‭CORNELL NOTES - CHAPTER 9‬

‭CHAPTER 9: LANGUAGE‬ ‭ spanol, Edrian‬

E
‭Familara, Rose Shiella‬
‭Javier, Herianne‬
‭Palavino, Pauline Joy A.‬
‭Palma, Ella‬

‭Key Notes:‬ ‭Notes:‬

‭PSYCHOLINGUISTICS‬ i‭s‬‭the‬‭psychology‬‭of‬‭our‬‭language‬‭as‬‭it‬‭interacts‬‭with‬‭the‬
‭human‬ ‭mind.‬ ‭It‬ ‭considers‬ ‭both‬ ‭the‬ ‭production‬ ‭and‬
‭comprehension‬ ‭of‬ ‭language‬ ‭(Gernsbacher‬ ‭&‬ ‭Kaschak,‬
‭2003a, 2003b; Wheeldon, Meyer, & Smith, 2003).‬

‭LANGUAGE‬ i‭s‬ ‭the‬ ‭organized‬ ‭means‬ ‭of‬ ‭combining‬ ‭words‬ ‭to‬

‭communicate with those around us.‬
(‭ the words we use may be written,‬
‭spoken, or otherwise signed)‬

‭PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE‬

‭1.‬ ‭Communicative‬ ‭ anguage‬ ‭permits‬‭us‬‭to‬‭communicate‬‭with‬‭one‬‭or‬‭more‬

L
‭people who share our language.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Arbitrarily Symbolic‬ ‭ anguage‬ ‭creates‬ ‭an‬ ‭arbitrary‬ ‭relationship‬ ‭between‬ ‭a‬
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‭symbol‬ ‭and‬ ‭what‬ ‭it‬ ‭represents:‬ ‭an‬ ‭idea,‬ ‭a‬ ‭thing,‬ ‭a‬
‭process, a relationship, or a description.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Regularly Structured‬ ‭ anguage‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭structure;‬ ‭only‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭patterned‬
L
‭-‬ ‭ rinciple of‬
P ‭arrangements‬ ‭of‬ ‭symbols‬ ‭have‬ ‭meaning,‬ ‭and‬ ‭different‬
‭Conventionality‬ ‭arrangements yield different meanings.‬
‭-‬ ‭Principle of Contrast‬

‭4.‬ S
‭ tructured at Multiple‬ ‭ hee‬ ‭structure‬ ‭of‬ ‭language‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭analyzed‬ ‭at‬ ‭more‬
T
‭Levels‬ ‭than‬ ‭one‬ ‭level‬ ‭(e.g.,‬ ‭in‬ ‭sounds,‬ ‭meaning‬ ‭units,‬ ‭words,‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ ounds‬
S ‭and phrases).‬
‭-‬ ‭Words‬
‭-‬ ‭Sentences‬
‭-‬ ‭Larger Units of‬
‭Language (e.g,‬
‭paragraph)‬

‭5.‬ P
‭ roductivity‬ ‭ ithin‬‭the‬‭limits‬‭of‬‭a‬‭linguistic‬‭structure,‬‭language‬‭users‬
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‭(Generativity)‬ ‭can‬ ‭produce‬ ‭novel‬ ‭utterances.‬ ‭The‬ ‭possibilities‬ ‭for‬
‭creating new utterances are virtually limitless.‬

‭6.‬ ‭Dynamics‬ ‭Languages constantly evolve.‬

‭BASIC COMPONENTS OF WORDS AND SENTENCES‬

‭Phoneme‬ I‭s‬‭the‬‭smallest‬‭unit‬‭of‬‭speech‬‭sound‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬
‭distinguish one utterance from another.‬
‭CORNELL NOTES - CHAPTER 9‬

‭ HONEMICS:‬‭the‬‭study‬‭of‬‭the‬‭particular‬‭phonemes‬‭of‬‭a‬
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‭language.‬

‭ HONETICS:‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭study‬ ‭of‬ ‭how‬ ‭to‬ ‭produce‬ ‭or‬

P
‭combine‬ ‭speech‬ ‭sounds‬ ‭or‬ ‭to‬ ‭represent‬ ‭them‬ ‭with‬
‭written symbols (Roca, 2003).‬

‭Morphemes‬ t‭he‬ ‭smallest‬ ‭unit‬ ‭of‬ ‭meaning‬ ‭within‬ ‭a‬ ‭particular‬

‭(root words)‬ ‭language.‬

‭Lexicon‬ i‭s‬‭the‬‭entire‬‭set‬‭of‬‭morphemes‬‭in‬‭a‬‭given‬‭language‬‭or‬‭in‬
‭(vocabulary)‬ ‭a given person’s linguistic repertoire.‬

‭Sentences‬ ‭ yntax‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭way‬‭we‬‭put‬‭words‬‭together‬‭to‬‭form‬
S
‭sentences.‬ ‭It‬‭plays‬‭a‬‭major‬‭role‬‭in‬‭our‬‭understanding‬‭of‬
‭Parts:‬ ‭language.‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ oun Phrase‬
N
‭-‬ ‭Verb Phrase‬ ‭A sentence at least has two parts:‬
‭-‬ ‭Noun‬ ‭phrase‬‭,‬‭which‬‭contains‬‭at‬‭least‬‭one‬‭noun‬
‭(like‬ ‭“man”)‬ ‭and‬ ‭includes‬ ‭all‬ ‭the‬ ‭relevant‬
‭descriptors of the noun (like “big” or“fast”).‬
‭-‬ ‭Verb‬‭phrase‬‭(predicate),‬‭which‬‭contains‬‭at‬‭least‬
‭one‬ ‭verb‬ ‭and‬ ‭whatever‬ ‭the‬ ‭verb‬ ‭acts‬ ‭on‬ ‭(like‬
‭“runs”), if anything.‬

‭LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION‬

‭Understanding words‬ ‭Speech perception‬

‭-the‬ ‭process‬ ‭by‬ ‭which‬ ‭the‬ ‭sounds‬ ‭of‬ ‭language‬ ‭are‬
‭heard, interpreted, and understood‬

‭Coarticulation‬
‭ ne‬ ‭or‬ ‭more‬ ‭phonemes‬ ‭begin‬ ‭while‬ ‭other‬ ‭phonemes‬
O
‭still are being produced‬

‭Speech segmentation‬ t‭he‬ ‭process‬ ‭of‬ ‭trying‬ ‭to‬ ‭separate‬ ‭the‬‭continuous‬‭sound‬

‭stream into distinct words‬
‭CORNELL NOTES - CHAPTER 9‬

‭ he View of Speech Perception‬

T ‭Stages of neural processing‬
‭as Ordinary‬
‭●‬ s ‭ peech‬ ‭sounds‬ ‭are‬ ‭analyzed‬ ‭into‬ ‭their‬
‭ emplate-matching or‬
T ‭components.‬
‭feature-detection processes‬ ‭●‬ ‭these‬‭components‬‭are‬‭analyzed‬‭for‬‭patterns‬‭and‬
‭matched to a prototype or template‬

‭Categorical Perception‬
‭discontinuous categories of speech sounds‬

-‭ the‬ ‭perception‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭consonant–vowel‬ ‭combinations‬

‭ba, da, and ga‬

‭ nderstanding Meaning:‬
U
‭Semantics‬ ‭the study of meaning in a language.‬

‭‬ D
● ‭ enotation‬ -‭ ‬ t‭he strict dictionary definition of a word.‬
‭●‬ ‭Connotation‬ ‭-‬ ‭is‬‭a‬‭word’s‬‭emotional‬‭overtones‬‭presuppositions,‬
‭and other nonexplicit meanings.‬

‭Understanding Sentences‬

‭Syntax‬ ‭ n‬‭equally‬‭important‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭psychology‬‭of‬‭language‬
a
‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭analysis‬ ‭of‬ ‭linguistics‬ ‭structure.‬ ‭Not‬ ‭only‬ ‭words‬
‭convey‬ ‭meaning;‬ ‭the‬ ‭structure‬ ‭of‬ ‭sentences‬ ‭does‬ ‭as‬
‭well.‬

‭Grammar‬ I‭s‬ ‭the‬ ‭study‬ ‭of‬ ‭language‬ ‭in‬ ‭terms‬ ‭of‬ ‭noticing‬ ‭regular‬
‭patterns.‬
‭Two kinds:‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ rescriptive Grammar‬
P ‭ rescriptive‬ ‭Grammar‬‭:‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭study‬ ‭of‬ ‭language‬ ‭in‬
P
‭-‬ ‭Descriptive Grammar‬ ‭terms of noticing regular patterns.‬

‭ escriptive‬ ‭Grammar‬‭:‬ ‭focuses‬ ‭on‬ ‭describing‬ ‭the‬

D
‭language that is used.‬

‭Syntactical Priming‬ i‭s‬ ‭the‬ ‭facilitation‬ ‭of‬ ‭processing‬ ‭that‬ ‭occurs‬ ‭when‬ ‭a‬
‭sentence‬ ‭has‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭syntactic‬ ‭form‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭preceding‬
‭CORNELL NOTES - CHAPTER 9‬

‭ entence.‬‭Syntactic‬‭priming‬‭occurs‬‭reliably‬‭in‬‭studies‬‭of‬
s
‭language production.‬

‭Speech Errors‬ ‭ an‬ ‭involve‬ ‭entire‬ ‭or‬ ‭phonological‬ ‭components‬ ‭within‬

c
‭words.‬ ‭Word‬ ‭level‬ ‭errors‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭several‬ ‭subtypes,‬
‭including;‬ ‭substitutions‬ ‭of‬ ‭words‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭utterance,‬
‭additions‬ ‭of‬ ‭unintended‬ ‭words,‬ ‭deletion‬ ‭of‬ ‭intended‬
‭words, and shifts in the order of intended words.‬

‭●‬ ‭Substitution Error‬

‭ xample: producing "the table is on the napkin" instead‬

e
‭of "the napkin is on the table".‬

‭READING‬
‭It is a complex process that involves, at minimum, perception, language, memory, thinking, and‬
‭intelligence.‬

‭Perceptual Issues in Reading‬ ‭ ‬‭basic‬‭but‬‭important‬‭step‬‭in‬‭reading‬‭is‬‭the‬‭activation‬‭of‬

A
‭our ability to recognize letters.‬

‭Two Basic Kinds of Processes‬ ‭1.‬‭Lexical Processes‬

➔
‭ ‬‭​used‬‭to‬‭identify‬ ‭letters‬ ‭and‬‭words;‬‭activate‬‭relevant‬
‭information in memory about these words‬

‭ .‬‭Comprehension Processes‬
2
‭➔ used to make sense of the text as a whole‬

‭Fixations‬ I‭t‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭point‬ ‭where‬ ‭your‬ ‭eyes‬ ‭take‬ ‭a‬ ‭rest‬ ‭during‬ ‭the‬
‭reading process.‬

‭Word-Superiority Effect‬ ‭ etters‬ ‭are‬ ‭read‬ ‭more‬ ‭easily‬ ‭when‬ ‭they‬‭are‬‭embedded‬

L
‭in‬‭words‬‭than‬‭when‬‭they‬‭are‬‭presented‬‭either‬‭in‬‭isolation‬
‭or with letters that do not form words.‬

‭ his‬ ‭effect‬ ‭is‬ ‭sometimes‬ ‭called‬ ‭the‬ ‭Reicher-Wheeler‬

T
‭effect.‬

‭Sentence-Superiority Effect‬ ‭ eople‬‭take‬‭about‬‭twice‬‭as‬‭long‬‭to‬‭read‬‭unrelated‬‭words‬

P
‭as to read words in a sentence.‬

‭Teaching How to Read‬ ‭1.‬‭Phonics Approach‬

➔
‭ ‬ ‭Children‬ ‭are‬ ‭taught‬ ‭how‬ ‭the‬ ‭letters‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭alphabet‬
‭sound‬‭and‬‭then‬‭progressively‬‭put‬‭them‬‭together‬‭to‬‭read‬
‭two letters together, then three, and so on.‬

‭2.‬‭Whole-Word Approach‬
➔
‭ ‬ ‭Teaches‬ ‭children‬ ‭to‬ ‭recognize‬ ‭whole‬ ‭words,‬ ‭without‬
‭the analysis of the sounds that make up the word.‬
‭CORNELL NOTES - CHAPTER 9‬

‭3.‬‭Whole-Language Approach‬
➔
‭ ‬ ‭Argues‬ ‭that‬ ‭words‬ ‭are‬ ‭pieces‬ ‭of‬ ‭sentences‬ ‭and‬
‭reading‬ ‭should‬ ‭therefore‬ ‭be‬ ‭taught‬ ‭in‬ ‭connection‬ ‭with‬
‭entire sentences.‬

‭Dyslexia‬ ‭ he‬ ‭difficulty‬ ‭in‬

T ‭deciphering,‬ ‭reading,‬ ‭and‬
‭comprehending text.‬

‭Impaired Processes:‬
‭ honological‬ ‭awareness‬ ‭=‬ ‭awareness‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭sound‬
P
‭structure of spoken language‬
‭Phonological reading‬‭= reading words in isolation‬
‭Phonological‬ ‭coding‬ ‭=‬ ‭remembering‬ ‭strings‬ ‭of‬
‭phonemes that are sometimes confusing‬
‭​Lexical‬ ‭access‬ ‭=‬ ‭ability‬ ‭to‬ ‭retrieve‬ ‭phonemes‬ ‭from‬
‭long-term memory‬

‭Kinds of Dyslexia‬ ‭1‬‭. Developmental Dyslexia‬

‭ he‬‭most‬‭well-known‬‭kind‬‭of‬‭dyslexia‬‭which‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬
T
‭difficulty in reading that starts in childhood.‬

‭ .‬‭Acquired Dyslexia‬
2
‭It is typically caused by traumatic brain damage.‬

‭UNDERSTANDING CONVERSATIONS AND ESSAYS: DISCOURSE‬

‭ omprehending Known‬
C ‭ emantic‬ ‭encoding‬ ‭-‬ ‭the‬ ‭process‬ ‭by‬ ‭which‬ ‭we‬
S
‭Words: Retrieving Word‬ ‭translate‬ ‭sensory‬‭information‬‭(i.e.,‬‭the‬‭written‬‭words‬‭we‬
‭Meaning from Memory‬ ‭see) into a meaningful representation.‬
‭Lexical‬ ‭access‬ ‭-‬ ‭we‬ ‭identify‬ ‭words‬ ‭based‬ ‭on‬ ‭letter‬
‭combinations‬

‭How to engage in Semantic Encoding:‬

‭ .‬
1 ‭The‬ ‭reader‬ ‭needs‬ ‭to‬ ‭know‬ ‭what‬ ‭a‬ ‭given‬ ‭word‬
‭means.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Knowledge‬‭of‬‭word‬‭meanings‬‭(vocabulary)‬‭closely‬
‭relates to the ability to comprehend text.‬
‭-‬ ‭People‬ ‭who‬ ‭are‬ ‭knowledgeable‬ ‭about‬ ‭word‬
‭meanings tend to be good readers and vice versa.‬
‭3.‬ ‭readers‬‭simply‬‭cannot‬‭understand‬‭text‬‭well‬‭unless‬
‭they know the meanings of the component words.‬

‭ omprehending Unknown‬
C ‭ arger‬ ‭vocabulary‬ ‭contributes‬ ‭to‬ ‭text‬‭comprehension‬‭is‬
L
‭Words: Deriving Word‬ ‭through learning from context.‬
‭Meanings from Context‬
‭ EARCH FOR MEANING‬
S
‭1. dictionaries or teachers‬
‭2. formulate meaning‬
‭CORNELL NOTES - CHAPTER 9‬

‭ omprehending Ideas:‬
C ‭ hat‬ ‭factors‬ ‭influence‬ ‭our‬ ‭comprehension‬ ‭of‬ ‭what‬
W
‭Propositional Representations‬ ‭we read?‬
‭Walter‬ ‭Kintsch‬ ‭has‬ ‭developed‬ ‭a‬ ‭model‬ ‭of‬ ‭text‬
‭comprehension based on his observations:‬
‭According‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭model,‬ ‭as‬ ‭we‬ ‭read,‬ ‭we‬ ‭try‬ ‭to‬ ‭hold‬ ‭as‬
‭much‬ ‭information‬ ‭as‬ ‭possible‬ ‭in‬ ‭working‬ ‭memory‬ ‭to‬
‭understand‬ ‭what‬ ‭we‬ ‭read.‬ ‭We‬ ‭do‬ ‭not‬ ‭try,‬ ‭however,‬ ‭to‬
‭store‬ ‭the‬ ‭exact‬ ‭words‬ ‭we‬ ‭read‬ ‭in‬ ‭working‬ ‭memory.‬
‭Rather,‬ ‭we‬ ‭try‬ ‭to‬ ‭extract‬ ‭the‬ ‭fundamental‬ ‭ideas‬ ‭from‬
‭groups‬ ‭of‬ ‭words.‬ ‭We‬ ‭then‬ ‭store‬ ‭those‬ ‭fundamental‬
‭ideas‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭simplifed‬ ‭representational‬ ‭form‬ ‭in‬ ‭working‬
‭memory.‬
‭Representational‬ ‭form‬ ‭for‬ ‭these‬ ‭fundamental‬ ‭ideas‬ ‭is‬
‭the proposition.‬
‭EXAMPLE:‬ ‭“Penguins‬ ‭are‬ ‭birds,‬ ‭and‬ ‭penguins‬ ‭can‬ ‭fly”‬
‭contains‬ ‭two‬‭propositions.‬‭You‬‭can‬‭verify‬‭independently‬
‭whether‬ ‭penguins‬ ‭are‬ ‭birds‬ ‭and‬ ‭whether‬ ‭penguins‬ ‭can‬
‭fly.‬‭In‬‭general,‬‭propositions‬‭assert‬‭either‬‭an‬‭action‬‭(e.g.,‬
‭flying)‬‭or‬‭a‬‭relationship‬‭(e.g.,‬‭membership‬‭of‬‭penguins‬‭in‬
‭the category of birds).‬

‭ omprehending Text Based on‬ W

C ‭ hat‬ ‭we‬ ‭remember‬ ‭from‬ ‭a‬ ‭given‬ ‭passage‬ ‭of‬ ‭text‬ ‭o!en‬
‭Context and Point of View‬ ‭depends on our point of view.‬

‭ epresenting Text in Mental‬

R ‭ nce‬ ‭words‬‭are‬‭semantically‬‭encoded‬‭or‬‭their‬‭meaning‬
O
‭Models‬ ‭is‬ ‭derived‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭use‬ ‭of‬‭context,‬‭the‬‭reader‬‭still‬‭must‬
‭create a mental model of the text that is being read.‬