Unit-2

1. Importance of a safe water supply system

Water is a basic need for every human being. Most of the world population still does not have
centralized water supply with connections to individual households. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), roughly 2.4 billion of the world’s population does not have access to an improved
sanitation facility and about 1.1 billion people does not have access to safe drinking water. The provision
of safe and adequate drinking water to the burgeoning urban population continues to be one of the
major challenging tasks for any state.

Water constitutes one of the important physical environments of man and has a direct bearing on the
health and hygiene of mankind. There is no denying the fact that the contamination of water leads to
numerous health hazards. Water is precious to man and therefore WHO refers to “control of Water
supplies to ensure that they are pure and wholesome as one of the primary objectives of environmental
sanitation”.

Safe water is one of the most important felt needs in public health in developing countries in the twenty
first century. The year 2005 marked the beginning of the “International Decade for Action: Water for
Life” and renewed effort to achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) to reduce by half the
proportion of the world’s population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation by
2015.

The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, known as the JMP,
reports every two years on access to drinking water and sanitation worldwide and on progress towards
related targets under Millennium Development Goal (MDG). MDG drinking water target, which calls for
halving the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water between
1990 and 2015, was met in 2010, five years ahead of schedule. However, the report also shows why the
job is far from finished. Many still lack safe drinking water, and the world is unlikely to meet the MDG
sanitation target. Continued efforts are needed to reduce urban-rural disparities and inequities
associated with poverty.

Water is a good carrier of disease germs. If water is not made safe against disease germs, it may
become responsible for so many diseases and epidemics. Diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery,
etc are the direct causes of defective water supply. Water is a also a very good solvent. If water
contains excessive amounts of minerals or poisonous dissolved substances, it will again cause so many
difficulties to the public. Therefore, water which is used by the public should be wholesome and must
be free from disease producing bacteria, poisonous substances and excessive amount of minerals, and
organic matter. Therefore, it is very important that water works must remove all the impurities and
bacteria from water and make it wholesome.

The issue of potable water has been attracting attention of the government and the international
agencies. The United Nations initiative in the water sector at the global level, Vancouver Habitat 1977
Conference, International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade Programme, UN Resolution regarding
safe water by 2000 AD etc., bear testimony to the interest, that the inland government and agencies
abroad are taking in this regard. Back home, the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
(RGNDWM) under the auspices of the Ministry of Rural Development has been implementing the
programmes of potable water supply to the population in rural areas. Thus, there is great need for the
improvement in the provision of drinking water, being a basic amenity and it deserves the highest
priority in the development efforts of most of the countries which have large gap between the demand
of water and of actual availability.

India has a large population and also high rate of growth, and it is very difficult for the government to
provide adequate drinking water supply within limited resources. The distinctive feature of the Indian
rural water supply scenario was a Mission Approach with appropriate combining of technological, social
and organizational innovation. Technologically more efficient water supply systems, including regional
pipe water supply schemes on the one hand and dug-wells with energized pump-sets on the other, have
been brought in on a large scale. Bhore Committee constituted in 1944, was the first body to draw
attention to safe-drinking water supply at the national scale. During the pre-independence period, this
Committee laid emphasis on the safe-drinking water supply. In 1947, Madras Government followed the
course by appointing a committee. The state government was interested in the formulation of some
new policies regarding urban and rural areas in the entire state.

The Environmental Hygiene Committee was appointed in 1948-49 by the Union Government. This
committee was the first agency for an overall assessment of the country-wide problems in the entire
field of environmental hygiene and it made notable recommendations in the broader field of
environmental hygiene and urged for greater activities in this direction. This committee recommended
particularly a broad plan to provide water supply and sanitation amenities for 90 per cent of the people
within a period of 40 years and also advised a scheme of priorities for certain areas.

The city or town should be given the benefit of water supply scheme, wherever possible. Any water
supply project grants the following advantages:

 The growth of new industries for various pipe appurtenances such as air valves, etc. takes place
in the locality granting employment opportunities.

 The industries which require pure water for their working are saved from the expenditure of
installing their own water purification plant.

 The installation and maintenance of the water supply scheme grant opportunities of
employment to the local people.

 The public in general gets treated reliable water for consumption and other uses.

 The sanitation of the area is considerably improved by the adequate water supply

 There are less chances of water borne diseases to occur resulting in saving of human lives and
working hours.
  The available water in the locality is used in the best possible manner and its misuse and
wastage are avoided to a considerable extent.

2. Water supply system

INTRODUCTION

No life can exist without water as it is the elixir of life. Air, Water, Food and
Shelter the essential items for any living being in the decreasing order of their
importance. Without air, one cannot live even for a few minutes. Next to air, it is
water which attains paramount importance for any living being. It is almost
available as a free gift to the mankind. It occupies about 17 % of the earth's surface
and is an essential element for the survival of human life on earth.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Since old ages, there has been search for pure water. The story of water supply
begins with the growth of ancient capitals, religious towns, etc. Some of the
earliest civilizations flourished along the banks of the rivers Tigris, The Euphrates,
the Nile and the Indus. Archaeological excavation reveals that as early as 2500 BC,
the people of Harappa, Mohanjodaro and around Indus river basin had well
organized water supply systems. Rig Veda makes a mention of digging of wells.
Similarly, Indian epics like Ramayana and Mahabharatha make mention of wells
as the principal source of water supply. Those wells are mostly of shallow depth,
dug near river banks. As the need for water increased and tools were developed,
wells were made deeper. Brick-lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus
River basin as early as 2500 B.C., and wells almost 500 metres (more than 1,600
feet) deep are known to have been used in ancient China.

Apart from India, other major civilizations of the World used wells for their
settlements which were located slightly away from springs, lakes and rivers.
However, these wells caused water supply problems in times of drought. Hence,
Cisterns were constructed for collecting rain water while reservoirs were
constructed to store water from streams and rivers during monsoon period. The
stored water was conveyed to towns through masonry conduits and aqueducts.

The need to channel water supplies from distant sources was an outcome of the
growth of urban communities. Among the most notable of ancient water-
conveyance systems are the aqueducts built in the Roman Empire. Some of these
impressive works are still in existence.
There was not much drastic improvement in water supply systems in the middle
ages. The development in the field of water supply system remained almost static
until 17th and 18th centuries but it was again confined to the Europe. It was only the
19th century that the Americans had developed more advanced systems for water
supply, its treatment and disposal. The scientific discoveries and engineering
inventions of the 18th and 19th centuries created centralized industries to which
people flocked for employment. This caused serious water supply problems in
those cities and towns. No great schemes of water supply were started until the
Industrial Revolution had well passed its first half century. The development of
large impounding reservoir was largely due to the necessity of feeding canals
constructed during the first phase of the Industrial Revolution.

Water treatment is the alteration of a water source in order to achieve a quality that
meets specified goals. At the end of the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th,
the main goal was elimination of deadly waterborne diseases. The treatment of
public drinking water to remove pathogenic, or disease-causing, microorganisms
began about that time. Treatment methods included sand filtration as well as the
use of chlorine for disinfection.

The first known illustrated description of sand filters was published in 1685 by Luc
Antonio Porzio, an Italian physician. The first filters built in the USA were of the
slow-sand type, similar to British design. About 1890 rapid-sand filters were
developed in the United States, and coagulants were later introduced to increase
their efficiency.

It is astonishing to note that to the middle of the nineteenth century there was no
marked progress in sewerage. In 1842, sewerage system was installed in the city of
Hamburg, Germany. In 1847, the connection between water supply and sewage
pollution was proven in London, England.

The earliest recorded knowledge of water treatment is in the Sanskrit medical lore
and Egyptian wall inscriptions. Sanskrit writings dating about 2000 B.C. tell how
to purify foul water by boiling in copper vessels, exposure to sunlight, filtering
through charcoal, and cooling in an earthen vessel.

ESSENTIALS OF ANY WATER SUPPLY PROJECT / SCHEME

The most important aspect of any water supply scheme is the choice of source of
supply. The source should be permanent, reliable and should provide water with
minimum impurities. Lakes, streams, springs, are surface sources, whereas wells,
infiltration galleries are ground sources. The existence of such a kind of water
supply scheme will help in attracting industries and thus promote industrialization
and ensuring better living standards.

After the selection of source of water, the next step is to construct suitable intake
works to collect and carry water to treatment plants for treatment. The treatment of
water depends on the source of supply, and the amount and nature of impurities
present in it. Water generally has suspended, dissolved, and colloidal impurities.
Underground sources are comparatively clear, cool and free from bacteria.
However, the treatment may be necessary to remove hardness, iron and
manganese. Surface waters may require chemical treatment with coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation, prior to filtration through sand filters.

Aeration and activated carbon process etc. are used for the removal of tastes and
odours. Chlorination is almost always essential for disinfection. To prevent cavity
formation in teeth, sometimes, soluble fluorides are also mixed with water.

Water is carried through pipes from source to treatment plant, and then from
treatment plant to distribution system. Distribution system consists of large arterial
mains, distribution mains, minor distributors and appurtenances, including valves,
meters and hydrants. Treated water is stored in clear water reservoirs from where
it is distributed to the consumers through distribution system of pipes. In low level
areas water will flow directly under gravity but for high level areas, elevated tanks
and pumps will have to be installed. The complete outline of water supply system
(Fig. 1) is explained in the following flow chart.

Fig. 1 Outline of water supply system

Preliminary investigations for water supply scheme
Any water supply system / project has to be meticulously planned and studied for various view points.
The following points should be looked into while considering any water supply system

Sources of water supply

It is quite clear that the success of a water supply scheme entirely depends on good sources of water
supply. The sources should be selected while keeping in view its adequacy throughout the year, quality
of water and cheapness. The present source of water supply should also be adjusted properly in the
new water supply scheme.

Population

From the available census of previous years, the present population should be determined and it is a
general practice to make the scheme to accommodate population after three or four decades.

Financial aspects

The availability of fund for the completion of the water supply scheme should be obtained in the initial
stages of the scheme itself. The scheme should then be adjusted according to the fund available. Every
step should be taken to make the scheme as economical as possible and to take the maximum
advantage of it.

Quantity of water

The demand of water depends on various uses such as domestic, industrial, public, trade, etc. The rate
of consumption per capita should be decided by carefully considering all these possible uses. This rate,
when multiplied by the population, gives the total quantity of water required for the water supply
scheme.

Quality of water

The quality of available water decides the line of treatment of water. The more pure water is, the less it
the cost of the treatment. Hence, samples of available sources of water should be taken and properly
analysed and the results of various tests should be thoroughly studied to suggest an economical water
supply scheme for the localit

Sanitary survey

The sanitary survey of area surrounding the available water sources should be carefully carried out.
Such a survey helps in estimating the possible pollution or contamination of water from such sources.
The sanitary survey includes the collection of information regarding the likely sources of water pollution

Topography
The topographical map of the area to be served by the scheme should be prepared and it should be
studied in relation to low lying area, ridges, density of population, etc. The study is essential to evolve a
simple but cheap water supply scheme.

Town development trend

The trends of town development in future should be predicted and properly adjusted in the water
supply scheme. Such trends may take various forms such as possibility of new industries, public
recreation centres, public institutions, residential blocks, etc.

3. Domestic water requirements of urban and rural areas

A small quantity of water is required by a man under normal conditions for his personal use. But this
demand of water for other purposes will naturally depend upon the standard of living and degree of
culture.

In order to arrive at a reasonable water requirement for any particular town, the demand of water for
various purposes is divided under the following five categories:

1. Domestic purposes

2. Civic or public purposes

3. Industrial purposes

4. Business or trade purposes

5. Loss and waste

We will briefly analyse each category and will discuss how the quantity of water under each category is
worked out for the purpose of estimating rate of demand of water.

Domestic purposes

The quantity of water required for domestic purposes can be sub divided as follows:

1. Drinking

A human body contains about 70 % of water. The consumption of water by a man is required for
various physiological processes such as blood formation, food assimilation, etc. The quantity of water
which a man would require for drinking depends on various factors. But on the average and under
normal conditions, it is about 2 litres per day. This amount, as will be seen, is very small as compared to
various other uses of water. But it is most essential to supply water for drinking purposes with a high
degree of purity. If water for drinking contains undesirable elements, it may lead to epidemic. In fact,
the drinking water should be protected, potable and palatable.

2. Cooking

Some quantity of water will also be required for cooking. The quantity of water required for this
purpose will depend upon the stage of advancement of the family in particular and society in general.
However, for the purpose of estimation, amount of water required for cooking may be assumed as
about 5 litres per capita per day.

3. Bathing

The quantity of water required for bathing purpose will mainly depend on the habits of people and type
of climate. For an Indian bath, this quantity may be assumed as about 30 to 40 litres per capita per day
and for tub-bath, it may be taken as about 50 to 80 litres per capita per day.

4. Washing hands, face etc.

The quantity of water required for this purpose will depend on the habits of people and may roughly be
taken as 5 to 10 litres capita per day.

5. Household sanitary purposes

Under this division, the water is required for washing clothes, floors, utensils, etc. and it may be
assumed to be about 50 to 60 litres per capita per day.

6. Private gardening and irrigation

In case of developed cities, there will be practically no demand of water for this purpose. In case of
undeveloped cities, private wells are generally used to provide water for private gardening and
irrigation. It is therefore not essential to include the quantity of water required for this purpose in case
of public water supply project.

7. Domestic animals and private vehicles

The amount of water required for the use of domestic animals and private vehicles is not of much
concern to a water supply engineer. With the growth and development of town, the cattle disappear
and commercial stables come into existence. The water required for animal drinking and cleaning of
stables is around 13.5 litres per capita per day.

The requirement of water for domestic purposes is a minimum of 135 litres per capita per day which
amounts to 50 % of the total water requirements per capita per day.

Civic or public purposes

The quantity of water required for civic or public purposes can be sub divided as follows:
Road washing

The roads with heavy amount of dust are to be sprinkled with water to avoid inconvenience to the
users. On the average, the quantity of water required for this purpose may be taken as about 5 litres per
capita per day.

Sanitation purposes

In this division, water is required for cleaning public sanitary blocks, large markets, etc. and for carrying
liquid wastes from houses. The quantity of water required for this purpose will depend on the growth of
civilization and may be assumed to be about 2 to 3 litres per capita per day.

Ornamental purposes

In order to adorn the town with decorative features, fountains or lakes or ponds are sometimes
provided. These objects require huge quantity of water for their performance. As far as Indian towns
are concerned, the quantity of water required for this purpose may be treated as quite negligible since
in most of the towns, the quantity of water available is not enough even with the most urgent needs of
the society.

Fire demand

Usually, a fire occurs in factories and stores. The quantity of wter required for fire fighting purposes
should be easily available and always kept stored in the storage reservoir.

In case of public water supply, fire demand is treated as a function of population and some of the
empirical formulae, commonly used for calculating the fire demand are as follows:

Buston’s formula

Q=5663

Q = quantity of water required in litres per minute

P = population in thousands

This formula is used in England for moderate provision

John R. Freeman’s formula

Q = quantity of water required in litres per minute

P = population in thousands

Kuichling’s formula

Q = quantity of water required in litres per minute

P = population in thousands

National Board of Fire Underwriters formula

Q = quantity of water required in litres per minute

P = population in thousands

As for Indian conditions are concerned, a moderate allowance of one litre per capita per day for fire
demand will be sufficient.

Industrial purposes

The quantity of water required for industrial or commercial purposes can be sub divided as follows:

Factories

The quantity of water required for the processes involved in factories will naturally depend on the
nature of products, size of factory, etc. and it has no relation with the density of population. It is quite
likely that the demand of water for factories may equal or even exceed the demand of water for
domestic purposes. The possibility of recycling of water in the plant will also have appreciable effect on
the demand of water for a particular product.

Power stations

A huge quantity of water will be required for working of power stations. But generally, the power
stations are situated away from the cities and they do not represent a serious problem to public water
supply.

Railways

In most of the cases, the railways make their own arrangements regarding their water requirements and
hence, the quantity of water to be consumed by railways is not ordinarily included in any public water
supply system.

It is thus not possible to connect the requirement of water for industrial purposes to the population of
the city. It is therefore advisable to study each case independently in this regard and decide the
quantity of water required for industrial purposes accordingly. For a city with moderate factories, it is
estimated that about 20 to 25 per cent of per capita consumption will be required for industrial
purposes.

Business or trade purposes

Some trades such as dairies, hotels, laundries, motor garages, restaurants, stables, etc. require a large
quantity of water. Such trades are to be maintained in hygienic conditions and sanitation of such places
should be strictly insisted. The number of such business centres will depend upon the population and
for a moderate city, an average value of about 15 to 25 litres per capita per day may be taken as water
requirements for this purpose.

Loss and waste

The quantity of water required under this category is sometimes termed as unaccounted requirement.
It includes careless use of water, leakage in mains, valves, other fittings, etc. unauthorized water
connections and waste due to other miscellaneous reasons. The quantity of water lost due to all these
reasons is uncertain and cannot be effectively predicted. However, for the purpose of calculating the
average rate of demand it may be estimated to be about 30 to 40 per cent of per capita consumption.

Factors affecting water requirement

There are various factors which influence the water requirement. These factors are to be analysed
carefully and properly before arriving at the rate of demand for a particular locality. Following are the
factors affecting rate of demand

1. Climatic conditions

The requirement of water in summer is more than that in winter. So also is the case with hotter and
cooler places. In extreme cold, people may keep water taps open to avoid freezing of pipes. This may
result in increased rate of consumption.

2. Cost of water

The rate at which water is supplied to the consumers may also affect the rate of demand. The higher
the cost, the lower will be the rate of demand and vice-versa.

3. Distribution pressure

The consumption of water increases with the increase in the distribution pressure. This is due to
increase in loss and waste of water at high pressure. For instance, an increase of pressure from 2 to 3
kg/cm2 may lead to an increase in consumption to the extent of about 25 to 30 per cent. The designer
therefore should only provide for distribution pressure which is necessary for rendering satisfactory
service.

4. Habits of population

For high value premises, the consumption rate of water will be more due to better standard of living of
persons. For middle-class premises, the consumption rate will be average while in case of slum areas, it
will be much lower. A single water tap may be serving several families in low value areas.

5. Industries

The presence or absence of industries in a city may also affect its rate demand. As there is no direct
relation between the water requirement for industries and population, it is necessary to calculate
carefully present and future requirements of industries.
6. Policy of metering

The quantity of water supplied to a building is recorded by a water meter and the consumer is then
charged accordingly. The installation of meters reduces the rate of consumption. But the fact of
adopting policy of metering is a disputable one as seen from the following arguments which are
advanced for and against it.

4 Sources of water supply

Sources from which water is available for water supply schemes can conveniently be classified into the
following two categories according to their proximity to the ground surface, viz., surface and
underground source

Surface waters

In this type of source, the surface runoff is available for water supply schemes. Usual forms of surface
sources are as follows:

1. Lakes and streams

2. Ponds

3. Rivers

4. Storage reservoirs

Lakes and streams

A natural lake represents a large body of water within land with impervious bed. Hence, it may be used
as source of water supply scheme for nearby localities. The quantity of runoff that goes to the lake
should be accurately determined and it should be seen that it is at least equal to the expected demand
of locality. Similar is the case with streams which are formed by the surface runoff. It is found that the
flow of water in streams is quite ample in rainy season. But it becomes less and less in hot season and
sometimes the stream may even become absolutely dry.

The catchment area of lakes and streams is very small and hence, the quantity of water available from
them is also very low. Hence, lakes and streams are not considered as principal sources of water supply
schemes for the large cities. But they can be adopted as sources of water supply schemes for hilly areas
and small towns.

The water which is available from lakes and streams is generally free from undesirable impurities and
can therefore be safely used for drinking purposes.

Ponds
A pond is a man-made body of standing water smaller than a lake. Thus ponds are formed due to
excessive digging of ground for the construction of roads, houses, etc and they are filled up with water
in rainy season. The quantity of water in pond is very small and it contains many impurities.

A pond cannot be adopted as a source of water supply and its water can only be used for washing of
clothes or animals only.

Rivers

Since the dawn of civilization, the ancient man settled on the banks of river, drank river water and ate
fish caught from river water and sailed down rivers to find out unknown lands.

Large rivers constitute the principal source of water supply schemes for many cities. Some rivers are
perennial while others are non-perennial. The former rivers are snowfed and hence, water flows in such
rivers for all the seasons. The latter type of rivers dries in summer either wholly or partly and in
monsoon, heavy flood visits them. For such types of rivers, it is desirable to store the excess water of
flood in monsoons by constructing dams across such rivers. This stored water may then be used in
summer.

In order to ascertain the quantity of water available from the river, the discharges at various periods of
the year are taken and recorded. The observations over a number of years serve as a good guide for
estimating the quantity of water available from the river in any particular period of the year.

Generally, the quantity of water available from non-perennial rivers is variable throughout the year and
it is likely to fall down in hot season when demand of water is maximum. It becomes therefore essential
to augment such source of water supply by some other sources so as to make the water supply scheme
successful.

The quality of surface water obtained from rivers is not reliable. It contains silt and suspended
impurities. When completely or partly treated sewage is being discharged into the river at some
upstream point, the river water is to be suspected for high contamination. The river water requires to
be properly analyzed as regards to the contents of disease bacteria, harmful impurities, etc. The
presence of all such undesirable elements in river water requires an exhaustive treatment of water
before it can be make fit for drinking purposes. It should however be noted that the quality of river
water is subject to the widest variations because it depends on various uncertain factors such as
character of the catchment area, the discharges of sewage and industrial wastes, climatic conditions,
season of the year, etc. The character of the water differs not only with each individual river, but also at
many points along the course of the same river. It is usually found that the quality of river water at its
head is good, but it goes on deteriorating as the river proceeds along its course.

The chief use points to be considered in investigating a river supply of water are as follows:

 Adequacy of storage of purified water so as not to disturb the distribution system during periods
of fold when the river water is turbid
  Efficiency of the subsequent stages of purification system adopted

 General nature of river, the rate of flow and the distance between the sources of pollution and
the intake of the water and

 Relative proportions of the polluting matter and the flow of river when at its minimum.

Storage reservoirs

An artificial lake formed by the construction of dam across a valley is termed as a storage reservoir. It
essentially consists of the following three parts

 A dam to hold water

 A spillway to allow the excess water to flow and

 A gate chamber containing necessary valves for regulating the flow of water

At present, this is rather the chief source of water supply schemes for very big cities. The multi purpose
reservoirs also make provisions for other uses in addition to water supply such as irrigation and power
generation.

Underground sources

In this type of source, the water that has percolated into the ground is brought on the surface. The
difference between the terms infiltration and percolation should be noted. The entrance of rain water
or melted snow into the ground is referred to as infiltration. The movement of water after entrance is
called percolation

It is observed that the surface of earth consists of alternate courses of pervious and impervious strata.
The pervious layers are those through which water can easily pass while it is not possible for water to go
through an impervious layer.

The pervious layers are known as aquifers or water-bearing strata. If aquifer consists of sand and gravel
strata, it gives good supply of drinking water. The aquifer of limestone strata can supply good amount
of drinking water, provided there is presence of cracks or fissures in it.

Forms of underground sources

Following are the four forms in which underground sources are found

1. Infiltration galleries

2. Infiltration wells

3. Springs

4. Wells
Each of the above form will now be separately discussed in brief

Infiltration galleries

An infiltration gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water
bearing strata. It is sometimes referred to as horizontal well

The gallery is usually constructed of brick walls with slab roof as shown in the figure. The gallery obtains
its water from water bearing strata by various porous drain pipes. These pipes are covered with gravel,
pebble, etc. so as to prevent the entry of very fine material into the pipe.

The gallery is laid at a slope and the water collected in the gallery is led to a sump from where it is
pumped and supplied to consumers after proper treatment. The manholes are provided along the
infiltration gallery for the purposes of cleaning and inspection.

The infiltration galleries are useful as sources of water supply when ground water is available in
sufficient quantity just below ground level or so. The galleries are usually constructed at depth of about
5 to 10 metres from the ground level.
The infiltration galleries are useful as sources of water supply when ground water is available in
sufficient quantity just below ground level or so. The galleries are usually constructed at depth of about
5 to 10 metres from the ground level.

Infiltration wells

In order to collect large quantities of water, infiltration wells are sunk in series in the banks of river. The
wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed of brick masonry with open joints as
shown in figure

For the purpose of inspection of well, manholes are provided in the top cover. The water infiltrates
through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through a sand bed, it gets purified to some
extent.

The infiltration wells in turn are connected by porous pipes to a collecting sump, known as jack well as
shown in figure and the water thus collected through the infiltration wells then flows by gravity into the
jack well. The water from jack well is pumped to purification plant for treatment.

Springs
When ground water appears at the surface for any reason, springs are formed. They serve as source of
water supply for small towns, especially near hills or bases of hills. Some springs discharge hot water
due to presence of sulphur and other minerals in their formations. These hot springs cannot be used to
supply water for domestic purposes. But hot water is found to cure some of the human disorders.

A good spring proves to be a sure source of water. But it is difficult to find a good spring for the purpose
of water supply scheme. However, when a spring is to be developed as a source of water supply, the
following factors should be carefully ascertained:

 It should be easier, cheaper and surer enough to develop the spring for the locality than to
adopt any other source of water supply.

 The flow of water should be adequate, even in dry weather

 The spring should be adequately protected from the water pollution sources

 The spring should be so located as to have natural gravity flow

 The water should be of good quality

Following are the three types of springs

1. Artesian springs

2. Gravity springs

3. Surface springs

Artesian springs

In this type of spring, the ground water comes to the surface under pressure as shown in the figure
The artesian spring may also be formed due to presence of fissure or crack in impervious layer as shown
in the figure. The fissure or crack should be continued upto the ground surface. The artesian springs
give practically uniform quantity of water throughout the year.

Gravity springs
This type of spring develops due to overflowing of the water table as shown in the figure. The flow from
a gravity spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table. In order to meet with such fluctuations, a
trench may be constructed near such a spring as shown in the figure. The trench acts as a storage
reservoir.

Surface springs

This type of spring is formed when subsoil water is exposed to the ground surface by the obstruction of
an impervious layer as shown in the figure.

The quantity of water available from surface springs is quite uncertain and cut-off walls, as shown in the
figure, may be constructed to develop such springs.
It is found that the quality of spring water depends on geological and topographical conditions and it
may be hard or soft, pure or polluted or sometimes saline, etc. Similarly, the yield from springs is mostly
inadequate, except for small supplies. The spring water which is not disturbed by rainfall is usually
attractive in appearance and of good palatability.

Wells

A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping water. The
holes made for tapping oil are also known as wells. But in the general sense, a well indicates a source of
water. In India, the chief source of water supply for most of its population is wells and it is estimated
that 75 to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for its water supply.

The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are as follows:

 Geological conditions of earth’s surface,

 Porosity of various layers and

 Quantity of water which is absorbed and stored in different layers.

The geological conditions of earth’s surface indicate the slope of water bearing strata. If the slope of
water bearing layers is towards the well, there will be some quantity of water in the well even during
the severe hot season. On the other hand, if the slope of water bearing layers is away from the well,
such well will soon get dry and it will only give some quantity of water only in monsoon.

The porosity of aquifers will also play a great role in determining the quantity of water in the well. If the
porosity of aquifers is more, the well will easily collect more quantity of water in less time. The capacity
of aquifers to absorb and store water will determine the supply rate of water to the well. If the aquifers
are capable of storing more water, the well will get more quantity of water and practically at a constant
rate.

5 Intakes for water supply

Intakes are the structures used for admitting water from the surface sources (i.e., river, reservoir or lake)
and conveying it further to the treatment plant. Generally, an intake is a masonry or concrete structure
with an aim of providing relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and objectionable floating
material. Its main purpose is to provide calm and still water conditions, so that comparatively purer
water may be collected from the source. If intake well has to withstand the effects of severe forces
which may be due to striking of high water currents, it may be made from reinforced cement concrete.

Site for location of intake

While selecting a site for location of intakes, the following points should be taken into account:

 Intake work should provide purer water so that its treatment may be less exhaustive
  Heavy water currents should not strike the intake directly

 Intake should be located at such a situation where sufficient quantity of water remains available
under all the circumstances

 Site should be well connected by good type or roads

 Site should be such that intake should be in a position to provide more water, if requied to do
so.

 Site should not be located in navigation channels, the reason being water in such channels are
generally polluted.

 During floods, the intake should not be submerged by the flooding waters.

 As far as possible, the site should be located on the upstream side of the town / city.

 The intake should be so located that good foundation conditions are prevalent and the
possibility of scouring is minimal.

 The site should be selected in such a manner that there is ample scope for further expansion.

Design of intake

An intake should be designed keeping in mind the following considerations:

 Intake should be sufficiently heavy so that it may not start floating due to upthrust of water.

 All the forces which are expected to work on intake should be carefully analysed and intake
should be designed to withstand all these forces.

 The foundation of the intake should be taken sufficiently deep to avoid overturning.

 Strainers in the form of wire mesh should be provided on all the intake inlets to avoid entry of
large floating objects.

 Intake should be of such size and so located that sufficient quantity of water can be obtained
from the intake in all circumstances.

Types of intakes

Submerged intake

Submerged intake is the one which is constructed entirely under water. Such an intake is commonly
used to obtain supply from a lake. An exposed intake is in the form of a well or tower constructed near
the bank of a river, or in some cases even away from the river banks. Exposed intakes are more
common due to ease in its operation. A wet intake is that type of intake tower in which the water level
is practically the same as the water level of the sources of supply. Such an intake is sometimes known as
jack well and is most commonly used. In the case of dry intake, however, there is no water in the water
tower. Water enters through entry point directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used
for the operation of valves etc.

River intake

A river intake is located to the upstream of the city so that pollution is minimized. They are either
located sufficiently inside the river so that demands of water are met with in all the seasons of the year,
or they may be located near the river bank where a sufficient depth of water is available. Sometimes, an
approach channel is constructed and water is led to the intake tower. If the water level in the river is
low, a weir may be constructed across it to raise the water level and divert it to the intake tower.

Reservoir intake

When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year a dam is constructed across it to store
water in the reservoir so formed. The reservoir intakes are practically similar to the river intake, except
that these are located near the upstream face of the dam where maximum depth of water is available.

Lake Intake

Lake intakes are similar to reservoir intakes if the depth of the water near the banks is reasonable. If
however, the depth of the water near the banks is shallow, and greater depth is available only at its
centre, a submerged intake is provided.

Canal intake

Sometimes, the source of water supply to a small town may be an irrigation canal passing near the
town. The canal intake essentially consists of concrete or masonry intake chamber of rectangular shape,
admitting water through a coarse screen. A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of the
outlet pipe. The bell mouth entry is located below the expected low water level in the canal. Water
may flow from outlet pipe under gravity if the filter house is situated at a lower elevation. Otherwise,
the outlet pipe may serve as suction pipe, and the pump house may be located on or near the canal
bank. The intake chamber is so constructed that is does not offer any appreciable resistance to normal
flow in the canal. Otherwise, the intake chamber is located inside the canal bank. Near the location of
the intake work, canal is lined.

6 Transportation of water
The term conveyance / transportation refer to taking of water from source to purification plants and
from treatment plant to consumers. Water supply system broadly involves transportation of water from
the sources to the area of consumption, through free flow channels or conduits or pressure mains.
Depending on the topography of the land, conveyance may be in free flow and/or pressure conduits.
Transmission of water accounts for an appreciable part of the capital outlay and hence careful
consideration fo the economics is called for before deciding on the best mode of conveyance. Care
should be taken so that there is no possibility of pollution from surrounding areas.
If the source is at higher level than the treatment plant, the water can flow under gravity, automatically.
Similarly after necessary purification of water, it has to be conveyed to the consumers. Therefore, for
conveyance of water some sort of devices or structures is required. The arrangement may be in the
form of open channels, aqueducts, tunnels or pipes.

Open channels

In any water supply systems, raw water from source to treatment plants may be carried in open
channels. Economical sections of open channels are generally trapezoidal while rectangular sections
prove economical when rock cutting is involved. The channels are to be properly lined to prevent
seepage. Also these kind of channels need to be taken along the gradient and therefore the intitial cost
and maintenance cost may be high. While open channels are not recommended for conveyance of
treated water, they may be adopted for conveying raw water. If these kind of channels are unlined,
they have to be run with limited velocity of flow so that it does not effect scouring.

Aqueducts

The term aqueduct is usually restricted to closed conduits made up of masonry. These can be used for
conveyance of water from source to treatment plant or for distribution. Aqueducts normaly run half to
two-third full at required capacity of supply in most circumstances. In ancient times, rectangular
aqueducts were most commonly used, but these days circular or horse-shoe shaped ones are more
common. Masonry aqueducts unless reinforced with steel, are usually constructed in horse-shoe cross-
section. This cross-section has good hydraulic properties and resists earth pressure well. It is
economical and easy to build.

Tunnels

Tunnels are also like aqueducts. Tunnels which are not under pressure are usually constructed in horse-
shoe shape. But if they convey water under pressure, circular cross-section is the best. In pressure
tunnels, the depth of cover is generally such that the weight of overlying material overcomes the
bursting pressure. Tunnels are used to convey water into the cities from outside sources.

Pipes

Pipe is a circular closed conduit used to convey water from one point to another, under gravity or under
pressure. Usually pipes follow the profile of the ground surface closely. If pipes do not run full, they are
called to flowing under gravity. But flow under gravity is possible only if the pipe is given a definite
longitudinal slope. Pipes running full will be said to be running under pressure. Pipes are mostly made
up of materials like cast iron, wrought iron, RCC, asbestos cement, plastic, timber, etc.

Cast iron pipes

Cast iron pipes are used in majority of water conveyance mains because of centuries of satisfactory
experience with it. Cast iron pipe is resistant to corrosion and accordingly long lived; its life may be over
100 years.
Advantages

 Cast iron pipes are of moderate cost

 Their jointing is easier

 They are resistant to corrosion

 They have long life

Disadvantages

 They are heavier and hence uneconomical when their diameter is more than 120 cm

 They cannot be used for pressures greater than 7 kg / cm2.

 They are fragile

Wrought iron and galvanized iron pipes

Wrought iron pipes are manufactured by rolling flat plates of the wrought iron to the proper diameter
and welding the edges. Such pipes are much lighter than the cast iron pipes and can be more easily cut,
threaded and worked. They look much neater, but are much costlier. They corrode quickly, and hence
are used principally for installation within buildings. These pipes are usually protected by coating them
with a thin film of molten zinc. Such coated pipes are known as galvanized iron pipes, and they are
commonly jointed by screwed and socketed joints.

Steel pipes

Steel pipes of small diameter can be made from the solid, but larger sizes are made by riveting or
welding together the edges of suitably-curved plates, the sockets being formed later in a press. The
joints may be either transverse or longitudinal. Steel pipes cannot be easily made to resist high external
pressures.

Cement concrete pipes

Cement concrete pipes may be either plain or reinforced, and are best made by the spinning process.
They may be either precast, or may be cast-in-situ. The plain cement concrete pipes are used for heads
up to 7 m while reinforced cement concrete pipes are normally used for head upto 60 m.

Advantages

 They are more suitable to resist the external loads and loads due to backfilling.

 The maintenance cost is low.

 The inside surface of pipes can be made smooth, thus reducing the frictional losses.
  The problem of corrosion is not there.

 Pipes can be cast at site and hence the transportation problems are reduced.

 Due to their heavy weight, the problem of floatation is not there when they are empty.

Disadvantages

 Unreinforced pipes are liable to tensile cracks and they cannot withstand high pressure.

 The tendency of leakage is not ruled out as a result of its porosity and shrinkage cracks.

 It is very difficult to repair them.

 Precast pipes are very heavy, and it is difficult to transport them.

Unit-3

7 Drinking water quality - physical properties

INTRODUCTION

The quality of water is determined by the impurities present in it. The impurities may be physical,
chemical or bacteriological in nature. In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to
various tests viz., physical, chemical and bacteriological tests. In this chapter, introduction to quality of
water and different physical tests will be dealt.

Impurities in water

It is not possible to find pure water in nature. The rain water as it drops down to the surface of
earth absorbs dust and gases from the atmosphere. It is further exposed to organic matter on the
surface of earth and by the time, it reaches the source of water supply, it is found to contain various
other impurities also.

For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories:

1. Physical impurities

2. Chemical impurities

3. Bacteriological impurities

Analysis of water
In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to various tests. These tests can be divided into
the following three categories:

1. Physical tests

2. Chemical tests

3. Bacteriological tests

Before we take up the discussion of various tests, it will be necessary to note the precautions which are
to be taken while collecting the sample of water to be analysed. In fact, the sampling is the most
important part of any analysis because the final results obtained, even from the most accurate analysis,
will be misleading, if the samples on which such analysis is carried out, are not representative ones of
the liquids to be tested. As a matter of fact, it will be ideal to carry out all the analysis immediately after
the collection of samples and quicker the analysis, the more representative will be the results of analysis
of the liquid at the time the samples are taken. These precautions are as follows:

1. The water should be collected in bottles, especially of white glass, having well-fitted stoppers.
Bottles having holding capacity of about 2 litres of water are necessary for chemical analysis.
For bacteriological examination, bottles with smaller capacities will be sufficient

2. Bottles should be thoroughly cleansed, filled thrice with water and thrice emptied before
collecting the sample. However, it will not be necessary to carry out such process, if the sealed
bottles are directly obtained from the laboratories.

3. When the sample of water is to be collected from a pipe, the water tap should be turned on and
the water should be allowed to go waste for at least two minutes so as to prevent the entry of
impurities of the pipe in the sample of water. If the sample is to be collected for conducting a
bacteriological analysis, the nozzle of the tap should be flamed and made unbearably hot and
then cooled by the running water before the bottle is filled.

4. For collecting the sample of water from lake, streams, spring or well the whole bottled with
stopper closed should be immersed deep into the surface of water and then only the stopper of
the bottle should be removed by means of a clean piece of string and the bottle is filled. Thus
the entry of floating materials will be prevented in the bottle.

5. The bottle should be held as far away from its neck as possible. In no case, the water entering
the bottle should come into contact with the hand.

6. After collecting the sample, the stopper of bottle should be well secured and the bottles
containing samples of water should be labeled stating the source, date and time of collection.

Physical test

Under this category, tests are carried out to examine water fro the following:
 1. Colour

2. Taste and Odour

3. Temperature

4. Turbidity

Other physical characteristics for which tests are sometimes carried out are density, electrical
conductivity, radioactivity and viscosity.

Colour

An undesirable appearance is produced by colour in water. It spoils the clothes and affects various
industrial processes. The measurement of colour in water is carried out by means of a tintometer. The
instrument has an eye piece with two holes. A slide of standard coloured water is seen through one
hole and in the other hole, the slide of water to be tested is inserted. The intensity of colour in water is
measured on a arbitrary scale. The unit of colour on cobalt scale is the colour produced by one
milligram of platinum cobalt in one litre of distilled water. The slide of standard numbers are kept ready
in the laboratory. For public water supply, the number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20 and should
preferably less than 10.

It should, however, be remembered that the examinations of colour by matching with slides of standard
colours will be sufficient for most of the purposes and it is obvious that the results will be influenced by
the personal factor, the conditions of lighting under which the tests are carried out, etc.

Taste and odour

The water possesses taste and odour due to various causes and they make the water unpleasant for
drinking. The test is conducted by inhaling through two tubes of osmoscope. One tube is kept in a flask
containing diluted water and other one in a flask containing water to be tested. The taste and odour of
water may also be tested by threshold number. In this method, water to be tested is diluted with
odour-free water and mixture at which odour becomes detectable is determined. It indicates threshold
number and other intensities of odour are then worked out. The results of test are greatly affected by
the sensitiveness of the observer. For public water supply, the threshold number should not be more
than 3.

Temperature

The test for temperature of water has no meaning in the sense that it is not possible to give any
treatment to control the temperature in any water supply project. The temperature of water to be
supplied from storage reservoir depends on the depth from which it is drawn. The desirable
temperature of potable water is 10°C while temperature of 25°C is considered to be objectionable.

The multiplication of bacteria in the waters is more rapid at higher temperatures than in the waters at
lower temperature. Hence, when waters with a temperature of about 15°C are collected for
bacteriological analysis, they should be cooled down as quickly as possible. It should further be
remembered that the air temperature at the time of taking the water sample should always be
recorded.

The measurement of temperature of water is done with the help of ordinary thermometers.
From the study of temperature, the characteristics of water such as density, viscosity, vapour pressure
and surface tension can be determined. It also helps in determining the saturation values of solids and
gases which can be dissolved in water and also the rates of chemical, biochemical and biological activity.

Turbidity

The colloidal matter present in water imparts turbidity to water. The turbidity in water may also be due
to clay and silt particles, discharges of sewage or industrial wastes, presence of large numbers of micro-
organisms etc., and the cloudy appearance developed in water due to turbidity is aesthetically
unattractive and it may also be harmful to the consumers.

The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million parts of water or shortly
written as ppm. It is to be noted that the expression ppm is equivalent to mg per litre. The standard
unit of turbidity is the form of finely divided silica in a million parts of distilled water. The permissible
turbidity for drinking water is 5 to 10 ppm.

The measurement of turbidity in the field is done by means of a turbidity rod. For laboratory, various
turbidimeters are found out to measure the turbidity of water, the most common being Jackson
turbidimeter and Baylis turbidimeter.

8 Drinking water quality - chemical and biological properties

INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the different types of chemical and bacteriological tests done to assess the
quality of water

Chemical tests

Under this category, tests are carried out to examine water for the following

1. Chlorides

2. Dissolved gases

3. Hardness

4. pH

5. Alkalinity

6. Nitrogen
 7. Total solids

Chlorides

The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked out for a sample of
water. The excess presence of sodium chloride indicates pollution of water due to sewage, minerals,
etc. The water has lower contents of salt than sewage due to the fact that salt consumed in food is
excreted by body. For potable water, the highest desirable level of chloride content is 200 mg/litre and
its maximum permissible level is 600 mg per litre.

The measurement of chloride contents is carried out as follows:

1. 50 cc of sample of water is taken by pipette in a porcelain dish.

2. Two or three drops of potassium chromate solution are added to the sample of water

3. The chloride content is then determined by titrating with standard solution of silver nitrate.

The silver reacts first with all chlorides and silver chloride thus formed then reacts with potassium
chromate. The silver chromate appears as reddish precipitate and the amount of silver nitrate required
to produce such reddish precipitate determines the amount of chlorides present in water.

Dissolved gases

The water contains various gases from its contact with the atmosphere and ground surfaces. The
usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The contents of
these dissolved gases in a sample of water are suitably worked out.

The methane concentration is to be studied for its explosive property. The hydrogen sulphide gives
disagreeable odour to water even if its amount is very small. The carbon dioxide content indicates
biological activities, causes corrosion, increases solubility of many minerals in water and gives taste to
water.

Oxygen in the dissolved state is obtained from atmosphere and pure natural surface water is
usually saturated with it. The simple test to determine the amount of dissolved oxygen present in a
sample of water is to expose water for 4 hours at a temperature of 27°C with 10% acid solution of
potassium permanganate. The quantity of oxygen absorbed can then be calculated. This amount, for
potable water, should be about 5 to 10 ppm.

Hardness

The hardness or soap-destroying power of water is of two types – temporary hardness and
permanent hardness. The temporary hardness is also known as carbonate hardness and it is mainly due
to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by adding
lime to the water. The permanent hardness is also known as non-carbonate hardness and it is due to
the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. It cannot be removed by
simply boiling the water. It requires special treatment of water softening.

Total hardness = carbonate hardness or alkalinity + Non carbonate hardness

The excess hardness of water is undesirable because of various reasons such as it causes more
consumption of soap, affects the working of dyeing system, provides scales on boilers, causes corrosion
and incrustation of pipes, makes food tasteless, etc.,

The hardness is usually measured by the soap solution test. The standard soap solution is added
in the sample of water. It is then vigorously shaken for about five minutes and formation of lather is
observed. The difference between the total amount of soap solution and the latter factor indicates the
hardness of water.

The water, having hardness of about 5 degrees, is reasonably soft water and a very soft water is
tasteless. Hence, for potable water, the hardness should preferably be more than 5 degrees but less
than 8 degrees or so.

Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in terms of its pH value or H-ion concentration. It is
desirable to maintain pH value of water very close to 7. The acidic water causes tuberculation and the
alkaline water causes incrustation. For potable water, the pH value should be between 7 and 8.50

Following are the two methods which are employed to measure the pH value of water:

Electrometric method

In this method, potentiometer is used to measure the electrical pressure exerted by positively charged
H-ions. The pH value is then correspondingly expressed.

Colourimetric method

In this method, chemical reagents are added to water and the colour produced is compared with
standard colours of known pH values. A set of sealed tubes containing coloured waters of known pH
values is kept in the laboratory for ready reference. This test is simple and hence, it is commonly carried
out in public health laboratories. The usual indicators are Benzol yellow, Methyl red, Bromphenol blue,
etc., for acidic range and Thymol blue, Phenol red, Tolyl red, etc. for alkaline range.

Alkalinity

The alkalinity is the capacity of a given sample to neutralize a standard solution of acid. The alkalinity is
due to the presence of bicarbonate (HCO3), carbonate (CO3) or hydroxide (OH).

The determination of alkalinity is very useful in waters and wastes because it provides buffering to resist
changes in pH value. The alkalinity is usually divided into the following two parts:
Total alkalinity i.e. above pH 4.5

Caustic alkalinity i.e. above pH 8.2

The alkalinity is measured by volumetric analysis. The commonly adopted two indicators are:

1. Phenolphthalein : pink above pH 8.5 and colourless below pH 8.2

2. Methyl orange : red below pH 4.5 and yellow orange above pH 4.5

Alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = (total reading / volume of sample in ml) x 1000

Nitrogen and its compounds

The nitrogen is present in water in the following four forms:

 Free ammonia

 Albuminoid ammonia

 Nitrites

 Nitrates

The amount of free ammonia in potable water should not exceed 0.15 ppm and that of albuminoid
ammonia should not exceed 0.3 ppm. The terms albuminoid ammonia is used to represent the quantity
of nitrogen present in water before decomposition of organic matter has started.

The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is not fully oxidized or in
other words, it indicates an intermediate oxidation stage. The amount of nitrites in potable water should
be nil.

The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is fully oxidized and the water
is no longer harmful. For potable water, the highest desirable level of nitrates is 45 mg per litre.

The free ammonia is measured by simply boiling the water. The ammonia gas is then liberated. The
albuminoid ammonia is measured by adding strong alkaline solution of potassium permanganate to
water and then boiling it. The ammonia gas is then liberated. The nitrites and nitrates are converted
chemically into ammonia and then measured by comparison with standard colours.

Total solids

In this test, the amounts of dissolved and suspended matter present in water are determined separately
and then added together to get the total amount of solids present in water. The highest desirable level
of total solids is 500 mg/litre and its maximum permissible level is 1500 mg/litre.
For measuring suspended solids, water is filtered through a fine filter and dry material retained on the
filter is weighed. The filtered water is evaporated and weight of residue that remains on evaporation
represents the amount of dissolved water in water.

Bacteriological tests

The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is very important. The bacteria are very small
organisms and it is not possible to detect them by microscopes. Hence, they are detected by
circumstantial evidences or chemical reactions. The growth of bacteria takes place by cell division and
there are various classifications of bacteria depending upon their shapes, oxygen requirements and
effects on mankind. The last classification is important for the water supply engineer from the view
point of public health. The bacteria may be harmless to mankind or harmful to mankind. The former
category is known as non-pathogenic bacteria and the latter category is known as pathogenic bacteria.
It is not possible to isolate pathogenic bacteria with the help of laboratory instruments. Their chances of
presence in a sample of water are increased in relation to the amount of non-pathogenic bacteria
present in the sample of water.

The combined group of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria is designated by bacillus coli or B-coli
group. This group of bacteria is present in the intestines of all living warm-blooded animals.

Following are the two standard bacteriological tests for bacteriological examination of water.

1. Total count or Agar plate count test

2. B-coli test

Total count or Agar plate count test

In this test, bacteria are cultivated on specially prepared medium of agar for different dilutions of
sample of water with sterilized water. The diluted sample is placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 37°C
or for 48 hours at 20°C. These represent the so-called hot counts and cold counts respectively. The
bacterial colonies which are formed, are than counted and the results are computed for 1cc. For
potable water, the total count should not exceed 100 per cc.

B-coli test

This test is divided into the following three parts:

1. Presumptive test

2. Confirmed test

3. Completed test

The presumptive test is based on the ability of coliform group to ferment the lactose broth and
producing gas. The confirmed test consists of growing cultures of coliform bacteria on media which
suppress the growth of other organisms. The completed test is based on the ability of the culture grown
in the confirmed test to again ferment the lactose broth.

Presumptive test

Following procedure is adopted in this test:

1. The definite amounts of diluted samples of water are taken in multiples of ten, such as 0.1 cc,
1.0 cc, 10 cc, etc.

2. The water is diluted in standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth.

3. The tube is maintained at a temperature of 37°C for a period of 48 hours.

4. If gas is seen in the tube after this period is over, it indicates presence of B-coli group and the
result of test is treated as positive. If reverse is the case, it indicates the absence of B-coli group
and the result of test is treated as negative.

5. A negative result of presumptive test indicates that water is fit for drinking.

Confirmed test

A small portion of lactose broth showing positive presumptive test is carefully transferred to another
fermentation tube containing brilliant green lactose bile. If gas is seen in the tube after 48 hours, the
result is considered positive and the completed test becomes essential.

Completed test

This test is made by introducing or inoculating bacterial colonies into lactose broth fermentation tubes
and agar tubes. The incubation is carried out at 37°C for 24 to 48 hours. If gas is seen after this period,
it indicates positive result and further detailed tests are carried out to detect the particular type of
bacteria present in water. The absence of gas indicates negative result and water is considered safe for
drinking.

B-coli index

This is an index or number which represents approximately the number of B-coli per cc of sample of
water under consideration. The presumptive tests are carried out with different dilution ratios of the
sample of water with sterilized water. A number of tests is carried out for each proportion and
percentage of positive results is recorded. The difference between successive percentages is worked
out and it is multiplied by the reciprocal of quantity of solution. The sum of such values indicates B-coli
index. For potable water, B-coli index should be preferably less than 3 and it should not exceed 10 in
any case.
 9 Indian Standards of drinking water
This chapter deals with the Indian standards for safe drinking water

Sl. Substance or Requirement Undesirable effect Permissible limit in the

Remarks
No. characteristic Desirable limit outside the desirable absence of alternate Source

Essential Characteristic

Extended to 25 only if toxic

Colour Hazen Above 5, consumer
1. 5 25 Substance are not suspect in absence
Units, Max acceptance decreases
of alternate sources

a) test cold and when heated

2. Odour Unobjectionable - -
b) test are several dilutions

Test to be conducted only after safely

3. Taste Agreeable - -
has been established

Turbidity Above 5, consumer

4. 5 10 -
(NTU) Max acceptance decreases

Beyond this range the

water will after the
5. pH value 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation -
mucous membrane and/or
water supply system

Total Encrustation in water

Hardness supply structure and
6. 300 600 -
(mg/L) adverse effects on
CaCO3 domestic use

Beyond this limit

taste/appearance are
Iron (mg/L, affected; has adverse
7. 0.3 1.0 -
Fe) Max effects on domestic uses
and water supply structure
and promotes iron bacteria

Chlorides 250
Beyond effects outside the
8. (mg/L, Cl) 250 1000 -
desirable limit
Max

To be applicable only when water is

Residual free chlorinated. Tested at customer end.
9. Chlorine 0.2 - - When protection against viral
(mg/L), Max infection is required, it should be min.
0.5 mg/L.
Desirable Characteristics

Dissolved Beyond this, palatability

10. solids mg/L. 500 decreases and may cause 2000 -
Max gastrointestinal irritation.

Encrustation in water
Calcium
supply structure and
11. (mg/L, Ca) 75 200 -
adverse effects on
Max.
domestic use.

Encrustation in water
Magnesium
supply structure and
12. (mg/L, Mg) 30 100 -
adverse effects on
Max
domestic use.

Astringent taste dis

Copper
coloration and corrosion of
13. (mg/L, Cu) 0.05 1.5 -
pipes fittings and utensils
Max
will be caused beyond this.

Beyond this limit

Manganese taste/appearance are
14. (mg/L, Mn) 0.1 affected, has advers effect 0.3 -
Max on domestic use and water
supply structure

Beyond this causes gastro

Sulphate May be extended upto 400 provided
intestinal irritation when
15. (mg/L, SO4) 200 400 magnesium (as Mg) does not exceed
magnesium or sodium are
Max. 30
present

Beyond
this
Nitrate (mg/L, methaemo
16. 45 100 -
NO3) Max. globinemia
takes
place.

Fluoride may be kept as

Fluoride
low as possible. High
17. (mg/L, F) 1.0 1.5 -
fluoride may cause
Max.
fluorosis.

Phenolic
Compounds Beyond this, it may cause
18. (mg/L 0.001 objectionable taste and 0.002 -
C6H5OH) odour
Max.

19. Mercury 0.001 Beyond this the water No Relaxation. To be tested when pollution is
(mg/L Hg) becomes toxic
 Max suspected

Cadmium
Beyond this the water To be tested when pollution is
20 (mg/L, Cd) 0.01 No Relaxation.
becomes toxic suspected
Max

Selenium
Beyond this the water To be tested when pollution is
21. (mg/L, Se) 0.01 No Relaxation.
becomes toxic. suspected
Max

Arsenic
Beyond this the water To be tested when pollution is
22. (mg/L, As) 0.05 No Relaxation
becomes toxic suspected
Max.

Beyond this the water To be tested when pollution is

23. Cyanide 0.05 No Relaxation
becomes toxic suspected

Lead (mg/L Beyond this the water To be tested when pollution is

24. 0.05 No Relaxation
Pb) Max. becomes toxic suspected

Beyond this limit it can

Zinc (mg/L, To be tested when pollution is
25. 5 cause astringent taste and 15
Zn) Max. suspected
an opalescence in water

Anionic
detergents Beyond this limit it can To be tested when pollution is
26. 0.2 1.0
(mg/L, cause a light froth in water suspected
MBAS) Max

Chromium May be carcinogenic

27. 0.05 - -
(mg/L, Cr6+) above this limit

Polynuclear
Aromatic
28. Hydrocarbons - May be carcinogenic - -
(mg/l, PAH)
Max

Beyond this limit,

Mineral oil undesirable taste and To be tested when pollution is
29. 0.01 0.03
(mg/L) odour after chlorination suspected
takes place

Pesticides
30. Absent Toxic 0.001 -
(mg/L) max

Radioactive materials
 Alpha
31. emitters Bq/L - - 0.1 -
Max

Beta emitters
32. - - 1.0 -
Pci/L Max

Alkalinity Beyond this limit, taste

33. 200 600 -
(mg/L,) Max becomes unpleasant

Aluminum
Cumulative effect is
34. (mg/L, Al) 0.03 0.2
reported to cause dementia
Max

Boron (mg/L)
35. 1.0 - 5.0 -
Max

10 Introduction to water treatment

In this lesson, you will be exposed to various water treatment

process in hierarchial order
The available raw waters must be treated and purified before
they can be supplied to the public for their domestic, industrial
or any other uses. The extent of treatment required to be given to
the particular water depends upon the characteristics and quality
of the available water, and also upon the quality requirements
for the intended use.
Raw water may contain suspended, colloidal and dissolved
impurities. The purpose of water treatments is to remove all
those impurities which are objectionable either from taste and
odour perspective or from public health perspective.
The layout of a conventional water treatment plant is shown
below
For surface waters, following are the treatment processes that
are generally adopted
Screening
This is adopted to remove all the floating matter from surface
waters. It is generally provided at the intake point
Aeration
This is adopted to remove objectionable tastes and colour and
also to remove the dissolved gases such as carbon-dioixide,
hydrogen sulphide etc. The iron and manganese present in
water also oxidized to some extent. This process is optional
and is not adopted in cases where water does not contain
objectionable taste and odour.
Sedimentation with or without coagulants
The purpose of sedimentation is to remove the suspended
impurities. With the help of plain sedimentation, silt, sand etc.
can be removed. However, with the help of sedimentation with
coagulants, very fine suspended particles and some bacteria can
be removed.
Filtration
The process of filtration forms the most important stage in the
purification of water. Filtration removes very fine suspended
impurities and colloidal impurities that may have escaped the
sedimentation tanks. In addition to this, the micro-organisms
present in the water are largely removed.
Disinfection
It is carried out to eliminate or reduce to a safe minimum limit,
the remaining micro-organisms and to prevent the contamination
of water during its transit from the treatment plant to the place of
its consumption
Miscellaneous processes
These include water softening, desalination, removal of iron,
manganese and other harmful constituents.
11 Water treatment - sedimentation and coagulation
INTRODUCTION

Sedimentation and coagulation is the starting phase of treating water. This chapter deals with the theory of
sedimentation and coagulation and their processes.

Sedimentation
 Having examined the quality of water, a line of treatment is to be recommended for impure water to
make it potable or fit for drinking purposes. The first stage of treatment is the prefiltration of water and it
includes provision of sedimentation tanks or settling tanks or clarifiers. These tanks remove inorganic
impurities and make water fit for the next process of filtration.

The sedimentation tanks are designed to give complete rest to the flowing water or water is allowed to
flow at a very low velocity. The heavier inorganic impurities settle at the bottom of tanks and the lighter
inorganic impurities float on the surface of liquid level. The former impurities are removed from the bottom while
the latter impurities are removed from the top.

The actual amount of matter removed by sedimentation tanks depends on several factors such as
design of tank, detention period, size of suspended particles, velocity of flow, etc. It is estimated that plain
sedimentation tank can remove about 60% of suspended matter and about 75% of bacterial load from water.

In order to make the sedimentation tanks effective, coagulants are added to water before it is bought to
the sedimentation tanks. The topic of coagulation is discussed at length in the next chapter.

The sedimentation tanks are located near filter units and in case of variations in demand, they may
even be called upto to work as storage reservoirs. The height of location of sedimentation tank should be
decided by keeping in view the natural configuration of locality and the pressure head required.

Where filtration is to be adopted, it is essential to provide sedimentation tanks. The treated water from
sedimentation tanks enters filter units for further purification.

Theory of sedimentation

The particles which are heavier than water are naturally likely to settle down due to force of gravity. In
water, there are mainly two types of impurities.

(1) Inorganic suspended solids having specific gravity of about 2.65; and

(2) Organic suspended solids having specific gravity of about 1.04

The particles having specific gravity of about 1.20 or so readily settle down at the bottom of tank. But it is
difficult to cause the settlement of lighter particles. This phenomenon of settling down of particles at the bottom
of sedimentation tank is known as hydraulic subsidence and every particle has its own hydraulic settling
value which will cause its hydraulic subsidence.

The process of settlement of a particle is obstructed or opposed by the following three forces:

(1) Velocity of flow: The particle is moved in the horizontal direction by the velocity of flow

(2) Size and shape of particle : The force of gravity depends on the weight of particle and tends to move the
particle in vertical direction. Consequently, small particles will settle down very slowly.

(3) Viscosity of water: This force offers frictional resistance to the movement of water and it mainly depends on
the temperature of water

In 1815, G.G. Stokes developed and expression known as Stokes’s law and it is applicable to the discrete
particles. The particles which do not change in size, shape or mass during settling are known as discrete
particles. The expression is as follows:

\[v=418{d^2}\left( {s-{s_1}}\right)\frac{{3\cdot T+70}}{{100}}\]

v = Velocity of settlement in mm per second

s= Specific gravity of the particle

s1= Specific gravity of water

d = Diameter of particle in mm

T= Temperature in oC

It was found by Hazen the Stoke’s law was applicable for particles having diameter small than 0.10mm
or so. For particles of greater diameter than 0.0mm, he found that velocity of settlement was proportional to the
first power of diameter and not to the second power of diameter as expressed in Stoke’s law. Hence, Stokes’s
law for bigger particles would be :

Now, out of three forces which oppose the tendency of settlement of particle, attempts are made to
control the first and second forces in purification process of water. The third force, namely, viscosity of water, is
unpracticable to control as it is dependent on temperature. The control of temperature of a huge quantity of
water becomes unreasonable and uneconomical.

The velocity of flow can be decreased by increasing the length of travel and thus a particle is allowed to
stay for a longer period in the sedimentation tank. The particle is thus given maximum opportunity to come
down and settle at the bottom of tank.

The size and shape of the particle are altered by the addition of certain chemicals in water. These
chemicals are known as coagulants.

Coagulation

The source of water supply for the most of public water supply project is surface water. This water is
turbid and contains many suspended impurities. It also possesses colour which may be due to colloidal matter
and dissolved organic material in water. The turbidity is mainly due to the presence of very fine particles of
clay, silt and organic matter.

All these impurities are in a finely divided state and it is not possible to detain them in plain
sedimentation tanks unless such tanks are designed for longer detention periods. The other alternative to
remove such particles is to increase their size so that they become settleable. The purpose of coagulation is
thus to make particles of bigger size by adding certain chemicals know as coagulants to water. The coagulants
react with the impurities in water and convert them in settleable size.

The coagulation is to be adopted when turbidity of water exceeds about 40 p.p.m. It should, however,
be remembered that it is not complete process by itself. It simply assists plain sedimentation and it is to be
followed by the process of filtration. Thus, coagulation is merely a process by which impure water is prepared
for successful purification by rapid sand filtration.

Principle of coagulation

The principal of coagulation can be explained from the following two considerations.

1. Floc formation

When coagulants are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it, they produce a thick gelatinous
precipitate. This precipitate is known as floc and this floc has got the property of arresting the suspended
impurities in water during its downward travel towards the bottom of tank.
 2.Electric charges

The ions of the floc are found to possess positive electric charge. Hence, they will attract the negatively
charged colloidal particles of clay and thus they cause the removal of such particles from water.

Flocculation

The floc produced by the action of coagulants with water is heavy and hence, it starts to settle down at
the bottom of tank. As it descends, it absorbs and catches more and more suspended impurities present in
water. It thus slowly goes on increasing in size. During this process, some amount of bacterial removal also
takes place. The surface of floc is sufficiently wide to arrest colloidal and organic matter present in water. The
term flocculation is used to denote the process of floc formation and thus flocculation follows the addition of
coagulant and its efficiency depends on the following factors.

1. Dosage of coagulant

The dosage or quantity of coagulant should be carefully determined so as to cause visible floc. The quantity of
coagulants should be such that turbidity of water is brought down to the limit of 10 to 25 p.p.m.

2. Feeding

The feeding of coagulants may be in powder form or in solution form, the latter being more popular

3. Mixing

The coagulants should be properly mixed with water so as to cause a uniform mass. In the beginning, the
mixing may be quick for a period of about 30 to 60 seconds or so.

4. pH value

Depending upon the quality of water and coagulant adopted, suitable pH value should be determined. The pH
value should be actually tested in the laboratory at regular intervals. To remove acidity, lime is added to water
and to remove alkalinity, sulphuric acid is added to water.

5. Velocity

The floc should be allowed to move gently after initial quick mixing, The gentle movement of floc results in
collision of particles and ultimately, the floc grows in size. The detention period of coagulated sedimentation
tanks is about 3 to 4 hours.

The processes of coagulation and flocculation are greatly influenced by the physical characteristics of water, its
dissolved constituents and the temperature. The failures in coagulation plant are due to incorrect does of the
coagulant, inadequate mixing arrangements, improper tank design, etc. Hence, the characteristics of water to
be submitted to the coagulation plant should be properly studied before deciding the details of the plant.

Usual coagulants

Following six are the usual coagulants which are adopted for coagulation

1. Aluminium sulphate
2. Chlorinated chopperas
3. Ferrous sulphate and lime
4. Magnesium carbonate
5. Polyelectrolytes
 6. Sodium aluminate

12 Water treatment - Filtration

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the concept of filtration and various types of filter are discussed

Theory of filtration

The process of filtration forms the most important stage in the purification of water. It usually consists in
allowing water to pass through a thick layer of sand. It has been noticed from experience that during the
process of filtration, the following effects occur on water:

1. The suspended and colloidal impurities which are present in water in a finely divided state are
removed to a great extent
2. The chemical characteristics of water are altered
3. The number of bacteria present in water is also considerably reduced.

The theory of filtration to explain why such effects take place is based on the following four actions:

1. Mechanical straining
2. Sedimentation
3. Biological metabolism
4. Electrolytic changes

Mechanical straining

The suspended particles which are unable to pass through the voids of sand grains are arrested and removed
by the action of mechanical straining.

Sedimentation

The voids between sand grains of filter act more or less like small sedimentation tanks. The particles of
impurities, arrested in these voids, adhere to particles of sand grains, mainly for the following two reasons:

1. Due to the presence of a gelatinous film or coating developed on sand grains by previously caught
bacteria and colloidal matter and
2. Due to the physical attraction between the two particles of matter.

Biological metabolism

The growth and life process of the living cells is known as biological metabolism and the action of filter is
explained on the basis of biological metabolism. When bacteria are caught in the voids of sand grains, a
zoological film is formed around the sand grains. The film contains large colonies of living bacteria. The
bacteria feed on the organic impurities contained in water. They convert such impurities into harmless
compounds by the complex biochemical reactions

Electrolytic changes
The action of filter is also explained by the ionic theory. It states that when two substances with opposite
electric charges are brought into contact with each other, the electric charges are neutralized and in doing so,
new chemical substances are formed. It is observed that some of the sand grains of filter are charged with
electricity of some polarity. Hence, when particles of suspended and dissolved matter containing electricity of
opposite polarity come into contact with sand grains, they neutralize each other and it ultimately results in the
alteration of chemical characteristics of water. After some interval of time, the electrical power of sand grains
gets exhausted. At that time, it becomes necessary to clean the filter and restore it with its property.

Filter sand

The sand to be used for filter should be free from clay, loam, vegetable matter, organic impurities, etc. It
should also be uniform in nature and size. The filter sand is classified on the basis of its effective size and
uniformity coefficient.

The effective size of sand indicates the size of sieve in mm through which ten per cent of the sample by
weight will pass.

The uniformity coefficient of sand is the ratio of sieve size in mm through which 60 per cent of the sample of
sand by weight will pass to the effective size of sand. For instance, suppose the effective size of sand is 0.50
mm. If 60 percent of sand from the same sample passes through 0.60 mm sieve, the uniformity coefficient will
be 0.60 / 0.50 = 1.20

Instead of sand, sometimes anthrafilt is used. It is made from anthracite which is a stone-coal that burns nearly
without flame or smoke. It almost entirely consists of carbon. This material is found to possess many
advantages such as low cost in handling, high rate of filtration, durability, better efficiency, etc. But as sand is
readily available, the usual practice is to recommend bed of sand for filters.

Classification of filters

The filters are classified into the following categories:

1. Slow sand filters

2. Rapid sand filters
3. Pressure filters

SLOW SAND FILTERS

Purpose

In case of slow sand filtration, the water is allowed to pass slowly through a layer of sand placed above the
base material and thus the purification process aims at simultaneously improving the biological, chemical and
physical characteristics of water. The slow sand filtration is very well suited for rural areas in developing
countries because of its simple operation and maintenance procedures. It thus provides safe drinking water at
low recurrent cost.

Rate of filtration

The rate of filtration for a normal slow sand filter varies from 100 to 200 litres per hour per m 2 of filter area.

Efficiency of slow sand filters

1. Bacterial load: The slow sand filters are highly efficient in the removal of bacterial load from water. It
is expected that they remove about 98 to 99 per cent of bacterial load from raw water and this
percentage may be as high as 99.50 to 99.90, when pre-treatment has been given to the raw water.
However, for complete removal of bacteria, disinfection is essential.
 2. Colour: The slow sand filters are less efficient in the removal of colour of raw water. It is estimated
that they remove about 20 to 25 per cent of colour of raw water.
3. Turbidity: The slow sand filters can remove turbidity to the extent of about 50 ppm. For water having
greater turbidity than 60 ppm, it is necessary to give preliminary treatment and bring down is turbidity
below 50 ppm

RAPID SAND FILTERS (GRAVITY TYPE)

Purpose

The great disadvantage of a slow sand filter is that it requires considerable space for its installation. This
requirement makes it uneconomical for places where land values are high. The area required for slow sand
filter, only for a moderate town of 15000 population, works out to be 1000 m 2 and with future expansion, other
additional equipment etc., the area required for water supply project would be about 2000 m 2 or so.

The difficulty of requiring more space for slow sand filters led the engineers and scientists to find out means to
increase the rate of filtration. It was observed that rate of filtration can be increased in two ways:

1. By increasing the size of sand so that friction to water passing through filter media is minimized and
2. By allowing water to pass under pressure through the filter media

The former is achieved in rapid sand filters (gravity type) and it is the most popular method of filtration for public
water supply projects. The latter principle is adopted in the working of pressure filters.

Efficiency of rapid sand filter

1. Bacterial load: The rapid sand filters are less effective in the removal of bacterial load. It is expected
that they remove about 80 to 90 per cent of bacterial impurity present in water.
2. Colour: The rapid sand filters are highly efficient in colour removal and the intensity of colour can be
brought down below 10 on cobalt scale.
3. Turbidity: The rapid sand filters can remove turbidity to the extent of 35 to 40 ppm. As water entering
rapid sand filter is invariably given the treatment in coagulation sedimentation tank, it posses less
turbidity. This turbidity is easily brought down to permissible limits by rapid sand filters.

PRESSURE FILTERS

The term pressure filter indicates that a filter is enclosed in space and water passes under pressure greater
than atmospheric pressure. This pressure can be developed by pumping and it may vary from 0.3 to 0.7
N/mm2.

Rate of filtration

The rate of filtration of pressure filters is high as compared to that of rapid sand filters. It is about 6000 to
15000 litres per hour per m2 of filter area as compared to that of 3000 to 6000 litres per hour per m 2 of rapid
sand filters.

Efficiency

The pressure filters are found to be less efficient than rapid sand filters in terms of bacterial load, colour and
turbidity.

Suitability
The pressure filters are not suitable for public water supply projects. But they can be installed for small water
supply water projects such as colonies of a few houses, industrial plants, private estates, swimming pools,
railway stations, etc.

Double filtration

Sometimes the water is filtered twice to achieve better results. This known as double filtration and it may be
carried out in different ways as follows:

1. The water is allowed to pass through two or more slow sand filters arranged one after the other.
2. The water is allowed to pass through two or more rapid sand filters arranged one after the other.
3. The water is allowed to pass through a rapid sand filter before it is sent to a slow sand filter.

In practice, the last alternative is most commonly adopted to increase the rate of filtration The rapid sand filter
in such a case is known as a roughing filter. The coarse materials are used in the construction of a roughing
filter and consequently, its rate of filtration is as high as 7000 litres per hour per m 2 of filter area. The roughing
filters generally do not require water treated with the coagulant.

The double filtration, especially of last combination as stated above, is adopted at places where land available
for the installation of slow sand filters is restricted. The installation of roughing filters practically doubles the
capacity of slow sand filters.