Science

Biology

Cells:

What is a cell?
- A cell is the basic structural, functional and biological building block/unit of all known living
organisms.

Our bodies produce cells for Repair Reproduction Growth (RRG)

Cells are made up of organelles. Organelles are specialized parts of a cell. Each organelle has
a different job.

Cell Organelles include:

- Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleus
- Mitochondria
- Ribosomes
- Cell wall
- Chloroplast

Cell membrane:
- Cell membrane controls what goes in and out of the cell. It's a very thin layer of protein fat.

Cytoplasm:
- Cytoplasm is a clear jelly like fluid inside the cell. All chemical reactions take place

Nucleus:
- The brain of a cell. Largest organelle.

Mitochondria:
- Powerhouse of the cell. Production of energy molecules occurs there.

Vacuole:
- Stores food. Filled with sap.

Cell wall:
- Gives the plan cell a fixed shape.

Chloroplast:
- Contains a pigment called chlorophyll. Absorbs sunlight. Is required in photosynthesis.

Unicellular organisms: made up of one single cell.

Ex: Bacteria
Multicellular organisms: made up of multiple cells.
Ex: Humans

There are many types of cells:

- RBC (red blood cell)
- Neuron cell
- muscle cell
- sperm cell
- ovum cell

Hierachy of life
Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ system -> Organism

Mitosis

Genetic Material:
When cells divide, it is important that genes are copied into the new cells. Genes are the
basic unit of inheritance, and are responsible for the characteristics of an organism. Genes
are located in chromosomes, each of which is made of DNA.

Mitosis:
In mitosis, the parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
All the genes and chromosomes from the parent cell must be copied and passed on to the
daughter cells.

Stages of mitosis:
- Once the chromosomes have duplicated, mitosis takes place.
- Each chromosome replicates so it contains two identical chromatids.
- The chromosomes align in the middle of the parent cell
- The two chromatids in each chromosome are pulled apart into separate halves of the cell.
- The cell splits in two to produce TWO daughter cells, each containing the same
chromosomes.

[PMAT]
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase

Variation and Classification

Hybrids are offsprings of 2 different species and they are infertile.

Example:
- Lion + Tiger = Liger
- Camel + Llama = Cama
- Horse + Donkey = Mule

Grouping organisms

Domain
Kindgom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Species are organisms that are able to breed with one another and produce fertile
offsprings.

Speciation is the process in which a new species is formed from an existing one as a result of
natural selection.

The scientific name of any living animal comes from the genus and species.
Example: Scientific name for a Killer Whale is Orcinus orca.

The binomial system is important because it allows scientists to accurately identify

individual species.

Variation: The differences that occur between different species and the same species.

Variation is caused by two factors:

Environmental factors: Features affected by surroundings. Ex: Height, weight.

Inherited factors: Features passed from the parents. Ex: hair color, eye color, inherited
diseases, blood group.

Types of variations:

Continuous can be measured and changes overtime. Ex: Height, weight. Represented by a
histogram

Discontinuous can be counted and does not change overtime. Ex: blood group, eye color,
gender. Represented by a bar graph.

Punnett Square
Genetics is the study of heredity.

Heredity is the process by which genetic information is transmitted from one generation to
the next.

The nucleus contains chromosomes which are made up of strings of genes. Genes control
the development of different characteristics by issuing instructions to the cell. They are the
basic physical and functional unit of heredity and they are made up of DNA and determine
traits.

A trait is a specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another. Ex: curly hair,
blue eyes.

DNA makes up chromosomes and genes. The spiral shape of a DNA molecule is called a
Double Helix. DNA carries genetic code.

Everyone has 46 chromosomes. When it comes to reproduction, the mother gives 23

chromosomes and the father gives 23 chromosomes and then it makes the Zygote
consisting of 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs and then it makes up the embryo/child.

What is a punnett square?

- A chart that allows us to determine the different genotypes that offspring can inherit from
their parents.

Allele: An allele is a variant form of a gene. They are the different possibilities for a given
trait. Every trait has at least 2 alleles, one from the father and one from the mother.

Genotype: The gene (allele) combination an organism has. Ex: GG, Gg, ss.

Phenotype: The physical characteristics of an organism. Ex: Curly hair, straight hair.

Dominant: Allele which controls the characteristic of whatever is present.

Recessive: Allele whose characteristics only show up when it is present on both

chromosomes.

Homozygous: Two alleles identical for a particular trait.

Heterozygous: Two alleles different for the same trait.

Classification

The classification system is important because it'll be easier on the scientists to study a
group rather than studying each and every species on Earth.

Kingdoms:
Monera (bacteria)
Protista (Protists)
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Monera:
- No nucleus (prokaryotic), unicellular
- Can live almost anywhere
- They reproduce by cell division

Protesta:
- Eukaryotic
- Both uni and multicellular
- They are both autotrophs and heterotrophs
- Aquatic habitat
- Ex: Pond algae, amoeba.

Fungi:
- Eukaryotic
- Multi and unicellular
- Reproduces by spores
- Do not perform photosynthesis, living off decaying plants.
- Ex: Mold, Yeast, Mushroom.

Plantae:
- Eukaryotic
- Multicellular
- Chloroplasts and cell wall
- Asexual and sexual reproduction
- Perform photosynthesis
- Autotrophs

Animalia:
- Multicellular
- Eukaryotic
- Sexual reproduction
- Heterotrophic
- No cell wall and chloroplasts, have cell membrane
- All animals respire.

Vertebrates: Animals with backbone.

Invertebrates: Animals without a backbone.

Vertebrates examples:
- Mammals
- Birds
- Fish
- Reptiles
- Amphibians

Invertebrates examples:
- Arthropods (insects)
- Arachnids (scorpions)
- Molluscs (oyster, squid)
- Echinorderms (star fish, sea urchin)
- Annelids (earth worms)
- Cnidarians (jelly fish)

Natural selection

Natural selection is the process by which individuals with advantageous characteristics for
survival produce more offsprings within themselves. It takes out the unadapted and the best
adapted survive.

Similarities:
- There must be a variation before any of them can occur.
- The characteristics involved are inherited by offsprings through genes.

Differences:

Natural selection:
- Organisms that reproduce are selected by the environment
- Makes the species more adapted to the environment.

Selective breeding:
- Organisms that reproduce are selected by man
- Makes the species more useful to humans

Microbes

What are microbes?

- They are very small living things and are sometimes called micro-organisms.

There are 3 types of microbes:

- Bacteria
- Virus
- Fungi

Bacteria(singular-bacterium):
The size of bacteria is 1/1000mm. They are single celled organisms which are prokaryotic.
Bacteria produces very quickly.
Bacteria are found in three different shapes-
- Rod shaped, called bacilli
- Spherical, called cocci
- Spiral, called spirilla

Viruses(singular-virus):
The size of a virus is 1/1000000 mm. Their shapes have regular and geometric shapes. It is a
simple organism which does not display all characteristics of a living thing. They are made
up of a protein coating and some genetic material. They can only reproduce and grow within
living organisms.

Fungi(singular-fungus):
Some fungi can be seen with the naked eye; others are slightly bigger than bacterial cells.
They come in different shapes and they have the most complex structure of all the
microbes. They feed off other living things.

Yeast is a type of fungus and it carries out respiration. The respiration can be used in
different ways in making bread and brewing.
The aerobic respiration of yeast is used to make bread rise.
Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy

The anaerobic respiration of yeast is used to make beer and wine. The yeast respires
without oxygen and produces alcohol (ethanol). This is called fermentation.
Glucose -> Carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy

Microbes can cause diseases:

Virus:
- Influenza
- Chickenpox
- Rabies
- Covid19

Bacteria:
- Food poisoning
- Sore throats
- cholera
- Tuberculosis

Fungi:
- Athlete's foot
- Fungal sinusitis

How are microbes spread?

The spread is known as transmission.

1. Transmission by air: a cough or a sneeze can release microbes into the air which can
infect someone.
2. Transmission by water: Dirty water can transmit many diseases like cholera which can be
transmitted by drinking.
3. Transmission by animals: An animal can carry a microbe from one place to another.
4. Transmission by contact: Many microbes can be exchanged from one person to another
by direct or indirect contact.
- Direct contact by contact
- Indirect contact by walking on a wet floor contaminated with someone with athlete's foot.

Chemistry

Periodic Table

The periodic table's arrangement of the elements is in order of their atomic numbers so that
elements with similar properties fall in the same column or group.

The vertical line in the periodic table is called a group. There are 8 groups in the periodic
table

The horizontal line in the periodic table is called a period. There are 7 periods in the periodic
table.

The periodic table is divided into 2 groups:

Non metals.
Metals
Metalloids(semi metals)

The periodic table has families.

- Alkali metals (group 1)
- Alkaline Earth metals (group 2)
- Transition metals (groups 3-12)
Inner transition metals
- Boron family (group 13)
- Carbon family (group 14)
- Nitrogen family (group 15)
- Oxygen family (group 16)
- Halogens (group 17)
- Noble gases (group 18)

Metallic character decreases across the periodic table (Left to right)

Sonorous – Make ringing sound
Lustrous – have shiny appearance
Malleability- can be hammered into thin sheets
Ductility – Can be pulled into thin wires
Conductors – Can pass heat and electricity through them easily.
Insulators – Cannot pass heat and electricity through them.
Brittle – easy to break
Dull – Not shiny in appearance

Metals
Lustrous (shiny appearance)
Sonorous
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable
Ductile
Usually Hard
Solids at room temperature
(except Mercury- a liquid metal).

Non-metals
Dull
Non sonorous
Insulators(except graphite- a form of carbon)
Non malleable
Non ductile
Brittle
Solids and gases at room temperature
(except bromine- a liquid)

Chemical reactions

A chemical reaction is a change that takes place when one or more substances called
reactants react together to form more substances which are called products.

How can we spot a chemical reaction?

Chemical reactions occur when there's:

- A change in color
- A change in smell (odour)
- A change in temperature
- Burning/fire occuring or the substance is fizzing
- Any blasts that occur

What happens to the total mass in a chemical reaction?

- During a reaction, the chemical mass of both substances will remain constant.

What is a word equation?

- A word equation uses the names given for the reactants and products to show what
happens in a chemical reaction without using symbols.
Example:
- Sulfur+Oxygen -> Sulfur dioxide

What is a symbol equation?

- A symbol equation uses the formulae of the reactants and products to show what happens
in a chemical reaction. They always have to be balanced.
Example:
- S+O2 -> SO2

What do state symbols show?

- State symbols show the state of matter of the reactants or products. It shows whether
they're:
- Solid (s)
- Liquid (l)
- gas (g)
- Dissolved in water (sq)
Example:
- S (s) + O2 (g) -> SO2 (g)
This example shows that sulfur is a solid, oxygen is a gas, and the product of both, sulfur
dioxide, is also a gas.

Reaction with metals

Many metals react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas.

The general word equation for this is:

Metal + acid -> a salt + hydrogen

The salt will depend upon the metal and acid used.
- Hydrochloric acid (HCl) gives metal chlorides
- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) gives metal sulphates
- Nitric acid (HNO3) gives metal nitrates.

Using the activity series of metals, we can predict how vigorously (if at all) a metal will react.
The reactive the metal, the more vigorous the reaction. The least reactive metals do not
react at all

The activity series of metals:

Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminium (Al)
Zinc (Zn)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
(Hydrogen)
Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)

Potassium being the most reactive and gold being the least reactive.

Metal oxide + acid -> A salt + water

Metal carbonate + acid -> a salt + water + carbon dioxide

When metal carbonates react with acids they fizz giving off carbon dioxide gas.

Reactions

Types of reactions:

- Synthesis reaction
A+B->AB
Sodium + chlorine -> sodium chloride

- Decomposition reaction
AB->A+B
Carbonic acid -> carbon dioxide + water

- Single displacement reaction

AB+C->AC+B
Potassium + zinc oxide -> Potassium oxide + zinc

- Double displacement reaction

AB+CD->AD+BC
Potassium iodide + Lead nitrate -> Potassium nitrate + lead iodide

- Combustion reaction
CxHy+O2-> H2O + CO2
Fuel + oxygen -> water + carbon dioxide
(hydrocarbon)
Acids and Alkalis
Neutralization:

Acid + base -> salt + water

HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H20

Acids produce H+ in solution. ex: HCl (hydrochloric acid)

Bases produce OH- in solution. ex: NaOH.
OH- = hydroxylion
H+= proton

All bases are not water soluble. Water soluble bases are called alkalis.

Acids: Acids are a group of chemicals. They are sour. They are corrosive.

Ex: Lemons or any citrus fruit.

Strong acids: 1-3 pH

Weak acids: 4-6 pH

Alkalis: Alkalis are another group of chemicals, opposite to acids. They have a soapy texture.
They are caustic.

Ex: household cleaners.

Strong alkalis: 12-14 pH

Weak alkalis: 8-11 pH

Indicators:

They help us identify acids from alkalis.

If a red litmus paper turns blue then it's a base.

If a blue litmus paper turns red then it's an acid.

pH Scale:

Strong acids: Red

Weak acids: Yellow
Neutral: Green (specially pH 7)
Weak alkali: blue
Strong alkali: purple

Atoms
Atoms are the smallest particle of a substance which has all the properties of that substance
and cannot be broken down.

Atoms consists of:

- Nucleus which consists of protons and neutrons.
- Electrons, which are outside the nucleus and are in the orbits.

Proton = positive charge

Neutron= neutral charge or no charge
Electron= negative charge

Atomic number = number of protons in an atom, it's equal the number of electrons.
Atomic mass = sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Electrons = protons
Neutrons = atomic mass - protons

Why is an atom said to be electrically neutral?

- An atom has an equal number of protons and electrons and so the overall charge is zero.
Neutral atoms = stable atoms.

Isotopes = Atoms with the same number of protons but different mass number because of
the difference in the number of neutrons.

Elements - substances made up of same type of atoms.

Compounds - substances made up of different types of atoms chemically combined in a
fixed ratio.

Electronic configuration: the arrangement of electrons in different shells of an atom.

Orbits: Energy levels around the nucleus in which electrons are arranged.
Valence electrons: electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.

Number of valence electrons = the group number of the element.

Number of orbits = the period number of the element.
First orbit carries 2 electrons
second and so on carry 8 electrons each.

Physics

Sound

Sounds are made when an object vibrates. Sound travels because the vibrating object makes
nearby particles vibrate. Sound needs a medium to travel through, it can not pass through a
vacuum as a vacuum has no medium.
Frequency is the number of waves shown in an oscilloscope. When the pitch is high, the
frequency is high.
Amplitude is how big the waves are in an oscilloscope. When the loudness is greater, the
amplitude is greater.

Sound propagates in a medium as a series of compressions and rarefactions. In these waves,

the particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of propagation of the
disturbance. These waves are called longitudinal waves.

What is propagation of sound?

- Propagation of sound is when a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses
the air in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region is called compression.
When the vibrating object moves backwards, it creates a region of low pressure called
rarefaction.

When an object moves back and forth rapidly, it creates a region of compressions and
rarefactions. These make the sound waves that propagates through the medium.
Propagates meaning passes.
- Propagation of sound can be visualized as propagation of density variations or pressure
variations in the medium.

Characteristics of a sound wave:

- The distance between 2 waves is called a wavelength which is represented by the Greek
letter lambda
- The SI unit is meter (m)
- Making a complete oscillation
- Amplitude is the distance between the mean position and the crest.
- The time taken to complete an oscillation is called time period represented by the letter T.
- SI unit is seconds (s)
- The number of complete oscillations is called a frequency (v)
- SI unit is hertz (Hz) or 1/s
- Frequency = 1/timeperiod OR v=1/T

Speed of sound:

- The speed of sound is defined as the distance which a point on a wave travels per unit
time.
- λ is the wavelength, which is the distance travelled in one time period.
Hence Speed=distance/time OR v=λ/T
The speed (v), frequency (v/nu) and wavelength (λ) of sound are related by the equation:
v=λ/T or v=λv
- Speed = wavelength x frequency.

Sound travels fastest through solids because the particles of solids are closer than of liquids
and gases resulting to the vibrations easily passing/vibrating from one particle to another.

Formula:
For finding the x, it'll be:

2d/v (v being speed =330) then subtract by the difference between two distances. After
doing so, the answer, d1 = t1(distance after subtraction) x v( speed = 330) / 2
ANSWER = x (distance)

Speed = 2d/T

Speed = 2d/T (then after getting the answer for BOTH distances, you subtract them both
and you'll get the difference)

Speed of light = 300 million m/s

- Sound waves are characterized by the motion of particles in the medium and are called
mechanical waves.

- In any medium as we increase the temperature the speed of sound increases.

Sound follows the laws of reflection,

i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray, and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.

The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit are called the intensity of
sound.

SONAR:

- If the time taken for the transmission and reception of ultra sound is t and the distance
travelled is 2d by the ultra sound then, 2d=v x t OR d= v x t/2

Range of hearing:

Infrasound sound with frequency lower than 20Hz

Ultrasound sound with frequency higher than 20kHZ

Echo is when sound waves are reflected back from the surface when met with a hard flat
surface.

We humans can only hear sounds of certain frequencies. A hearing range is the range of
frequencies a person can hear.

The hearing range of a healthy young person is:

20 - 20k Hz

The human ear.

The human ear consists of 3 sections. The outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
The outer ear is called the pinna. The pinna collects the sound waves and these waves then
travel to the auditory canal/ear canal. These waves then meet up with the ear drum, which
starts to vibrate. The sound that's making the ear drum vibrate is then transferred into the
middle ear, where we meet our 3 smallest bones in the human body, the ossicles. The
ossicles consist of the malleus, incus and stapes. These ossicles amplify the vibration by x20.
The amplified sound then meets up with the inner ear, our cochlea. The cochlea consists of
a liquid which takes these amplified vibrations and turns it into electrical signals. After the
vibrations have been turned into electrical signals, the auditory nerve takes these signals
and sends it to the brain, making us hear sound.

Echolocation

As well as using ultrasound as a form of communication, animals can also use it to find their
prey in the dark or simply to navigate. This is known as "echolocation." Echolocation helps
bats to determine the size and shape of their prey/obstacle and their location. Some
animals use echolocation to find food, using high frequency clicks over short distances. The
echolocation for bottlenose dolphins tells them the position of their fish and even their
internal structure.

Light

Light ray: Light ray is an arrow showing the direction and straight path of light.

Properties of light:
- Light refracts when it passes from one medium to another.
- Light moves in a straight line.
- Light can pass through a vacuum.
- Light is faster than the speed of sound.
- Light diffracts when passing through an opening.
- Light can be absorbed, transmitted and reflected.
- Light is a form of energy.
- The speed of light in space is 300,000km/s and the speed of light in glass is 197,000km/s.
- Light radiates in all directions.

Transparent: Light can pass through it easily. They make no shadow at all.
Translucent: Only some light can pass through. They make faint shadow.
Opaque: Does not allow light to pass through. They make dark shadows.

Image formation:

The further you are from the light source, the smaller the shadow. The closer you are from
the light source, the bigger the shadow.
The Sun makes the longest shadows at the beginning and end of the day, when the Sun is
lowest in the sky. The shortest shadows are during midday, when the Sun is highest in the
sky and above your head.

Things are visible to our eyes due to light as when light hits our eyes, the light reflects back
to object.

Reflection is the bouncing back of light after striking an object.

LAWS OF REFLECTION:

There are 2 laws of reflection;

- The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. (i=r)
- The incident ray, normal ray and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

There are 2 types of reflection;

Specular (regular reflection): Reflection from a smooth surface that's like a mirror is called
regular reflection.

Diffused (irregular reflection): When all the parallel incident rays reflected on a
rough/irregular surface are NOT parallel to the reflected ray, it's known as diffused
reflection.

Diffusion;

Diffusion is the process of white light splitting into its spectrum of colors (violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red. VIBGYOR). Each color has a different wavelength, and they
refract at different amounts, red being refracted the least as it has the longest wavelength
and violet being refracted the most as it has the shortest wavelength.

- Monochromatic: light with any one specific color, it has a specific frequency.
- Polychromatic: light composed of different colors, is described by many different
frequencies.
- Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs of a wave. It is
measured in the direction of the wave.
- Crest: Highest point of the wave.
- Trough: Lowest point of the wave.

Colors of light:

Colors are made by mixing other colors of light. The primary colors are green, red and blue.
The colors caused by mixing the two primary colors are called secondary colors: magenta,
cyan and yellow.
A red filter absorbs all colors except red. A blue absorbs all colors except blue. A green filter
absorbs all colors except green. These are for primary colors. However, for secondary colors,
it's different.

A magenta filter absorbs all colors except red and blue, the two primary colors that make up
magenta. A cyan filter absorbs all colors except green and blue. A yellow filter absorbs all
colors except red and green.

A black filter absorbs all colors. A white filter doesn't absorb any color.

Speed

Formula: Speed = d/t

Triangle: d
st

Words and units:

- Metres per second= m/s
- Kilometres per second = km/s
- Miles per hour = mph
- Centimetres per hour - cm/h
- Millimetres per second = mm/s
- Centimetres per second = cm/s

Distance time graph:

Gradient = vertical change/ horizontal change.

Vertical = distance
Horizontal = time

Pressure

Pressure is the force used over a certain area.

Formula: Pressure = f/a

triangle: f
pa

A force spread over a larger area produces a lower pressure. A force spread over a smaller
area produces high pressure.

Units:
- Pressure = N/m^2 OR pascals (Pa)
- Force = N
- Area = m^2

Moment

Moment is the turning effect of a force. Forces that create a moment act around a pint
called the pivot. The pivot is the point around which object can rotate or turn.

Moment depends on 2 things:

- The distance the force acts from the pivot
- The size of the force that is applied.

Formula:
Moment = F x d
Moment of a force = force x perpendicular distance from pivot.
m
fd

Unit:
- Moment = Nm
- Force = N
- Distance = m

Energy

What is energy?
- Energy is the ability to do work. Energy is a quantity that is conserved, it cannot be created
or destroyed but rather stored and transferred.

Types:

- Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The amount of energy in the kinetic energy
depends on the speed of the object.
- Gravitational potential energy is energy an object possesses because of its position in a
gravitational field. The amount of energy in the gravitational potentional energy depends on the
height of the object.

The total energy stored before = total energy stored after.

When anything falls down, the gravitational potential energy decreases and the kinetic
energy increases.

Rocks

What are rocks?

- Rocks are made up of grain that fit together. Each grain in a rock is made from a mineral,
which is a chemical compound.
Geologists classify rocks by the minerals they contain and by looking at the texture. The
properties of a rock depend on its texture and minerals.

Uses of rocks:

Types of grains:

Granite has interlocking grains (Fit tightly together)

Sandstone has rounded grains. (Porous rock)

Porous Rocks:

Porous rocks have rounded grains, which are more likely to absorb water.
Rocks with rounded grains are usually softer and crumblier.

Types of rocks:

We have 3 times of rocks:

- Igneous
- Sedimentary
- Metamorphic

Igneous rocks:

Igneous rocks are formed from molten rock (Magma) that has cooled and solidified. They do
not contain any fossils.

Igneous rocks contain interlocking crystals. The size of the crystals depend on how quickly
the molten magma solidifies (cools). Magma that cools slowly has large crystals. Magma
that cools quickly, on the other hand, will have small crystals.

Types of igneous rocks:

We have 2 types, intrusive and extrusive. Extrusive rocks form from magma that erupted
onto the SURFACE as lava, where it cools quickly, forming small crystals. Intrusive, on the
other hand, are formed from magma that cools slowly, deep underground, forming large
crystals. Examples of both are:
Intrusive
- Granite and gabbro
Extrusive
- Obsidian and basalt

Properties of Igneous rocks:

- They have interlocking grains
- The crystals are disorderly arranged
- The size of the crystals depends on how quickly it cools.
- They never contain fossils.

Sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the broken remains of other rocks that become joined
together. They also have fossils. Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers.

Examples:
- Chalk
- Limestone
- Shale
- Sandstone

Properties of sedimentary rocks:

- Sedimentary rocks have layers showing the deposition of the sediments at different time
periods.
- Sedimentary rocks usually have fossils within them.
- Sedimentary rocks have rounded grains.

Process:

Rivers carry pieces of broken rocks and they settle to the bottom of a sea or lake. They are
deposited. They're then build up in layers called sediments. This process is called
sedimentation.
The weight of the sediments on top squash the sediments on the bottom. This process is
called compaction.
The water is squeezed out from between the pieces of rocks and crystals. The crystals join
the rock together. This process is called cementation.

In order:

Transport->deposition->sedimentation->compaction->cementation.

Metamorphic rocks:

Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks that are changed by heat or pressure. They
are not made from molten rock, like igneous.

Earth movements can cause rocks to be deeply buried or squeezed. The rocks are heated by
nearby magma and put under great pressure. They do not melt, but the minerals chemically
change.

Examples:

- Limestone -> Marble

shale -> slate
Properties of metamorphic rocks:
- Metamorphic rocks usually have layers of crystals caused by heat and pressure.
- Metamorphic rocks are usually denser and harder than sedimentary.
- Metamorphic rocks show distortions caused by the movements that led to their formation.
This may give rise to wavy or zig-zag patterns within the rocks.

What is weathering?
- The breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments is called weathering. Eventually the
fragments become soil.

Can you think of anything that can cause weathering?

- Temperature change, water, frost and plants and animals.

Physical causes of weathering:

- Freeze- thaw
- Expansion - contraction

Different types of weathering:

- Physical weathering: Temperature change
- Chemical weathering: acid rain
- Biological weathering: plants and animals.

Chemicals responsible for chemical weathering:

- Carbon dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
- Sulphur oxides

Erosion:
- The weathered rock is broken down even further by the action of wind, rain or ice. These
small broken down pieces of rock are then moved away by the weather and gravity into
rivers where they are transported to the sea.
Another, easier explanation:
- Erosion is when the rocks that have been broken down by weathering get moved away
from the place they were originally in.

Process:
Rock
Weathering
Erosion
Transportation
Sedimentation

Rock cycle

Igneous rocks and sedimentary -> Heat and pressure = metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks -> weathering and erosion = sediments.
Igneous rocks -> melting= magma
magma -> cooling = igneous rocks
sediments -> compaction and cementation = sedimentary rocks.

How is acid rain formed?

- Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins with sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides released into the air. They mix and react with water, oxygen and other chemical to
form acidic pollutants, acid rain.