Module-2

Dr.K.Krishna Naik
Assistant Professor
 Syllabus
 Capacity of Wireless Channels:
 Radio Wave Propagation,
 Transmit and Receive Signal Models,
 Free-Space Path Loss,
 Indoor Attenuation Factors,
 Simplified Path-Loss Model,
 Shadow Fading,
 Combined Path Loss and Shadowing,
 Outage Probability under Path Loss and Shadowing,
 Cell Coverage Area,
 Capacity in AWGN,
 Capacity of Flat Fading Channels,
 Channel and System Model,
 Channel Distribution Information Known,
 Channel Side Information at Receiver,
 Channel Side Information at Transmitter and Receiver,
 Capacity with Receiver Diversity,
 Capacity Comparisons,
 Capacity of Frequency-Selective Fading Channels,
 Time-Invariant Channels, Time-Varying Channels.
 Channel Nature
 The wireless/radio channel poses a severe challenge as a medium for
reliable high-speed communication.
 Not only is it susceptible to noise, interference, and other channel
impediments, but these impediments change over time in unpredictable
ways as a result of user movement and environment dynamics.
 we characterize the variation in received signal power over distance due
to path loss and shadowing.
 Path loss is caused by dissipation of the power radiated by the transmitter as well as by
effects of the propagation channel.
 Path-loss models generally assume that path loss is the same at a given transmit–
receive distance (assuming that the path-loss model does not include shadowing
effects).
 Shadowing is caused by obstacles between the transmitter and receiver
that attenuate signal power through absorption, reflection, scattering, and
diffraction.
 When the attenuation is strong, the signal is blocked.
 Received power variation due to path loss occurs over long distances (100–1000 m),
 whereas variation due to shadowing occurs over distances that are proportional to the
 Propagation Effects.
 The variations in received power due to path loss and shadowing
occur over relatively large distances, these variations are
sometimes referred to as large-scale propagation effects.
 These variations occur over very short distances, on the order of
the signal wavelength, and so are sometimes referred to as
small-scale propagation effects.
 The variations can be roughly divided into two types:
 Large-scale fading, due to path loss of signal as a function of distance and
shadowing by large objects such as buildings and hills. This occurs as the
mobile moves through a distance of the order of the cell size, and is
typically frequency independent.
 Small-scale fading, due to the constructive and destructive interference of
the multiple signal paths between the transmitter and receiver. This
occurs at the spatial scale of the order of the carrier wavelength, and is
frequency dependent.
 Large

Small

Figure illustrates the ratio of the received-to-transmit power in decibels1(dB)

versus log distance for the combined effects of path loss, shadowing, and
multipath
Radio Wave Propagation
 Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 We assume the transmission distances on the earth
are small enough not to be affected by the earth’s
curvature.
 All the transmitted and received signals that we
consider are real.
 That is because modulators are built using oscillators
that generate real sinusoids (not complex
exponentials).
 Though we model communication channels using a
complex frequency response for analytical simplicity,
in fact the channel simply introduces an amplitude
and phase change at each frequency of the
transmitted signal so that the received signal is also
real.
 Real modulated and demodulated signals are often
represented as the real part of a complex signal in
order to facilitate analysis.
 This model gives rise to the equivalent lowpass
representation of bandpass signals, which we use for
our transmitted and received signals.
Transmit and Receive Signal Models

 where u(t) = sI(t)+jsQ(t) is a complex baseband signal

with
 in-phase component sI(t) = Re{u(t)},
 quadrature component sQ(t) = Im{u(t)},

 bandwidth Bu, and power Pu.

 The signal u(t) is called the complex envelope or
equivalent lowpass signal of s(t).
 We call u(t) the complex envelope of s(t) because the
magnitude of u(t) is the magnitude of s(t).
 The phase of u(t) includes any carrier phase offset.
 The equivalent lowpass representation of bandpass
signals with bandwidth B << fc allows signal
manipulation via u(t) irrespective of the carrier
frequency.
 The power in the transmitted signal s(t) is Pt = Pu/2.
 Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 The received signal will have a similar form plus an additional noise
component:

 where n(t) is the noise process introduced by the channel and the
equivalent lowpass signal v(t) depends on the channel through which
s(t) propagates.
 if s(t) is transmitted through a time-invariant channel then
v(t) = u(t) ∗ c(t),
 where c(t) is the equivalent lowpass channel impulse response for the channel.

 The received signal consists of two terms, the first term corresponding
to the transmitted signal after propagation through the channel, and
the second term corresponding to the noise added by the channel.
 The signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR) of the received signal is defined as
the power of the first term divided by the power of the second
term.
 Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 When the transmitter or receiver is moving, the received signal will have
a Doppler shift of f D = v cos θ/λ associated with it,
 where θ is the arrival angle of the received signal relative to the direction of motion,
 v is the receiver velocity toward the transmitter in the direction of motion, and
 λ = c/fc is the signal wavelength (c = 3 · 108 m/s is the speed of light).
 The Doppler shift results from the fact that transmitter or receiver
movement over a short time interval t causes a slight change in
distance Δd = v Δt cos θ that the transmitted signal needs to travel to
the receiver.
 The phase change due to this path-length difference is Δφ = 2πv Δt cos
θ/λ.
 The Doppler frequency is then obtained from the relationship between
signal frequency and phase:

 If the receiver is moving toward the transmitter (i.e., if −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2),

then the Doppler frequency is positive; otherwise, it is negative.
 Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 Suppose s(t) of power Pt is transmitted through a given channel with
corresponding received signal r(t) of power Pr , where Pr is averaged over
any random variations due to shadowing.
 We define the linear path loss of the channel as the ratio of transmit
power to receive power:

 We define the path loss of the channel as the value of the linear path
loss in decibels or, equivalently, the difference in dB between the
transmitted and received signal power:

 In general, the dB path loss is a nonnegative number; the channel does

not contain active elements, and thus it can only attenuate the signal.
 The dB path gain is defined as the negative of the dB path loss:
PG = −PL = 10 log10(Pr/Pt ) dB,
 which is generally a negative number.
 Free-Space Path Loss
 Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a receiver located at
distance d from the transmitter.
 Assume there are no obstructions between the transmitter and receiver
and that the signal propagates along a straight line between the two.
 The channel model associated with this transmission is called a line-of-
sight (LOS) channel, and the corresponding received signal is called the
LOS signal or ray.
 Free-space path loss introduces a complex scale factor, resulting in the
received signal

 Where √Gl is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field
radiation patterns in the LOS direction.
 The phase shift e −j2πd/λ is due to the distance d that the wave travels.
 The power in the transmitted signal s(t) is Pt, so the ratio of received to
transmitted power.
 Free-Space Path Loss
 Thus, the received signal power falls off in inverse proportion to the
square of the distance d between the transmit and receive antennas.
 The received signal power is also proportional to the square of the signal
wavelength, so as the carrier frequency increases the received power
decreases.
 This dependence of received power on the signal wavelength λ is due to
the effective area of the receive antenna
 However, directional antennas can be designed so that receive power is
an increasing function of frequency for highly directional links.
 The received power can be expressed in dBm as
 Indoor Attenuation Factors
 Indoor environments differ widely in the materials used for walls and floors, the
layout of rooms, hallways, windows, and open areas, the location and material in
obstructing objects, the size of each room, and the number of floors.
 All of these factors have a significant impact on path loss in an indoor
environment.
 Thus, it is difficult to find generic models that can be accurately applied to
determine empirical path loss in a specific indoor setting.
 Indoor path-loss models must accurately capture the effects of attenuation across
floors due to partitions as well as between floors.
 Measurements across a wide range of building characteristics and signal
frequencies indicate that the attenuation per floor is greatest for the first floor that
is passed through and decreases with each subsequent floor.
 Specifically, at 900 MHz, the attenuation when transmitter and receiver are
separated by a single floor ranges from 10–20 dB, while subsequent attenuation is
6–10 dB per floor for the next three floors and then a few decibels per floor for
more than four floors.
 At higher frequencies the attenuation loss per floor is typically larger.
 The attenuation per floor is thought to decrease as the number of attenuating
floors increases because of the scattering up the side of the building and
reflections from adjacent buildings.
 The experimental data for floor and partition loss can be added to an
analytical or empirical dB path-loss model PL(d ) as

 where FAFi represents the floor attenuation factor for the ith floor
traversed by the signal
 PAFi represents the partition attenuation factor associated with the ith
partition traversed by the signal.
 The number of floors and partitions traversed by the signal are Nf and
Np, respectively.
 Simplified Path-Loss Model
 The complexity of signal propagation makes it difficult to obtain a single model
that characterizes path loss accurately across a range of different environments.
 Accurate path-loss models can be obtained from complex analytical models or
empirical measurements when tight system specifications must be met or the
best locations for base stations or access-point layouts must be determined.
 However, for general trade-off analysis of various system designs it is sometimes
best to use a simple model that captures the essence of signal propagation
without resorting to complicated path-loss models, which are only
approximations to the real channel anyway.
 Thus, the following simplified model for path loss as a function of distance is
commonly used for system design:
The values for K, d0,
and γ can be obtained
to approximate either
an analytical or
empirical model

K is a unitless constant that depends on the antenna characteristics

and the average channel attenuation, d0 is a reference distance for the
antenna far field, and γ is the path-loss exponent.
 Because of scattering phenomena in the antenna near field, the model
(above) is generally valid only at transmission distances d > d0, where
d0 is typically assumed to be 1–10 m indoors and 10–100 m outdoors.
 When the simplified model is used to approximate empirical
measurements, the value of K<1 is sometimes set to the free-space path
gain at distance d0 assuming omnidirectional antennas:

 this assumption is supported by empirical data for free-space path loss

at a transmission distance of 100 m.
 Alternatively, K can be determined by measurement at d0 or optimized
(alone or together with γ ) to minimize the mean-square error (MSE)
between the model and the empirical measurements.
 The value of γ depends on the propagation environment: for propagation
that approximately follows a free-space or two-ray model, γ is set to 2 or
4 (respectively).
 The value of γ for more complex environments can be obtained via a
minimum mean-square error (MMSE) fit to empirical measurements.
 Shadow Fading
 A signal transmitted through a wireless channel will typically experience
random variation due to blockage from objects in the signal path, giving
rise to random variations of the received power at a given distance.
 Such variations are also caused by changes in reflecting surfaces and
scattering objects.
 Thus, a model for the random attenuation due to these effects is also
needed.
 The location, size, and dielectric properties of the blocking objects – as
well as the changes in reflecting surfaces and scattering objects that
cause the random attenuation are generally unknown, so statistical
models must be used to characterize this attenuation.
 The most common model for this additional attenuation is log-normal
shadowing.
 This model has been empirically confirmed to model accurately the
variation in received power in both outdoor and indoor radio propagation
environments
 Shadow Fading
 In the log-normal shadowing model, the ratio of transmit-to-receive power
ψ = Pt /Pr is assumed to be random with a log-normal distribution given
by

 where ξ = 10/ln10, μψdB is the mean of ψdB = 10 log10 ψ in decibels,

σψdB is the standard deviation of ψdB (also in dB).
 The mean can be based on an analytical model or empirical
measurements
 For empirical measurements, μψdB equals the empirical path loss,
since average attenuation from shadowing is already incorporated into
the measurements.
 For analytical models, μψdB must incorporate both the path loss (e.g.,
from a free-space or ray-tracing model) as well as average attenuation
from blockage.
 Alternatively, path loss can be treated separately from shadowing.
 A random variable with a log-normal distribution is called a log-normal
random variable.
 ψ is log-normal then the received power and received SNR will also be
log-normal, since these are just constant multiples of ψ.
 For received SNR the mean and standard deviation of this log-normal
random variable are also in decibels.
 For log-normal received power the random variable has units of power,
so its mean and standard deviation will be in dBm or dBW instead of
dB.
 The mean of ψ (the linear average path gain) can be obtained as

 The conversion from the linear mean (in dB) to the log mean (in dB) is as

 Performance in log-normal shadowing is typically parameterized by the log mean

μψdB , which is referred to as the average dB path loss and is given in units of
dB.
 With a change of variables we see that the distribution of the dB value of ψ is
Gaussian with mean μψdB and standard deviation σψdB
 Combined Path Loss and Shadowing
 Models for path loss and shadowing can be superimposed to capture
power falloff versus distance along with the random attenuation about
this path loss from shadowing.
 This combined model,
 average dB path loss (μψdB ) is characterized by the path-loss model
 shadow fading, with a mean of 0 dB, creates variations about this path
loss,. Specifically, this curve plots the combination
 of the simplified path-loss model and the log-normal shadowing random
process
 For this combined model, the ratio of received to transmitted power in dB
is given by

 where ψdB is a Gauss-distributed random variable with mean zero and variance
σ2ψdB .
 Outage Probability under Path Loss and
Shadowing
 The combined effects of path loss and shadowing have important
implications for wireless system design.
 In wireless systems there is typically a target minimum received power
level Pmin below which performance becomes unacceptable (e.g., the voice
quality in a cellular system becomes too poor to understand).
 However, with shadowing the received power at any given distance from
the transmitter is log-normally distributed with some probability of falling
below Pmin.
 We define outage probability Pout(Pmin, d) under path loss and shadowing
to be the probability that the received power at a given distance d, Pr(d ),
falls below
Pmin: Pout(Pmin, d) = p(Pr(d) < Pmin).
For the combined path-loss and shadowing model
 Cell Coverage Area
 The cell coverage area in a cellular system is defined as the expected
percentage of locations within a cell where the received power at these
locations is above a given minimum.
 Consider a base station inside a circular cell of a given radius R.
 All mobiles within the cell require some minimum received SNR for
acceptable performance.
 Assuming a given model for noise, the SNR requirement translates to a
minimum received power Pmin throughout the cell.
 The transmit power at the base station is designed for an average
received power at the cell boundary of PR, averaged over the shadowing
variations.
 However, shadowing will cause some locations within the cell to have
received power below PR, and others will have received power exceeding
PR.
 Cell Coverage should be depend upon the following:
 Path Loss
 Shadowing
 Outage Probability
 Cellular Mobile Communications
 The Cellular Approach
 Divides the Entire Service Area into Several Small Cells
 Reuse the Frequency
 Basic Components of a Cellular Telephone System
 Cellular Mobile Phone: A light-weight hand-held set which is an
outcome of the marriage of Graham Bell’s Plain Old Telephone
Technology [1876] and Marconi’s Radio Technology [1894] [although a
very late delivery but very cute]
 Base Station: A Low Power Transmitter, other Radio Equipment
[Transceivers] plus a small Tower
 Mobile Switching Center [MSC] /Mobile Telephone Switching
Office[MTSO]
An Interface between Base Stations and the PSTN
Controls all the Base Stations in the Region and Processes User ID
and other Call Parameters
A typical MSC can handle up to 100,000+ Mobiles, and 5000+
Simultaneous Calls
Handles Handoff Requests, Call Initiation Requests, and all Billing &
System Maintenance Functions
Cellular Mobile Communication
 Telecom spectrum policy in India
 In India GSM technology works in the frequency bands of 900 and 1800 MHz
and CDMA technology works in the 800 MHz band.
 Presently, 100 MHz spectrum is earmarked for GSM services and 20 MHz is
earmarked for CDMA.
 Out of this 65 MHz of GSM band is still with Defence forces.
 The minimum amount of spectrum required for launching GSM services is 4.4
MHz.
 In 2002, the government introduced a subscriber linked spectrum allocation
process, which provided for a maximum allotment of 12.5 MHz of spectrum
per operator in each service area.
 The initial allotment of spectrum along with the licence was 4.4 MHz for GSM
and 2.5 MHz for CDMA.
 This could be further scaled up to 6.2 MHz for GSM and 5 MHz for CDMA
operators depending on availability and the operator’s ability to justify the need
for it.
 Cellular Systems
 The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of
spectral congestion and user capacity.
 It offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation without any major
technological changes.
 The cellular concept has the following system level ideas
 RF spectrum is a valuable and scarce commodity
 Cellular network divides coverage area into cells, each served by its own
base station transceiver and antenna
 Low (er) power transmitters, transmission range determines cell boundary,
Replacing a single, high power transmitter with many low power transmitters,
each providing coverage to only a small area.
 Cells separated by a sufficiently large distance to avoid mutual interference
can be assigned the same channel group among co-channel cells, RF
spectrum divided into distinct groups of channels, Adjacent cells are (usually)
assigned different channel groups to avoid interference
 Neighboring cells are assigned different groups of channels in order to
minimize interference. The same set of channels is then reused at different
geographical locations.
 Frequency reuse
 When designing a cellular mobile communication system, it is
important to provide good coverage and services in a high
user-density area.
 Reuse can be done once the total interference from all users
in the cells using the same frequency (co-channel cell) for
transmission suffers from sufficient attenuation. Factors need
to be considered include:
 Geographical separation (path loss)
 Shadowing effect
 A cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels.
 S channels are divided among N cells, with each cell uses unique and disjoint
channels.
 If each cell is allocated a group of k channels, then
S=kN.
 Frequency Reuse Factor
 The band of frequency allocated for cellular system use can be reused with
different CLUSTERS. We mean by cluster here the configuration of cells over
which the complete frequency band is divided and this configuration of cells is
repeater over and over.
 The frequency reuse factor is defined as 1 over the number of cells in the
cluster of the system. Valid clusters are those that result in N cells with the
same frequency of a particular cell located at equal distance from it.
 Reusing frequencies by dividing the allocated band by a specific integer number
of cells and assigning each cell one division and then repeating the assignment
over and over produces a tradeoff between network capacity and reception
quality as follows:
 The higher the number of divisions of the spectrum over cells (higher cell‐reuse
factor), the lower the capacity of the network but the further away cells with
similar frequency allocations are located resulting in lower interference.
 The lower the number of divisions of the spectrum over cells (Lower cell‐reuse
factor), the higher the capacity of the network but the closer cells with similar
frequency allocations are located resulting in higher interference.
 Frequency Allocation Concepts
• Assume that the total frequency band allocated for a cellular system is
B Hz, and that each half‐duplex channel requires W Hz, the number of
full‐duplex channels S that the total band supports (one channel for
transmission and one for reception) is: S=B/2W
• Each cell is allocated a group of k channels, k  S .
• The S channels are divided among N cells. The total number of
available radio channels S  kN
• The N cells which use the complete set of channels is called cluster.
• The cluster can be repeated M times within the system.
• The total number of channels, C, is used as a measure of capacity
C  MkN  MS
• The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication M.
• Small N is desirable to maximize capacity.
• The frequency reuse factor is given by 1/ N
 Possible Cluster Sizes
• Hexagonal geometry has
– exactly six equidistance neighbors
– the lines joining the centers of any cell and each of its neighbors are
separated by multiples of 60 degrees.
• Only certain cluster sizes and cell layout are possible.
• The number of cells per cluster, N, can only have values which satisfy
N  i 2  ij  j 2
• Co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, ex, i=3 and j=2.

Where

Applying this equation for all possible values

of

and all possible values of

 Cell Footprint
 The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the cell
footprint.
 Irregular cell structure and irregular placing of the transmitter may
be acceptable in the initial system design. However as traffic grows,
where new cells and channels need to be added, it may lead to
inability to reuse frequencies because of co-channel interference.
 For systematic cell planning, a regular shape is assumed for the
footprint.
 Coverage contour should be circular. However it is impractical
because it provides ambiguous areas with either multiple or no
coverage.
 Due to economic reasons, the hexagon has been chosen due to its
maximum area coverage.
 Hence, a conventional cellular layout is often defined by a uniform
grid of regular hexagons.
Cell Footprint
Cell Footprint
 Let us define the cell radius R
to be the distance from the
center point of the cell to any
of its corners as shown in the
figure.
 Note that the edge length of
the cell is equal to cell radius
because of the hexagonal
shape, while the line from the
center to mid point of any
edge is equal to
Cell Footprint
 Knowing the relation between i, j, and N,  If we rotate this configuration by 90°
we can easily find distance between the Clockwise, and set to the origin to be the
center points of two co‐channel cells (cells center point of Cell 1, we get the following:
with the same frequency band) in terms of  To compute the distance D, we need to
I and j. compute X and Y, or simply X1, X2, and Y
 Consider any two co‐channel cells. We will shown in the above figure. Once these are
take for simplicity a cell and its co‐channel found, the distance is computed easily using
cell that is located to its top‐left location Pythagoras Theorem.
as shown in the below figure.
Cell Footprint

Q= D/R
Co-Channel Interference and System
Capacity
 Computation of Co-Channel Interference
in Different Configurations
 To compute the Forward channel SIR, we use equation (PR) to compute the Signal
power and again use equation (PR) to compute the Interference power as follows

 The performance of a system is usually measured in terms of the minimum SIR, which
occurs at the corners of the cell providing service to the mobile station.
 The distance in this worst case of serving tower to the mobile station is R while the
distance from the co‐channel cell towers to the mobile station are obtained by finding
the Cartesian distances of the co‐channel cell tower coordinates
Designing a cellular system
 The cluster size must satisfy: N = i2 + ij + j2 where i, j are
non-negative integers.

where Q is the co-channel reuse ratio

Cell coverage
 The mean signal level at any distance is determined by
path loss and the variance is determined by the
resulting fading distribution (log-normal shadowing,
Rayleigh fading, Nakagami-m, etc).

 The proportion of locations covered at a given distance

(cell boundary, for example) from BS can be found
directly from the resultant signal pdf/cdf.

 The proportion of locations covered within a circular

region defined by a radius R (the cell area, for example)
can be found by integrating the resultant cdf over the
cell area.
Cell coverage --Cellular Traffic
 The basic consideration in the design of a cellular system
is the sizing of the system. Sizing has two components to
be considered.
 Coverage area
 Traffic handling capability
 After the system is sized, channels are assigned to cells
using the assignment schemes mentioned before.
 Cell coverage --Terminology in traffic theory
 Trunking : Exploits the statistical characteristics of the
users calling behavior. Any efficient communication system
relies on trunking to accommodate a large number of
users with a limited number of channels.
 Grade of service (GoS) : A user is allocated a channel on a
per call basis. GoS is a measure of the ability of a user to
access a trunked system during the busiest hour. It is
typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked (also
known as blocking probability).
 If the offered traffic exceeds the maximum possible
carried traffic, blocking occurs.
 There are two different strategies to be used.
 Blocked calls cleared
 Blocked calls delayed
Cell coverage
 Trunking efficiency : is defined as the carried traffic
intensity in Erlangs per channel, which is a value
between zero and one.
 It is a function of the number of channels per cell and the
specific GoS parameters.
 Trunking theory : is used to determine the number of
channels required to service a certain offered traffic at
a specific GoS.
 Call holding time (H) : the average duration of a call.
 Request rate (λ) : average number of call requests per
unit time.
Cell coverage --Traffic flow or intensity A
 Measured in Erlang, which is defined as the call minute per minute.
 Total offered traffic for such a system is given as
A = λ ⋅H
 System Expansion Techniques
 As demand for wireless services increases, the number
of channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes
insufficient to support the required number of users.
More channels must therefore be made available per
unit area.
 This can be accomplished by dividing each initial cell
area into a number of smaller cells, a technique known
as cell-splitting.
 It can also be accomplished by having more channels
per cell, i.e. by having a smaller reuse factor.
 However, to have a smaller reuse factor, the co-
channel interference must be reduced.
 This can be done by using antenna sectorization.
System Expansion Techniques--Cell
splitting
 Cell splitting increases the number of BSs in order to
increase capacity. There will be a corresponding
reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
 Cell splitting accommodates a modular growth
capability.
 This in turn leads to capacity increase essentially via a
system re-scaling of the cellular geometry without
any changes in frequency planning.
 Small cells lead to more cells/area which in turn leads
to increased traffic capacity.
System Expansion Techniques--Cell
splitting
 For new cells to be smaller in size, the transmit
power must be reduced.
 In theory, cell splitting could be repeated indefinitely.
 In practice it is limited
 By the cost of base stations
 Handover (fast and low speed traffic)
 Not all cells are split at the same time : practical
problems of BS sites, such as co-channel
interference exist
 Innovative channel assignment schemes must be
developed to address this problem for practical
systems.
System Expansion Techniques--
Cell splitting
System Expansion Techniques--Cell splitting
System Expansion Techniques --Sectorization
 Keep the cell radius but decrease the D/R ratio.
 In order to do this, we must reduce the relative
interference without increasing the transmit power.
 Sectorization relies on antenna placement and directivity
to reduce co-channel interference. Beams are kept within
either a 60° or a 120° sector.
System Expansion Techniques --Sectorization
 If we partition a cell into three
120° sectors, the number of co-
channel cells are reduced from 6
to 2 in the first tier.
 Using six sectors of 60°, we have
only one co-channel cell in the
first tier.
 Each sector is limited to only
using 1/3 or 1/6 of the available
channels. We therefore have a
decrease in trunking efficiency
and an increase in the number of
required antennas.
System Expansion Techniques –Micro/Macro cells
 Micro cells can be
introduced to alleviate
capacity problems caused
by “hotspots”.
 By clever channel
assignment, the reuse
factor is unchanged.
 As for cell splitting, there
will occur interference
problems when macro and
micro cells must co-exist.
 Channel Assignment Strategies
 Channel assignment affects the performance of the system, especially when it
comes to handoffs. There are two basic types of Channel assignments :
 Fixed Channel Assignment
 In this channel assignment, channels are pre‐allocated to different cells meaning
that each cell is assigned a specific number of channels and the frequencies of
these channels are set.
 Such a channel assignment has the following aspects:
 Any call attempts in a cell after all channels of that cell become occupied gets BLOCKED-
Sink (meaning that the caller gets a signal indicating that all channels are occupied),
 Very simple and requires least amount of processing,
 A variation of this method is the Borrowing Strategy:
 a. Cells in this strategy are allowed to borrow channels from adjacent cells if their
channels are fully occupied while adjacent cells have free channels,
 b. MSC (Mobile Switching Center) monitors the process and gives permission to
borrowing cell to borrow channels putting in mind (i) donating cell is not affected by the
borrowing process, (ii) no interference will occur by moving the channel from one cell to
another.
 Channel Assignment Strategies
 Dynamic Channel Assignment
 In this channel assignment, channels are NOT pre‐allocated to any cells
meaning that any channel can be allocated to any desired cell during the
operation of the system. Such a channel assignment has the following aspects:
 MSC monitors all cells and all channels,
 Each time a call request is made, serving BS requests a channel from the MSC,
 MSC runs an algorithm that takes into account:
 a. Possibility of future blocking in cells
 b. Frequency being used for channel
 c. The reuse distance of the channel
 MSC assigns a channel only if it is not used and if it will not cause co‐channel
interference with any cell in range,
 This algorithm provides higher capacity (less blocking), It requires huge computational
power,
 MSC collects real‐time data of channel occupancy, traffic distribution, and radio signal
strengths indicators (RSSI).
Handover / Handoff
 Occurs as a mobile moves into a different cell during an
existing call, or when going from one cellular system into
another.
 It must be user transparent, successful and not too frequent.
 Not only involves identifying a new BS, but also requires that
the voice and control signals be allocated to channels
associated with the new BS.
 Once a particular signal level Pmin is specified as the
minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality at the BS
receiver, a slightly stronger signal level PHO is used as a
threshold at which a handover is made.
 Handover / Handoff
 =handoff threshold -
Minimum acceptable
signal to maintain the call
  too small:
 Insufficient time
to complete handoff
before call is lost
 More call losses
  too large:
 Too many handoffs
 Burden for MSC
Handover indicator
 Each BS constantly monitors the signal strengths of all of
its reverse voice channels to determine the relative
location of each mobile user with respect to the BS.
 This information is forwarded to the MSC who makes
decisions regarding handover.
 Mobile assisted handover (MAHO) : The mobile station
measures the received power from surrounding BSs and
continually reports the results of these measurements to
the serving BS.
Prioritizing Handover
 Dropped call is considered a more serious event than
call blocking. Channel assignment schemes therefore
must give priority to handover requests.

 A fraction of the total available channels in a cell is

reserved only for handover requests. However, this
reduces the total carried traffic. Dynamic allocation
can improve this.

 Queuing of handover requests is another method to

decrease the probability of forced termination of a
call due to a lack of available channel. The time span
over which a handover is usually required leaves
room for queuing handover request.
 Practical handover
 High speed users and low speed
users have vastly different dwell
times which might cause a high
number of handover requests for
high speed users.
 This will result in interference and
traffic management problem.
 The Umbrella Cell approach will
help to solve this problems.
 High speed users are serviced by
large (macro) cells, while low
speed users are handled by small
(micro) cells.
Practical handover
 A hard handover does “break
before make”, ie. The old channel
connection is broken before the
new allocated channel
connection is setup.
 This obviously can cause call
dropping.
 In soft handover, we do “make
before break”, ie. The new
channel connection is established
before the old channel
connection is released.
 This is realized in CDMA where
also BS diversity is used to
improve boundary condition.
Dwell Time
 The time over which a user remains within one cell is called the dwell time.
 The statistics of the dwell time are important for the practical design of
handover algorithms.
 The statistics of the dwell time vary greatly, depending on the speed of the
user and the type of radio coverage.
 We usually notice two dwell time situations:
 1. For mobile units traveling on a highway
 These mobile units usually receive good coverage, Speeds are usually constant, Mobile
units usually face no obstacles, • Mobile units travel over fixed and well defined paths
 Because of these, the towers covering highways usually have random dwell times that are
concentrated around the average dwell time.
 2. For mobile units in dense environments:
 Mobile units often move randomly inside the cell, No clear paths for mobile units are
defined, Some mobile phones may never leave the coverage area of the cell for very long
periods of time (the owner of the phone lives in the cell).
 For these points, the towers covering dense environments have dwell times that are widely
spread around the average dwell time.
Deep Fading
 Multiple
Transmitting and Receiving Antennas
Special Diversity
Diversity Order
Power Profile
Delay Spread
What we learned as of now?
 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
 The performance of a digital communication system is
quantified by the probability of bit detection errors in the
presence of thermal noise.
 In the context of wireless communications, the main source
of thermal noise is addition of random signals arising from
the vibration of atoms in the receiver electronics.
 The term additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) originates
due to the following reasons:
 Additive
 White
 Gaussian
Additive
 The noise is additive, i.e., the
received signal is equal to the
transmitted signal plus noise.
 This gives the most widely used
equality in communication systems.
r(t)=s(t)+w(t)
 which is shown in Figure.
 Moreover, this noise is statistically
independent of the signal.
 Remember that the above equation
is highly simplified due to neglecting
every single imperfection a Tx
signal encounters, except the noise
itself.
 White
 Just like the white colour which is composed of all frequencies in the visible spectrum, white
noise refers to the idea that it has uniform power across the whole frequency band.
 As a consequence, the Power Spectral Density (PSD) of white noise is constant for all
frequencies ranging from −∞ to +∞, as shown in Figure.
 Nyquist investigated the properties of thermal noise and showed that its power spectral
density is equal to k×T,
 where k is a constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
 As a consequence, the noise power is directly proportional to the equivalent temperature at
the receiver frontend and hence the name thermal noise}. Historically, this constant
value indicated in Figure above is denoted as N0/2N0/2 Watts/Hz.
 When we view the constant spectral density as a rectangular sequence, its iDFT must be a
unit impulse.
 Furthermore, we saw that the iDFT of the spectral density is the auto-correlation function of
the signal.
 Combining these two facts, an implication of a constant spectral density is that the auto-
correlation of the noise in time domain is a unit impulse, i.e., it is zero for all non-zero time
shifts.
 In words, each noise sample in a sequence is uncorrelated with every other noise
sample in the same sequence. Therefore, mean value of a white noise is zero.
 Gaussian
 The probability distribution of the noise samples is Gaussian with a zero
mean,
 i.e., in time domain, the samples can acquire both positive and negative
values and in addition,
 the values close to zero have a higher chance of occurrence while the
values far away from zero are less likely to appear.
 This is shown in Figure.
 As a result, the time domain average of a large number of noise
samples is equal to zero .
 In reality, the ideal flat spectrum from −∞
to +∞ is true for frequencies of interest in
wireless communications (a few kHz to
hundreds of GHz) but not for higher
frequencies.
 Nevertheless, every wireless
communication system involves filtering
that removes most of the noise energy
outside the spectral band occupied by our
desired signal.
 Consequently after filtering, it is not
possible to distinguish whether the For a discrete signal with sampling
spectrum was ideally flat or partially flat rate FS, the sampling theorem dictates
outside the band of interest. that the bandwidth of a signal is
 To help in mathematical analysis of the constrained by a lowpass filter within
underlying waveforms resulting in closed- the range ±FS/2 to avoid aliasing.
form expressions — a holy grail of For the purpose of calculations, this
communication theory — it can be assumed filter is an ideal lowpass filter with
to be flat before filtering.
AWGN-AWGN Channel Capacity
Channel Capacity
Channel Coding Theorem
AWGN Channel
Sphere Packing Interpretation
Capacity Upper Bound
Achieving Capacity
Achieving Capacity
Achieving Capacity
Continuous Time AWGN Channel
Complex AWGN Channel Capacity
Power
Bandwidth
Bandwidth limited vs. Power limited
SIMO Channel
MISO Channel
Frequency Selective Channel
Parallel AWGN Channels
Independent Uses of Parallel Channels
Optimal Power Allocation
Water Filling

Filling
Frequency Selective Channel
Capacity
Water Filling over the Frequency
Spectrum
 Books
1. Andrea Goldsmith, “Wireless Communications”,
Cambridge University Press, 2005.
2. T.S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications,
Principles and Practice”, 2nd Ed., Pearson
Education, 2002.
3. Vijay K. Garg, “Wireless Communications and
Networking”, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
(Elsevier), 2007.
4. Aditya Jagannatham, Principles of Modern
Wireless Communication Systems, McGraw
Hill, 2016.
5. David Tse, Pramod Viswanath, “Fundamentals of
Wireless Communication”, Cambridge
University Press, 2005.