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Contents :
1- Objective 3
2- Introduction to Operational Amplifier 3-7
2.1 History of Operational Amplifier......................................................................................3
2.2 Definition of Operational Amplifier..................................................................................4
2.3 Working Principle of Operational Amplifier………….4..................................................5
2.4 Characteristics of Operational Amplifier...........................................................................6
2.5 Applications of Operational Amplifier..............................................................................6
2.6 Advantages of Operational Amplifier...............................................................................7
2.7 Disadvantages of Operational Amplifier...........................................................................7
3- Voltage to Current converter 7..................14

3.1 Definition of Voltage to Current converter………….7-8

3.2 Types of Voltage to Current converter………9
3.3 Floating Load Voltage to Current converter………...9-10
3.4 Ground Load Voltage to Current converter…………10-11
3.5 Application Voltage to Current converter…...11
3.6 Problem……………………………………………..12-13
3.7 Conclusion…………………………………...14

4- Reference list 15
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1. Objective :
The primary objective of this assignment is to understand voltage to current converter
operational amplifier, which is one of the applications of operational amplifier, and to
understand how it works. Next, we derive mathematical expressions of output current and
design the circuits that are capable of performing this conversion. After that , we resolve a
problem that calls for the design of a circuit that converts 3V DC into 100mA. Finally we
implement this design and simulate it in multisim in order to check our design.

2. Introduction to Operational Amplifier

2.1 History of Operational Amplifier :
The operational amplifier, or “op-amp” is a key component of an electronic analog computer.
Its invention allowed unwieldy mechanical contraptions to be replaced by silent and speedier
electronics. The advances in semiconductor manufacture in the late 1960's and early 1970's
eventually made it possible to miniaturize the required components and place the whole affair
on a single silicon chip (hence the term, integrated circuit). Through common use, this is what is
generally meant by the term op amp today. Karl D. Swartzel Jr. invented the first op-amp in
1967, and he originally conceived them to do mathematical operations in analog computers —
thus the “operation” part of their name. We now use op-amps in many other applications, and
they form the basis of many modern analog electronic circuits. Figure.2.1.1 shows Karl D.
Swartzel Jr. (June 19, 1907 – April 23, 1998) was the inventor of the operational amplifier.

Figure.2.1.1
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2.2 Definition of Operational Amplifier :

An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input
impedance and low output impedance. Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide
voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter circuits, and many types
of instrumentation circuits. An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to
achieve a very high voltage gain. Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to
perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation
thus the term operational. These early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked
with high voltages.
Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits (ICs) that use relatively low dc supply voltages
and are reliable and inexpensive. Figure.2.2.1 shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one
output as would result using a differential amplifier input stage.
Each input results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or phase) output, depending on
whether the signal is applied to the plus (+) or the minus (-) input, respectively.

Figure.2.2.1

2.3 Working Principle of Operational Amplifier :

Open Loop Operation , In the open loop operation there is no feedback provided in the amplifier
circuit. Therefore, two signals one at inverting terminal and the other at the non-inverting
terminal applied then, the Op-Amp amplifies the difference of the two applied signals. This
difference of the two input signals is called as differential input voltage.
Vout = AOPEN LOOP(V1-V2)
Vout : Output Voltage
AOPEN LOOP : Open Loop Gain
V1 = Voltage at Non-inverting terminal
V2 : Voltage at inverting terminal
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(V1 – V2) : Differential Voltage

The output of the Op-Amp is non-zero only when the differential input voltage is non-zero i.e.
V1 and V2 are not equal. The open loop gain (A) of Op-Amp is very high. Thus an open loop
Op-Amp can amplify a small differential input signal to a high value. The Op-Amp can amplify
the input signal to a very high value but cannot exceed the supply voltage of operational
amplifier.
Close Loop Operation ,When the Op-Amp provided with a feedback signal is known as closed
loop operational amplifier. The feedback path feeds the output signal to the input.

Fig.2.3.1
When the feedback is connected to non-inverting terminal then feedback is called as the positive
feedback. The positive feedback is used in oscillator applications.When the feedback is
connected to inverting terminal then it is called as negative feedback. The negative feedback is
used the amplification applications.
The output equation :
Vout = ACLOSED LOOP(V1-V2)
Vout : Output Voltage
ACLOSED LOOP : Closed Loop Gain
V1 = Voltage at Non-inverting terminal
V2 : Voltage at inverting terminal
(V1 – V2) : Differential Voltage
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2.4 Characteristics of Ideal Operational Amplifier

An ideal Op-Amp would exhibit the following electrical characteristics −
• Infinite voltage gain (A).
• Infinite input resistance (Ri) so that any source of signal can drive it.
• Zero output resistance (Ro) so that output can drive infinite number of other devices.
• Infinite bandwidth so that signal of any frequency (from 0 to ∞ Hz) can be amplified. 
Infinite Common Mode Rejection Ration (CMRR = ∞) so the output common mode
noise voltage is zero.
• Infinite slew rate so that output voltage changes simultaneously with the input voltage
changes
2.5 Applications of Operational Amplifier :
A- Op-AMP can be used as an Inverting Amplifier.
B- Op-AMP can be used as a Non-Inverting Amplifier.
C- Op-AMP can be used as a Phase Shifter.
D- Op-AMP can be used as a Scale Changer.
E- Op-AMP can be used as Adder or Summing Amplifier.
F- Op-AMP can be used as a Differential Amplifier.
G- Op-AMP can be used as an Integrator Amplifier.
H- Op-AMP can be used as a Differentiator Amplifier.
I- Op-AMP can be used as a Voltage to Current converter. J- Op-AMP can be used as a
Current to Voltage converter.
K- Op-AMP can be used as a Logarithmic Amplifier.
L- Op-AMP can be used as a Half Wave Rectifier.
M- Op-AMP can be used as a Full Wave Rectifier.
N- Op-AMP can be used as a Peak Detector.
O- Op-AMP can be used as a Voltage Comparator. P- Op-AMP can be used as Voltage
Follower.
Q- Op-AMP can be used as an Active Filter. : ( Low Pass , High Pass , Band Pass , Band Stop )
R- Op-AMP can be used as an Oscillator.
S- Op-AMP can be used in analog signal processing.
T- Op-AMP can be used as a Converters Of Electrical Quantities U- Op-AMP
can be used as Clipper and Clamper.
V- Op-AMP can be used as a 555 Timer.
W-Op-AMP can be used as a Voltage Regulator.
X- Op-AMP can be used as a Data Converter.
Y- Op-AMP can be used as a Sample and Hold Circuit.
Z- Op-AMP can be used as a Waveform Generator.
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2.6 Advantages of Operational Amplifier :

A- It has smaller size.
B- Its reliability is higher than conventional amplifier C- Reduced cost as
compared to its discrete circuit parts.
D- Less power consumption
E- Easy to replace Same OP-AMP can be used for different applications.

2.7 Disadvantages of Operational Amplifier :

A- It is necessary to have a symmetrical power supply, that is a positive voltage and the
other negative, but both of equal value.
B- They cannot be used for high frequencies since they do not respond in the same way as
they would at low frequencies.
C- Operational Amplifiers are not suitable for working with medium and high powers. D-
High cost.

3.Voltage to Current converter

3.1 Definition of Voltage to Current converter :
In electrical and electronic circuits, there are two basic electrical quantities namely current
and voltage. Sometimes, we need to convert these two quantities into one another. For this,
electronic circuits are designed which are known as converters. Based on conversion, there
are two types of converters namely Voltage to Current Converter (V to I Converter) and
Current to Voltage Converter (I to V Converter). These are also linear applications of
opamps. A voltage to current converter or V to I converter, An electronic circuit that takes
voltage as the input and produces a current as the output is known as a voltage to current
converter. The voltage to current converter is also known as V to I converter. In other words,
an electronic circuit that produces a current which is directly proportional to the applied
voltage is known as a voltage to current converter (V to I converter). The voltage to current
converters are used in instrumentation circuits. Where, the voltage to current converter
produces a current corresponding to the input voltage. Therefore, it can convert electrical
data from voltage to current form. An op-amp based voltage to current converter produces
an output current when a voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal. A voltage-tocurrent
converter (V-I converter), also called a transconductance amplifier. Figure 3.1.1 shows block
diagram of V-I converter.

This Op-amp is designed to hold the precise amount of current by applying the voltage
which is essential to sustain that current through out the circuit
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Figure.3.1.1
For instrumentation circuits when creating an analog representation of certain physical
quantities (weight, pressure, motion etc), DC current is preferred. This is because DC current
signals will be constant throughout the circuit in series from the source to the load. The current
sensing instruments also have the advantage of less noise. So sometimes it is essential to create
current which is corresponding or proportional to a definite voltage. For this purpose Voltage to
Current Converters (also known as V to I converters) are used. It can simply change the carrier
of electrical data from voltage to current.
OHM’s Law shows relation between voltage and current :
Eq.3.1.1 when a voltage
supplied as input to a circuit which comprises of a resistor, the proportional current will
commence to flow through it. the resistor decides the current flow in a voltage source circuit
or it performs as a simple voltage to current converter (i.e. a V to I converter) for a linear
circuit. Figure 3.1.2 shows the electrical quantities such as voltage and current are represented
through bars and loop respectively.

Figure.3.1.2
Transfer Ratio of Voltage to Current Converter :The ratio of the output current to the input
voltage of a voltage to current converter is known as the transfer ratio of the converter.

3.2 Types of Voltage to Current converter :

A- Floating Load Voltage to Current Converter.
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B- Ground Load Voltage to Current Converter.

3.3 Floating Load Voltage to Current converter :

As the name implies, the type of voltage to current converter in which the load resistor remains
floating in the converter circuit is known as a floating load voltage to current converter. In the
floating load voltage to current converter, the input voltage (Vin) is provided at the noninverting
terminal of the operational amplifier (Op-Amp), whereas the inverting terminal of the Op-Amp
is supplied with the feedback voltage (Vf). The feedback voltage is determined by the output
current. In this type of voltage to current converter, the feedback voltage (Vf) is in series with
the input difference voltage (Vd). So this circuit is also known as current series negative
feedback amplifier. Figure.3.3.1 shows the circuit diagram of Floating Load Voltage to Current
converter :

Figure.3.3.1
KVL for input loop will be :
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑉𝐹 Eq.3.3.1
Since the Gain (A) is very large , VD = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐹 Eq.3.3.2
Since the input of Op-AMP :

IB’ = 0 , Ii = IL
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𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑖 × 𝑅 Eq.3.3.3
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐿 × 𝑅 Eq.3.3.4

Eq.3.3.5
From the above equation, it is clear that the load current depends on the input voltage and the
input resistance. That is, the load current, 𝐼𝐿 𝛼 𝑉𝑖𝑛 which is the input voltage. The load current
is controlled by the resistor, R. Here, the proportionality constant is 1/R. So, this converter
circuit is also known as Trans-Conductance Amplifier. Other name of this circuit is Voltage
Controlled Current Source. The type of load may be resistive, capacitive or non-linear load. The
type of load has no role in the above equation. When the load connected is capacitor then it will
get charge or discharge at a steady rate. Due to this reason, the converter circuit is used for the
production of saw tooth and triangular wave forms.

3.4 Ground Load Voltage to Current converter :

In the ground load voltage to current converter, one end of the load resistor RL is always
connected to the ground. The ground load voltage to current converter is also known as
Howland Current Converter. The circuit diagram of this voltage to current converter is shown
in Figure.3.4.1 :

Figure.3.4.1
KCL at node V1 :
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐿 Eq.3.4.1

Eq.3.4.2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝐿. 𝑅 Eq.3.4.3
𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝑜 − 2𝑉1 = 𝐼𝐿. 𝑅 Eq.3.4.4
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For non-inverting terminal the gain will be :

Eq.3.4.5
Since Rf = R1 = R

Eq.3.4.6
A=1+1=2
Vo = AV1 = 2V1 Eq.3.4.7 Sub
Eq.2.4.7 in Eq.2.4.4 :
Vin + 2V1 − 2V1 = IL.R
Vin = IL.R Eq.3.4.8

Eq.3.4.9
From above equations we know that the current IL is related to the voltage, VIN and the resistor,
R.
When RL is very low value the op-amp might be driven into saturation and produces large
currents in output. But when RL is very high the circuit may be explode since output voltage
reaches beyond the power supply.

3.5 Applications of Voltage to Current converter :

A- Zener diode tester
B- Low AC and DC Voltmeters
C- Testing LED
D- Testing Diodes

3.6 Problem : Design a circuit that covert 3 V (DC) to 100mA and check your
design in the Multisim.
Ans : First method : Ground Load Voltage to Current converter :
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Vin = 3V , IL = 100mA , VCC = +10V , VEE = -10V

Assume RL = 1Ω
• It doesn’t matter what the price of RL is because it has no effect on IL

R1=R2=R3=R4=R
The Ground Load Voltage to Current circuit shown below :

• If we notice that : IL = 100mA , V1 = 100mV , Vo ≈ 2V1

Second method : Float Load Voltage to Current converter :

Vin = 3V , IL = 100mA , VCC = +10V , VEE = -10V
Assume RL = 1Ω
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• It doesn’t matter what the price of RL is because it has no effect on IL

The Float Load Voltage to Current converter circuit shown below :

• If we notice that IL = 100mA , Vin = VF , VD = 0

3.7 Conclusion :
Op amps are presently in wide use in just about every aspect of linear electronics. The
operational amplifier (also known as Op-Amp) is a multi-terminal direct coupled high gain
amplifier which consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and a level transistor and an
output.The resulting op amp typically has a high input impedance, a low output impedance,
The op amp operates from a bipolar power supply. Externally, it has connections for the
inverting and non-inverting inputs, the single-ended output, and the power supplies. The
voltage-to-current transducer is based on SS feedback. Its transconductance is set by a single
feedback resistor. This article holds regardless of the type of load: it can be linear, as for a
resistive transducer; it can be nonlinear, as for a diode; it can have time-dependent
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characteristics, as for a capacitor. No matter what the load, the op amp will force it to carry
the current which depends on the control voltage Vin and the current-setting resistance R,
but not on the load voltage .Voltage to current converters are used for testing LEDs and
diodes. They are also used in low-voltage AC and DC voltmeters and zener diode testers.

4.Reference list :

A. Electronics devices and circuit theory ( Robert L. Boylestad – Louis

Nashelsky ) 11th Edition.
B. Electronic Devices Electron Flow Version ( Thomas L. Floyd ) 9th Edition
C. Operational Amplifiers & Linear Integrated Circuits: Theory and
Application ( James M. Fiore ) 3rd Edition
D. Design with Operational Amplifier and Analog Integrated Circuits ( Sergio
Franco ) 4th Edition
E. https://www.electrical4u.com/
F. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
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