages of the systems life cycle into their correct order:
» Analysis
» Design
» Development and Testing
» Documentation
» Evaluation
» Implementation [3]
6 Which five computer terms are being described below?  [5]
a A changeover method where the old system is stopped overnight and
the new system is introduced straight away.
b A changeover method where the new system is introduced into one
branch of a company and its performance assessed before being
introduced in all the company’s branches.
c Type of validation that checks whether or not the correct number of
characters has been entered.
d Part of the system life cycle that considers data capture forms, file
structures, validation and screen layouts.
e Software development technique where the program is broken down
into smaller parts and each part is tested separately.

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 7 The systems life cycle

7 a Describe what is meant by the evaluation stage in the systems life cycle. [3]
b Give two reasons why hardware may need to be updated ten years after
its initial introduction. [2]
c Give two reasons why software may need to be updated ten years after
its initial introduction. [2]
8 A program is being written which only accepts numbers in the range 1 to
100 (inclusively) to be input. Validation routines are being used to check the
input data.
a Name two validation routines which could be used to check the input
data in this program. Give a reason for your choice in each case. [2]
b Test data can be normal, abnormal or extreme. Explain the differences
in these three types of test data. Use examples to illustrate your
answer.[3]
c For this program being written, indicate, by ticking the appropriate
box, whether the following input data is normal, abnormal or
extreme.[3]
Normal Abnormal Extreme
(✓) (✓) (✓)
52
1
104
100
twenty-five
99

d Explain what is meant by live data.

Describe how live data is used. [3]
9 An electric power company introduced computer monitoring and control
systems in the year 2000. A project management team has brought in a
systems analyst with a view to introducing a new system or upgrading
their existing system.
The power company supplies the national grid with electricity and
cannot go offline for more than a maximum of eight hours.
a Give three reasons why the project management team have decided
to renew or upgrade their system. [3]
b Suggest two methods a systems analyst might use to research
the current system. Justify your choice of methods. [4]
c Describe the best method of implementing a new system into
the company. Justify your choice of method. [3]

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 Exam-style questions

10 Six descriptions are given on the left and ten computer terms are given
on the right. By drawing arrows, connect each description to its
correct term. [6]
Designed to help programmers/analysts User documentation
to make improvements to the system or
repair/maintain the system
Live data

This checks to see if the data entered is of

Extreme data
the correct type (i.e. letter or number only)

Direct changeover
Actual data used which has known
outcomes
Type check

Technical
Part of a new system is introduced and,
documentation
only when it proves to work satisfactorily,
is the next part introduced, and so on, until
the old system is fully replaced
Abnormal data

This is data which is at the limits of Format check

acceptability or validity

Phased
implementation
This is data which is outside the limits
of acceptability or validity and should be
rejected or cause an error message Evaluation stage

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