ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT

Lesson 1: Nature and Elements of Communication

Communication is the act of transferring information from one person to another person or a group.
Communication involves at least one sender, a message, and a receiver; but communication is more than
just a transmission of information. It requires success in transmitting or sending a message.
Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to
another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014).

Nature of Communication
Communication is a process. It takes place when two or more people exchange ideas either through
written or spoken words (verbal) or actions (nonverbal). Both verbal and nonverbal can be used at the
same time.

The Process of Communication

In order to successfully communicate, it is important to understand the process of communication.

The diagram above shows the basic steps.

 The speaker develops an idea to be sent.

 The speaker encodes the idea or converts it to words or actions.
 The speaker transmits or sends out the idea using a specific medium or channel.
 The receiver gets the message and decodes or interprets it.
 The receiver provides or sends feedback.
At any point of the communication process, noise may take place and hinder the flow of communication
process.

The Elements in The Process of Communication

Sender

 The sender is the one who initiates the message that needs to be transmitted. He sends the
message that may be in different forms such as pictures, symbols, postures, gestures, or even just
a smile. After generating the idea, he sends it in such a manner that can be understood clearly by
the receiver.
Message

 Message refers to the information intended to be communicated by words as in speech, letters,

pictures, or symbols. It can be verbal or non-verbal. It is the content the sender wants to convey to
the receiver.
Encoding

 It is the process of expressing the idea into appropriate medium. It may be verbal or non-verbal.
The sender may put the message into a series of symbols, words, pictures or gestures.
Channel

 It refers the medium or passage through which encoded message is passed to the receiver. It may
be transmitted through face-to-face communication, telephone, radio, television, memorandum, or
computer.
Receiver

 Receiver refers to whom the message is meant for. He plays a significant role in the
communication process like the sender. He needs to comprehend the message sent. His translation
of the message received depends on his/her knowledge of the subject matter of the message,
experience, and relationship with the sender.
Decoding

 It means translating the encoded message into a language that can be understood by the receiver.
After receiving the message, the receiver interprets it and tries to understand it.
Feedback

 It refers to the response of the receiver to the message sent to him/her by the sender. Feedback
ensures that the message has been effectively encoded and decoded.
Noise

 It is a hindrance to communication. This can take place at any step in the entire communication
process. There are various types of noise. Examples of physical noise are loud music, an irritating
sound of an engine of a machine, or a classmate who talks to you while the teacher is giving a
lecture. The second type of noise is physiological – when the body becomes the hindrance to
communication such as headache, toothache, or hunger. The third type is psychological noise that
refers to qualities in us that affect how we communicate and interpret others such as prejudice and
any feeling can interfere with communication. Noise is considered as a barrier to effective
communication.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 2: The Various Models of Communication
The following are different models of communication that explain and illustrate how the process of
communicating works.

Transactional Model
In the transactional model, there is an exchange of messages between the sender and the receiver
where both take turns in sending and receiving messages. The roles of both communicators reverse
each time in the communication process. This is also called circular model of communication and is
used for interpersonal communication. Everyday talk and interactions are examples of transactional
model of communication. The participants in this communication process who have common social
and cultural systems and relational situations can communicate with one another more effectively. A
teacher discussing a lesson with his students or teachers holding a virtual meeting communicate with
one another efficiently because they know each other and share the same social system. The model
shows that there is a continuous exchanging of messages, but barriers may take place and affect
communication.

Shannon – Weaver’s Model of Communication

Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver introduced the concept of noise. This model of communication
is also known as the Telephone Model for this is based on the experience of using the telephone
back in the 1940’s wherein the message was hindered by noise. Therefore, the message received by
the listener was not necessarily the message sent by the sender.
The Shannon – Weaver model of communication contains six important features.
• Sender - the originator of message or the information source selects desire message.
• Encoder - the transmitter which converts the message into signals
Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or binary data which is compactable
to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone, the voice is
converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables.
• Decoder - the reception place of the signal which converts signals into message, a reverse
process of encode
• Note: The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable
and understandable for receiver. Otherwise, receiver can’t receive the exact message, and it
will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver
• Receiver - the destination of the message from sender
Note: Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feedback to sender. If the message is
distracted by noise, it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver.
• Noise - the messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may be distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds,
 thunder, and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the
transmission process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive
the correct message.

An example of Shannon - Weaver model of communication

Mr. Diaz made a call to his secretary “Please call the internet provider.” During his call, noise comes
in (transmission error) and his secretary heard “Please call” only. The secretary replied (feedback)
“Whom will I call, Sir?”
Sender: Mr. Diaz
Encoder: Telephone (Mr. Diaz) Channel: Cable
Noise: Distraction in voice Reception: Telephone (Secretary) Receiver: Assistant
Due to transmission error or noise, the secretary was not able to understand the message.

Other Models of Communication

Aristotle’s Model of Communication

Aristotle (5 BCE), a teacher of Rhetoric and a founder of an academy that produced good speakers,
came up with the first and earliest model of communication. This model is more focused on public
speaking than interpersonal communication. Speaker plays a very important role in public speaking.
To influence or persuade his audience, he must first prepare his speech and analyze the audience
before he speaks to them.
Schramm Model of Communication
Wilbur Schramm is known as the Father of Mass Communication. He came up with five models but in
the Schramm Model of Communication he developed in 1955, communication breakdown is
explained. He asserts that both the sender and the receiver should have the same field of
experience.
In this concept, field of experience refers to everything that makes an individual unique – everything
that he/she has ever learned, watched, seen, heard, read, and studied. In this model, communication
has six elements:
• Source
• Encoder
• Message
• Channel
• Decoder
• Receiver
He gives emphasis on encoding and decoding of message. This model shows how a message is
transferred from the sender to the receiver. The model also asserts that message can be complicated
by different meaning learned by different people. Schramm claims that communication can take place
if and only if there is an overlap between the fields of experience of the participants of the
communication process. It means that the sender and the receiver have commonalities. For example,
a Japanese is invited to give a talk to Filipino students. These students can only understand English
and Filipino. If the speaker will speak in Japanese, the audience will not be able to understand him.

Eugene White Model of Communication

Eugene White’s Model of communication says that communication is circular and continuous, without
a beginning or end. His 1960 cyclical model, the communication process is composed of eight
stages- thinking, symbolizing, expressing, transmitting, receiving, decoding, feed backing, monitoring,
and thinking. He also points out that although one can assume that communication begins with
thinking, it can be observed from any point in the circle. White was also the one who introduced the
concept of feedback which is a process also known as to close the loop.
Berlo’s Model of Communication

You have already learned that Aristotle’s model of communication places the speaker in the central position
and the one who drives the entire communication process. The Berlo’s model of communication considers the
emotional aspect of the message.

Berlo’s model follows the SMCR model:

• S – Source
• M – Message
• C – Channel
• R – Receiver

Berlo’s model of communication is composed of a several factors under each element. The SOURCE is where
the message originates. The person should have communication skills like the ability to read, write, speak, and
listen to the right attitude towards the listeners, subject, and oneself. The individual must be knowledgeable
about the topic he is communicating and the audience’s familiarity with it. In communicating, the social system
must be considered such as the culture of the audience. The sender of the message from where the message
originates is referred to as the encoder.

Content is the body of the MESSAGE, from beginning to the end like whatever the teacher teaches his students
from the beginning up to the end. The speech must be accompanied by elements such as gestures, facial
expression or body language so that listeners will not lose interest. Treatment is the way one treats his message.
One must understand the importance of the message know how to handle it. Berlo’s model asserts that a
message must be properly structured in order to be conveyed clearly. The code in this model refers to the
means through which a message is sent and in what form. It could be the language, gestures, expressions,
music, and so on. The code should be correct in the communication. Only when the code is clear, the message
will be clear.

The C in the SMCR stands for CHANNEL. Channel refers to the five sense organs: hearing, seeing, touching,
smelling, and tasting. These five senses help human beings to communicate with one another.

When the RECEIVER message reaches the receiver, he tries to understand what the sender is trying to convey.
This is also called decoding.
Helical Model of Communication
The Helical Model of communication was developed
by Frank Dance in 1967. He thought of
communication similar to helix. Helix is a smooth
curve like a spring that goes upwards and
downwards. This model presents the concept of
time where continuousness
of communication process is very
important. In helical model, communication is a
dynamic process. Communication progresses as an
individual gets older and his experience and
vocabulary increases.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 3: Effective Communication (Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication)

Communication breakdown is failure in communication due to various barriers in communication.

These barriers are related to the sender, message, channel, and the receiver. Communication is
very important in any human relation. Every person needs to always guard against communication
breakdown. People should always see to it that their communication is effective and efficient by
avoiding creating a barrier for others.

In effective communication, speakers do not only communicate using their words but also with
their actions. They should also see to it that the actions they make must match with what they say,
otherwise, miscommunication may take place.

Communication using words is called verbal communication while communication without words
such as facial expression and hand gestures is called non-verbal communication. Communication
can take among people with or without words. There are two types of communication: verbal and
non-verbal.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is the use of words in sharing information with other people. It can include
both spoken and written communication. Spoken communication is mostly face-to-face, but
nowadays, technology such as phone and internet allow people to communicate with others
without being at the same place at the same time. The verbal element of communication is all
about the words one chooses and how the receiver interprets it.

The purpose of communication is to convey information to others. Through the choice of written
and spoken words, ideas are exchanged. Unfortunately, miscommunication is common, many
times that participants in a communication process fail to understand what are said or written.
There are possible barriers to verbal communication. First, people themselves participating in the
interaction can be the barriers. They may have poor infirmities such as poor hearing or eyesight
and others stutter. People have different opinions and beliefs; they follow cultural mores (values,
customs, and behaviors that are accepted by a particular group); or they adhere to society’s
attitudes toward gender and sexuality, business practices, and religious beliefs. The factors
mentioned above can lead to their inability to deliver, listen to, and respond appropriately to the
message.

Opinions and beliefs color our message or our response. The participants, both speaker and
listener have opinions and beliefs that belong to a culture and a gender. Gender comes into
communication when people categorize certain ways of speaking or using words as being
masculine or feminine. Many people do not expect men to be soft spoken or have a high-pitched
voice or women having harsh and a low-pitched voice.

The topic may also be a barrier to communication because of its vagueness, complexity,
emotional pull, or hidden agenda. The speaker must avoid these qualities in the topic of the
message so that, instead, it will be clear, simple, restrained, and with no hidden motives.

Communicative Situation is another group of possible barriers to communication. There may be

“noise” in the physical setting and in the participants themselves. The actual noise from the
surrounding may cause the participants to understand one another. At the same time, the
participants may have their own motives for participating, motives that are not aligned with or
support the speaker’s purpose for communicating. The audience must know whether the speaker
is there to entertain or to persuade. The listener may not have enough knowledge or experience to
form a basis for interpreting and responding to the message.

Language Choice also leads to communication breakdown. The linguistic differences among the
participants can be a barrier to communication. Some words used by the speaker may mean
different things to others. Depending on how a word is used, it can easily be misinterpreted by
another person. The speaker must be very careful with the words he uses.

Non-Verbal Communication

Transmitting messages without using words is called non-verbal communication. It is conveyed as

visual cues. Gestures, facial expressions, giving flowers, choosing a color of what to wear, or
putting a forefinger in front of lips are just some examples of non-verbal communication. Although
no word is used, non-verbal communication can effectively communicate many human feelings.
Non-verbal communication includes the following:

1. Language of gestures
Gestures are the most often used type of non-verbal communication. To be more
understandable and interesting to a listener, the speaker must accompany his/her speech
with gestures but one has to consider the culture of the receiver because gestures have
different meanings in other places. In the Philippines and other countries, nodding means
yes but it is the opposite in the Middle East.

The following are other examples of gesture:

a. Emblems – clenched fist upraised
b. Emphasizing – “YES” clenched both fists in front of breast
c. Illustrating – “this large” (open hands set apart)
d. Regulating – “shh” forefinger in front of lips

2. Facial Expression
The face plays a very important role in communication. It expresses various types of
emotions or feelings such as joy, sorrow, anger, annoyance, confusion, fear, hatred or
surprise. Within the facial area, eyes are especially effective for indicating attention and
interest. However, interpretations of facial expressions differ from culture to culture.

3. Language of colors
People choose colors based on the meaning of each. Colors have certain meanings based
on the dictates of culture and gender. In the Philippines, most parents prepare everything
in blue for baby boys and pink for baby girls. People wear black when they grieve while
others wear white.

4. Language of flowers
Flowers are also used to say what we cannot expressed in words. These meanings are
also influenced by culture and gender. In the Philippines, men send flowers to women.
When men give flowers, it reflects their reference to women as delicate and feminine. It
indicates special treatment. When a man gives a woman flowers, it's a sure sign that she is
someone very dear to him.

Using flowers can create conflict if one does not know the culture of a place. In the
Philippines, one will be annoyed if someone gives her plumeria or kalachi. In Hawaii, they
give kalachuchi to welcome guests. Italians send chrysanthemums for special occasions,
but Filipinos generally see them in funeral arrangements.
 5. Language of space
Language of space or proxemics is the use of space based on importance. This type of
non-verbal communication is similarly used as chronemics by people who want to show
who they are. In some companies, the one who holds the highest position usually has the
biggest office and in the best location such as on the top floor or penthouse of the building.
Distance can express the degree of intimacy and individual acceptance.

6. Language of time
Language of time or chronemics is the use of time based on position and power. In the
Philippines, time is most often used to convey how powerful a person is. Someone in
authority may show that his/her time is more important than that of the visitors by making
them wait.

7. Language of touch
Language of touch also known as Haptics can also be used to expressed what cannot be
said. It is also one of the most powerful of the types of non-verbal communication. Unlike
the other types, in Haptics, there is contact between the sender and the receiver of the
message. Touch can comfort, encourage, dissuade, or aggravate.

8. Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the “how” of saying something other than what is said. The
meaning of words spoken depends on how they are said. Tones, voices, and rhythm must
match the content of the message if the message is to be understood at all; they reinforce
the message. The words with strong points to deliver must be emphasized with strong
paralanguage.

9. Posture and Body Orientation

Posture and body orientation are also a type of non-verbal communication. How one
stands or sits tells the people around how one sees oneself as a speaker, how he/she
sees the listeners, and his attitude toward the message.

One can communicate numerous messages by the way he walks. Standing erect, but not
rigid, and leaning slightly forward may mean that one is approachable, friendly, and
receptive.

Rarely does communication take place without being accompanied or substituted by any of these
types of non-verbal communication. One must always remember that all of these are culture-
bound or specific to some cultures but not in others. Communication breakdown takes place when
culture concepts clash or simply do not meet.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 4: Intercultural Communication

Definition and Nature of Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create meanings
while bringing in their varied cultural backgrounds.

For some scholars, intercultural communication pertains to communication among people from
different nationalities (Gudykunst, 2003). Still, others look at intercultural communication as
communication that is influenced by different ethnicities, religions, and sexual orientations.

Both interpretations show that intercultural communication takes place when people draw from
their cultural identity to understand values, prejudices, language, attitudes, and relationships
(Gudykunst & Kim, 2003). Moreover, this facet of communication can also be seen as a bargained
understanding of human experiences across diverse societies. Simply put, intercultural
communication is the sending and receiving of messages across languages and cultures.

Sometimes, intercultural communication can flow smoothly and become very interesting for a
cross-cultural group. However, things may not go as planned when communication is disrupted by
cultural collisions.

When you speak, your speech is continuously accompanied by gestures, facial expressions, and
other body movements that add to what you are saying in different ways. For example, nodding
means “yes” in the Indian subcontinent, Iran, most of Europe, Latin America, and North America.
However, in Greece, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Turkey, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Albania,
nodding indicates disagreement. Moreover, in the case of Japanese culture, silence as a form of
communication is more integrated in their customs than in Western languages. It is therefore
important for you to acknowledge and understand the many communication patterns present in
other cultures.

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) offers a structure that explores how
people experience cultural differences. According to Bennett and Bennett (2004), it has six stages.
These are the following:

Stage 1: Denial.
The individual does not recognize cultural differences. An individual in the denial stage might be
heard saying: “All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee
shops.”

Stage 2: Defense.
The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by them, resulting in either
a superior view on own culture or an unjustified high regard for the new one. An individual in the
defense stage might be heard saying: “This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is
certainly better.” “Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.”

Stage 3: Minimization.
Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the universality of ideas rather
than on cultural differences. An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying: “Once
we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!”

Stage 4: Acceptance.
The individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in behaviors and eventually in
values. An individual in the acceptance stage might be heard saying: “These people and I have
different values and experiences, and I think we can learn from one another.

Stage 5: Adaptation.
The individual is very open to world views when accepting new perspectives. An individual in the
adaptation stage might be heard saying: “To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to
consider both my own and my counterpart’s background.”

Stage 6: Integration.
Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see themselves and their actions based on
multifarious cultural viewpoints. An individual in the integration stage might be heard saying: “I can
look at things from the perspective of various cultures.”

Once you understand these stages, you may apply it to 1) recognize communication behaviors
which differ from your own, 2) consider what can influence these types of behaviors, and 3) try to
analyze how linguistic and cultural communities differ in terms of communication behavior and
influencing factors (Allwood, 1985).

Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators

World Bank (2010) identifies the following traits that define a competent intercultural
communicator.
1. flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty
2. reflectiveness or mindfulness
3. open-mindedness
4. sensitivity
5. adaptability
6. ability to engage in divergent thinking (or thinking creatively) and systems-level thinking (or
thinking how each one in a system or organization influences each other)
7. politeness

Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as gender, age, social status, and religion
must also be taken into consideration when communicating with others. Refrain from showing bias
when talking to someone by following the tips below.
1. Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a certain group.
2. Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and “man” to refer to a general group of people.
To remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or rewrite a sentence to avoid using
pronouns. The use of his/her is also acceptable.
3. Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.
4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.
5. Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you perceive to be on a lower social class than
you.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 5: Functions of Communication

Basically, there are five functions of communication. These are control or regulation, social
interaction, motivation, emotional expression, and information dissemination.

1. CONTROL OR REGULATION. Communication functions to control behavior. Every

organization has its regulations and these regulations are communicated to all members in
various ways.

For example:
 A small organization such as a family has its house rules which every member has to
follow.
 The school implements rules which students and other members of the school
community are obliged to follow.
 The dress code in a business organization serves to dictate the style dressing among
its members, particularly the employees.
 In the school setting, a security officer may hinder a student or a school visitor from
entering.
 A dean may oblige the faculty members to attend a seminar-workshop.
 A teacher may require a student to turn off their cell phones.

2. SOCIAL INTERACTION. Communication allows individuals to interact with others.

Because of the needs to interact daily, people communicate.

For example:
 A student has to talk with his parents regarding his allowance and school
requirements.
 He has to talk to the driver of a jeepney or bus, or to the train ticketing clerk.
 In school, it is inevitable for him not to converse with his teachers, classmates,
schoolmates, school employees, and officials.

3. MOTIVATION. Communication motivates or encourages people to live better. Motivation is

either internal or external.

a. INTERNAL MOTIVATION comes from within. It is something personal.

Example: A student is motivated to study hard because of his/her desire to graduate
with honors.

b. EXTERNAL MOTIVATION emanates from the outside or from people surrounding him.
Example: A student is motivated to study hard because of his/her father's promise to
give him/her an expensive car once he/she graduates with honors.

Encouraging words serve to stimulate people to perform or do better, that is, to motivate
them in a positive way.

Example:
 A breast cancer patient may desire to live longer after he/she hears words of hope
from his/her loved ones.
  A failing student may continue pursuing his/her chosen career path the moment
he/she hears words of encouragement from the school's guidance counselor.

4. EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION. Communication facilitates people's expression of their

feelings and emotions.

Example: When one informs another about an impending super typhoon, the informer may
express various emotions in different situations.
 As he/she informs his/her loved ones, he/she may show fear because their house is
not a safe place to stay when there is an emergency like a typhoon.
 He/She may show love or concern as he/she informs them for them to get ready for
the calamity.
 He/She may show joy and excitement as he/she envisions another day of no classes
or a grand vacation.

5. INFORMATION DISSEMINATION. Communication functions to convey information.

Many events or incidents happen every day. These occurrences affect people so they
have to be informed.

Example:
 A new policy to be implemented in school has to be made known to all members
before its implementation.
 The leader draws plans for executing the safety protocols
 A student leader talks about how to help fellow members who need financial
assistance.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 6: Types of Speech Context

Context when referring to speech communication is the surroundings, circumstances,

environment, background or setting that determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of an event.
(Lumen Learning.com/Elements of Communication). According to DeVito (2005), "Context refers
to the setting in which the communication takes place. Context helps to establish meaning and
can influence what is said and how it is said." Speech Context is important because it helps you
communicate appropriately, understand the meaning of any message conveyed, and respond
accordingly. In order for you to have a clear grasp of what Speech Context is, its types are
discussed below.

Types of Speech Context

1. Intrapersonal - This refers to a type of communication that is focused on one person,
where the speaker acts both as the sender and as the receiver of the message. The
message is made up of thoughts and feelings while the medium is the brain that processes
what you think and feel. (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p16)

Examples:
 There is a voice within you that tells you, "It's okay, you can still do it! You can make
it!" when you are losing your drive to finish the task that you are doing.
 When you told yourself not to talk to your friends when you have read in a Facebook
post that they were in a party and you were not invited.

2. Interpersonal - This refers to the type of communication that takes place between and
among people and creates a personal relationship between and among them. Normally, it
includes two individuals, and it can vary from casual and very personal to formal and
impersonal.

Types of Interpersonal Communication

A. Dyad Communication - communication that happens between two people.

Examples:
 You consoled your brother who was feeling down.
 A conversation between your father and mother about the latest
announcement of your Barangay Chairman.

B. Small Group - This applies to interactions involving at least three but not more than
twelve people engaged in face-to-face interactions to achieve the desired goal. In
this type of conversation, all participants can freely express their ideas throughout
the discussion.

Examples:
 You are having a discussion with your two brothers about the surprise party
you are planning for your Mom's birthday.
 Kathlyn who came back from the United States called her three brothers
 and four sisters and announced that she is getting married.

C. Public - This type refers to a communication that enables you to send or deliver a
message before a crowd. The message can be transmitted for informative or
persuasive purposes. "In public communication, unlike interpersonal and small
groups, the channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder and the gestures
are more expansive because the audience is larger" (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p
19).

Examples:
 Delivering a graduation speech to your fellow graduates.
 You were elected as the new SSG president of your school and were given
a chance to deliver a message of gratitude to your fellow students.

D. Mass Communication - This refers to communication through television, radio,

newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, the internet, and other types of media.

Examples:
 You are watching a televised briefing of IATF on COVID-19.
 You have recorded a commentary for your school's Online Discussion of the
pandemic and uploaded it in your social media account.

Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior in a Speech Context

Different speech context whether it is intrapersonal, interpersonal, public or mass communication

requires different approaches. Though there might be some occasional similarities, you should at
least know how to behave and respond to various speech contexts appropriately.

When talking to yourself

You might be familiar with the feeling of quietly talking to yourself in your mind, and it's normal —
and good for you. By performing this, it makes you think and reflect on the things you have done
or are planning to do. But here are some important reminders that you need to keep in mind:
1. Use self-talk to your advantage: Cheering yourself up before an important event or talking
to yourself while completing a task are two perfect opportunities for self-talk (Gould, 2018,
Talking to yourself is normal, n.d.).
2. Don't overdo it. While it is normal to talk to yourself constantly, it is better not to overuse
yourself of doing so. The most common reason why people end up talking to themselves is
because they feel like they do not have someone else to talk to. To address this, you need
to be more sociable, it would give you more people to talk to other than yourself.

When talking to one person or a small group of people

Consoling your friend who is feeling down, or simply talking with your classmates about your plans
for a group activity is an example of a dyad and small group communication. This kind of
communication implies that the conversation is being shared and there is exchange of ideas.
Small group involves different skills because unlike dyad, it consists of more than two people. In
both cases, you can be as natural as yourself, however, unlike a running conversation in your
head, you have to consider that there are others who are equally important in the conversation.
Thus, to achieve successful communication in a dyad or small group, you have to consider the
following;
1. Listen carefully - Needless to say, this is the very basic foundation of effective
communication. You have to listen carefully and understand what the other person is
saying. Asking clarifying questions lets the other person know that you are indeed listening
 attentively. More so, take active part. You also need to be heard and understood when it is
your time to speak.
2. Check your tone and body language - The vocabulary of the body is more revealing than
the actual words you speak. So, watch your tone and body language while you are talking.
Is your tone tough? Do you smile and encourage the person you are talking to? Your body
language tells more about your emotions and thoughts than your actual words. Bear this in
mind the next time you have a conversation with someone. Check your body language to
ensure that it is consistent with your words (Oakes, 2017).
3. When talking to the public - Speaking in front of the crowd requires many preparations;
from analyzing your target audience, to planning and drafting your speech up to the
rehearsing part. The key therefore is to come prepared. Be yourself while you are on stage
and speak in the way that you will be easily understood by your audience.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 7: Type of Speech Styles

According to a Dutch linguist, Martin Joos (1976) as mentioned by Balgos & Sipacio (2016),
Speech Style means the form of language that the speaker uses which is characterized by the
degree of formality.

There are five types of speech style: intimate, casual, consultative, formal, and frozen.

1. Intimate - This style is private, which is used by a very close relationship such as between
husband and wife, parents and children, between siblings, and boyfriend and girlfriend. In
this style, the participants share a completely private vocabulary. Since the participants
have an intimate relationship, and they often know each other’s intention, there is no need
for a clear articulation of words. This uses words of endearment like, “darling,” “honey,”
“babe” etc. and a high incidence of non-verbal communication.

2. Casual - This speech style is conversational in tone and has a free and easy participation.
The languages used among and between friends or peers who share common interests
are general, jargon, slang, and colloquial. Informal contractions are used (e.g., “ain’t,”
“dunno,” “gonna”,” dude”,”nope”). Interruptions are common. Nicknames are used.

3. Consultative - This style is used in semi-formal communication in a two-way participation.

The sentences tend to be shorter and spontaneous. This is considered as the most
operational style among the other styles where a speaker needs to provide background
information because the listener (or addressee) may not be able to understand without it.
In turn, the listener participates continuously by giving feedback like, “I see”, “Uhhuh”, “Ah
“, “okay” to signal that he or she is paying attention to the speaker, or has understood what
was said. Thus, both the speaker and the listener are active participants.

4. Formal - In this style, the speaker uses formal words and expressions like complete
sentences and technical or academic vocabulary. In other words, this does not allow
omissions and contractions. It is a one-way speaking to medium, or large groups. Since
there is little or no feedback from the listeners or audience, the speaker needs to plan his
or her utterances, or what he or she is going to say. This speech style is evident in
conferences, inaugurations.

5. Frozen - The speaker uses language in fixed and static expressions that are rarely or
never changed. This is the most formal style and is reserved for very formal situations such
as in ceremonies, religious services, state affairs, and court proceedings. It uses
prescribed and highly formal language, such as in official, or historical documents and
literary texts e.g. the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, Allegiance to country or
flag.
ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT
Lesson 8: Types of Speech Act

Speech Acts are actions done by saying them. The listener must first determine the type of act
being performed before he can determine which way a speech act is to be interpreted. These
speech acts are categorized as follows:

Locutionary Acts
Locutionary acts are, according to Susana Nuccetell and from Gary Seay (from Philosophy of
Language: The Central Topics) 2007, “the mere act of producing some linguistic sounds or marks
with a certain meaning and reference.". Locutionary act refers to any utterances that may contain
statements or words about objects. It may be a word, or even a phrase that has a meaning.

For example:
 “It is raining.”
 “My teacher is wearing a red dress today.”
 “I love dogs.”

Illocutionary Acts
Illocutionary act is the acting part of the speech act. It carries a directive for the audience. It may
be a command, an apology, an expression of thankfulness or just an answer to a question for the
information of other people in the communication process. There are two kinds of illocutionary
acts.

The first is called constantive, or making something true or false by saying it. This is commonly
done by someone in authority like a judge or an official.
Examples:
 I name this dog Chubby.
 You are free to leave.
 You are not my friend anymore.
 The meeting is adjourned.

The second is doing something by just saying it. It is also called performative.
Examples:
 I nominate Lancer for president.
 I accept the challenge.
 I promise to take care of you as long as I live.
 I challenge you to prove me wrong.
 You are invited to my birthday celebration.

Illocutionary acts can be categorized into common families of speech acts. The following is John
Searle’s categories of illocutionary acts. Each has its own illocutionary purpose.
1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of
a proposition like boasting, suggesting, asserting, concluding, and swearing
Example: I am still the best student in class.

2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee
perform an action by way of commanding, requesting, begging, inviting, pleading, or insisting
Example: Take me to that place.

3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to future actions such as
promising, planning, vowing, and betting
Example: I will take you to school every day starting tomorrow.

4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or
emotional reactions. Some examples of expressive acts are thanking, apologizing,
welcoming, and deploring
Example: I am so sorry for not wearing the complete uniform today.

5. Declarative – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in an external situation. Simply
put, declarations bring into existence, or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. Some
examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, and bidding
Example: You are fired!

Perlocutionary Acts
Perlocutionary act is the third aspect of speech acts. It is a speech act that produces an effect,
intended or not, achieved in an addressee by a speaker’s utterance. Perlocutionary act can bring
about a consequence to the audience. They have an effect to the listener in feelings, thoughts, or
actions such as changing someone’s mind. Unlike illocutionary act, perlocutionary act can project
a sense of fear in the audience.
Consider the following utterance, “By the way, I have a CD of Debussy. Would you like to borrow
it?” Its illocutionary function is an offer, while its intended perlocutionary effect might be to impress
the listener, or to show a friendly attitude, or to encourage interest in a particular type of music.