3rd CHAPTER

FUNDAMENTALS ON
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1
 POWER DEVICES WISH LIST

• LARGE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

• LOW ON-STATE VOLTAGES AND RESISTANCES

• FAST TURN-ON

• FAST TURN-OFF

• LARGE POWER DISSIPATION CAPABILITY

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POWER DEVICES DREAM BEHAVIOUR

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 Current, Conductivity, Materials
•Charge in volume
Ax = Q = q n A  x = q n A vt

• Current density
J = (Q/t)A-1 = q n v
• Metals - gold, platinum, silver, copper, etc.
n = 1023 cm-3  > 103 mhos / cm

• Insulators - silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide

n < 103 cm-3  < 10-8 mhos / cm

• Semiconductors – silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs),

gallium nitride (GaN), silicon carbide (SiC), synthetic diamond (Dia)
108 < n < 1019 cm-3 10-8 <  < 103 mhos / cm

1mho = 1 S = Ω-1 4
 Thermal Ionization in Semiconductors (Ex: Si)
• Si atoms have 4 valence
electrons

• Atoms are bonded by

covalent bonds (chemical bond
involving sharing a pair of
electrons by 2 atoms)

• At T = 0K, all covalent

bonds are in place, thus no free
electrons occur

• Thermal ionization:
At T > 0K, Si atoms break some of
the covalent bonds due to the
random thermal vibration which
occurs even in equilibrium

• Thermal ionization leads to free Equilibrium (also called thermal equilibrium) means:
electrons • NO external voltage
• NO external electric field
• NO external magnetic field 5
 Electrons & Holes at Equilibrium
• Time: t3 > t2 > t1

• At t1, free electron (A) is

-
A
generated by the left top atom t=t 1
which becomes positively
charged
generation of B
• At t2, another free electron (B) B
is generated and attracted by the +
positive charge left in the
-A
broken covalent bond and is t=t
2
trapped there (becomes bound)

• At t3, after liberating the free recombination of B apparent

movement
electron trapped at t2 , the right
of "Hole"
top atom becomes positively -
charged and the left top A
t=t
becomes re-becomes neutral. 3
This mobile positive charge is
called hole (it originates from
an empty bond normally Electrons & Holes = Carriers = Mobile charge in a semiconductor
occupied by an electron) 6
Electrons & Holes at Equilibrium – Intrinsic Semi
• Density of free electrons = n

• Density of free holes = p -

A
t=t 1
• p = n = ni = intrinsic carrier
density = carriers generated by
thermal ionization
generation of B
B
• ni2(T) = C exp(-qEg/(kT ))
-A +
• T = temp in K t=t
2
• k= 1.4*10-23 J/K – Boltzmann
constant
• Eg = energy gap (Ex.: 1.1 eV in Si) recombination of B apparent
movement
• q = 1.6x10-19 C of "Hole"
-
• C = constant A
t=t
3
• ni(T) = 1010 cm-3 at 300 K for Si

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Periodic Table

8
 Doped Semiconductors - 1
• Thermal equilibrium density of electrons and holes can be altered by adding
impurity atoms to semiconductor →
➢ Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors: p = po ≠ n = no ≠ ni

• P-type Semiconductor • N-type Semiconductor

(Ex: Boron for Si) (Ex.: Phosphorus for Si)
NA >> ni ND>> ni
p 0 ≈ NA n o ≈ ND

Impurity donor atoms & impurity acceptor atoms = the fixed charge in a semiconductor

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 Doped Semiconductors - 2
• Number of atoms in Si: 1023cm-3, Maximum doping < 1020cm-3 → impurities will not
affect the rate of covalent bonds breaking due to thermal ionization →
➢ Law of Mass Action: n0p0 = ni2(T)

• At equilibrium, the doped semiconductor is still electrically neutral →

➢ Space - Charge Condition: NA + n0 = ND + p0

• P-type semiconductor • N-type semiconductor

NA >> ni ND>> ni
p 0 ≈ NA n 0 ≈ ND
n 0 ≈ n i2 / N A p 0 ≈ n i2 / N D

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 Recombination

• At thermal equilibrium, the rate of carriers generation equals the rate

of carriers recombination → a fixed number of electrons and holes
exist → 3 means of recombination exist:
➢ Direct electron – hole recombination (free electron captured in
empty covalent bond)
➢ Carriers (electrons, holes) trapped by impurities
➢ Carriers trapped by crystal imperfections

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Equilibrium, Non-Equilibrium, Recombination
Equilibrium - Carrier generation = Carrier recombination
• n = no and p = po

Non-Equilibrium - n > no and p > po

• n = n0 + n and p = p0 + p ; n = excess carrier density
• Excess holes and excess electrons created in equal numbers by breaking of
covalent bonds
• Generation mechanisms:
➢ Light (photoelectric effect)
➢ Injection (ON-STATE)
➢ Impact ionization (BREAKDOWN)

Recombination - removal of excess holes and electrons

• Recombination mechanisms described in previous slide
• Rate of recombination equation: d(n)/dt = - (n)
• Solution: n = n (0) e -t
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 Current - 1

• The flow of semiconductor current = Net flow of holes in the current

direction + Net flow of electrons in the opposite direction

• Two mechanism for free carrier movement:

➢ DRIFT – induced by Electric Field
➢ DIFFUSION – induced by variation of spatial density of
carriers

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 Current - 2
DRIFT DIFFUSION
n p

J
p
Jn

- +

x x

• Jdrift = q µn n E + q p µp E • Jdiff = qDndn/dx - qDpdp/dx

• µn = electron mobility • Dn/n = Dp/p = kT/q
1500 cm2/V-sec for Si @ RT and ND < 1015cm-3 (Einstein relation)
• µp = hole mobility • D = diffusion constant
500 cm2/V-sec for Si @ RT and NA < 1015 cm-3
RT = room temperature

Total current density J = Jdrift + Jdiff

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 Carrier Lifetime

•  = excess carrier lifetime = average time needed by a carrier to

recombine

• Usually assumed to be constant. However, variations occur in two

important situations:
➢  increases with temperature (T)
➢  decreases at large excess carrier densities (nb > 1017cm-3):
▪  = o/[1 + (n/nb)2], where o is  for small n

• Control of carrier lifetime values:

➢ Switching time VERSUS on-state losses trade-off mandates good
lifetime control
➢ Control via use of impurities such as gold - lifetime killers
➢ Control via electron irradiation - more uniform and better control
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 Carrier Mobility and Velocity
• v = µE
• At low electric field values, collisions alter slope of velocity-field
curve:
➢ Lattice vibrations (Phonons)
➢ Impurities (Doping)
➢ Other carriers (High Injection)

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 Conductivity
• Consider drift current, only
J = E
J = J n + J p = q (  n n +  p p) E
 = q (  n n +  p p)
1
=


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 4th CHAPTER
P-N JUNCTION &
P-N DIODE

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 Types of Charge in Semiconductors
• Negative charges:
➢ Conduction electrons (density = n) – mobile charge
➢ Ionized acceptor atoms (density = NA) – fixed charge

• Positive charges:
➢ Holes (density = p) – mobile charge
➢ Ionized donor atoms (density = ND) – fixed charge

• Charge density (C/cm3):

ρ = 𝒒(𝒑 − 𝒏 + 𝑵𝑫 − 𝑵𝑨 )
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 Types of Current in semiconductors
• Drift current:
➢ The current due to charged particles movement under the
influence of an electric field

𝒗𝒑 = µ 𝒑 𝑬 𝒗𝒏 = −µ𝒏 𝑬
𝑱𝒑,𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 = 𝒒𝒑𝒗𝒑 𝑱𝒏,𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 = −𝒒𝒏𝒗𝒏
• Diffusion current:
➢ The current due to thermally-induced, random particle motion,
from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration
➢ Dp and Dn - diffusion coefficients
𝒅𝒑 𝒅𝒏
𝑱𝒑,𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = −𝒒𝑫𝒑 𝑱𝒏,𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 = 𝒒𝑫𝑵
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
• Total current:
𝑱𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑱𝒑,𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 + 𝑱𝒏,𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇 +𝑱𝒑,𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 + 𝑱𝒏,𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒕 20
Einstein Relation

𝑫 𝒌𝑻
= ≅ 𝟐𝟔𝒎𝑽
µ 𝒒
 P-N Junction
metallurgical junction

P N

N N N
N A D
A D

N N
A A

x x

- N
D - N
D

Step (abrupt) junction Linearly graded junction

(P+) - N and (N+) - P junctions can also be formed

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 Space Charge / Depletion Region
• When p-n junction is formed, diffusion occurs → Diffusing electrons
and holes leave the region near metallurgical junction depleted of free
carriers → depletion region
• Left behind after the carrier have diffused, the fixed ionized impurities
form the so-called space charge region / depletion region
Positive Negative
region region
Quasi-neutral
Quasi-neutral
region
region

Space charge region

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 Carrier Drift Across Junction
• Electric field due to space charge emerges → drift occurs

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 Built-in Potential
Poisson’s equation
d2 
= - 
dx 2 Charge
 = - qNa ; x < 0
 = qNd ; x > 0
d
= - E(x )
dx
qNa(x +x p )
E(x ) =  ; - xp < x < 0 Field
qNd (x - x n)
E(x ) =  ; 0< x < x n
xn

c = - E(x )dx

- xp

qNax p 2 + qNd x n2
c = -
2 Potential
• ΦC is called Built-in / Contact Potential
(typically tens of mV)
• Vt = kT/q = 26mV
• In equilibrium, ΦC prevents carriers
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diffusing across the junction
 External Bias
• An external bias appears nearly
entirely across the space-charge
Reverse-biased
region due its much larger
P-N junction
resistance compared to the rest of
the junction

• When a more positive potential

is applied on the p side, ΦC
decreases to (ΦC – V) and the
junction is forward biased

• When a more positive potential

is applied on the n side, ΦC
increases to (ΦC + V) and the
junction is reverse biased

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 From P-N Junction to P-N Diode

Source: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html 27
Nearly Ideal I-V Characteristic of a P-N Diode
I (V A )

I S 0 = I Sn + I Sp

VA

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 P-N Diode Current
I (V A )

I S 0 = I Sn + I Sp

VA

Qn Qp  Ln Lp  
 qV 

J =  +  = q ni 
2 +   exp( ) - 1
n p Nan Nd p   kT 


 qV 

 Ln Lp 
J = Js  exp( ) - 1 ; Js = q ni 
2 + 
 kT  Nan Nd p 
 EG 
ni = ( N C NV ) 1/ 2
exp − 
 2kT 
• Due to ni, JS is strongly dependent on temperature
• NC = density of states of electrons in conduction band
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• NV = density of states of holes in valence band
 X CHAPTER
MORE THAN SILICON

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 JUSTIFICATION
• Why the need for employing other materials than Si for Power Devices?
• REASON 1: Power devices do require large breakdown voltage (BV), which is
the reverse voltage for which the maximum electric field in the device (EMAX)
equals the critical / breakdown electric field (Ecritical / EBD) of the semiconductor

➢ For large EBD → large band gap (Eg) is needed

• REASON 2: Power devices do require high temperature operation & low off-
state losses

 E 
ni = ( N C NV )1 / 2 exp − G 
 2kT 
• For small Js and high maximum temperature operation → low ni is needed → large
Eg is needed
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 WIDE BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTORS
Si 4H-SiC GaN Diamond
Band gap (Eg) (eV) 1.1 3.26 3.44 5.47
Intrinsic carrier conc. 1.5*1010 8.2*10-9 2.2*10-10 10-27
(ni) at 300K (cm-3)
Critical electric field 0.3 2.4 5 10
(Ecritical / EBD) (MV/cm)
Hole mobility (cm2/Vs) 480 120 200 3800

Electron mobility 1450 900 2000 4500

(cm2/Vs)
Saturated hole velocity 0.9 2.0 2.5 2.0
(cm/s)
Relative electric 11.8 9.7 5.35 5.7
permittivity
Thermal conductivity 1.5 4.9 1.3 24
(W/cmK)
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LOW INTRINSIC CONCENTRATION IN DIAMOND

• Dia: Extremely low intrinsic concentration at RT: ni = 1.1*10-27cm-3

• ni has a severe, exponential increase with temperature:

 EG 
ni = ( N C NV )
1/ 2
exp − 
 2kT 

• For Si devices operated at 600K, ni = 1015cm-3 → too large!

• For diamond devices operated at 600K, ni = 10-5cm-3 → Diamond
devices are suitable for high temperature operation

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 BONUS: GRAPHENE - 1
• Discovered in 2004
• 2010 Nobel in Physics for Andre
Geim and Konstantin Novoselov
(Univ. of Manchester) - "for
groundbreaking experiments
regarding the two-dimensional
material graphene"

• 2D Material, flat, hexagonal lattice of C atoms

• From the electrical point of view, it is somewhere between metal and
semiconductor – “Regular graphene has no band gap – its unusually
rippled valence and conduction bands actually meet in places,
making it more like a metal.” – www.chemistryworld.com

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 BONUS: GRAPHENE - 2
• “While numerous methods have been proposed to produce semiconducting
graphene, a significant band gap has never been demonstrated. The reason
is that, regardless of the theoretical gap formation mechanism,
subnanometer disorder prevents the required symmetry breaking necessary
to make graphene semiconducting. In this work, we show for the first time
that semiconducting graphene can be made by epitaxial growth. Using
improved growth methods, we show by direct band measurements that a
band gap greater than 0.5 eV can be produced in the first graphene layer
grown on the SiC(0001) surface.”

• M.S. Nevius et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 136802, Sept 2015 -
http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.136802

• Graphene is not a wide band gap semiconductor. It is rather a narrow band

semiconductor (EG = 1.1eV for Si), thus having a larger ni, thus being
worse than Si for high temperature applications, thus being not suitable
for power devices.
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