EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI

Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme

Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

TOPIC 1: MEASUREMENT
Sub-topic: Units of Measurement:
Outline:
− Basic S.I. units
− Derived units
− Conversion of units
− Significant figures
− Precision and accuracy
− Errors (systematic and random errors)
− Exact numbers

Concept of Measurement:
Measurement is the assignment of a number to a physical property of an object. Simply put,
to measure something means to give a number to the property of that thing. Examples of
properties that can be measured include height, distance, size, length, volume, weight,
temperature, pressure and so on. Measurement is very important in science and technology as
well as in our everyday existence as we cannot say exactly how big or small a substance is
without measuring it. For instance, if we say that someone is tall, it will only describe
relationship in height, and does not give the exact height measurement of the person but if we
say the person is 5 meters tall, then we given a specific measurement of the person.

In science and Technology, measurement is done with specific instrument which may range
from simple devices such as meter rule and tapes used for measuring lengths to
complex/sophisticated devices such as atomic absorption spectrophotometer used in
quantifying the amount of heavy metals in samples. Note that measurements which are
made through unaided human senses are usually referred to as estimates.

Measurements are usually expressed in different units depending on the property or

parameter that is being measured. Most properties are measured using a number and a unit of
measurement. The unit of measurement is a standard amount. The number usually compares
the property measured to the standard amount for such property. For instance, if a tree is ten
(10) times as tall as one meter stick, then such tree is 10 meters tall.

System of Measurements:
A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to
each other. Systems of measurement have historically been important, regulated and defined
for the purposes of science and commerce. Systems of measurement in modern use include
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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

metric system (now known as international system of unit), British imperial system (formerly
English system of units) and US customary units. Both imperial units and the US customary
units were developed from earlier English units. Though they have been largely replaced by
the metric system in commercial, scientific and industrial applications, they are still used for
some applications in the United Kingdom (Britain). US customary units, however, are still
the main system of measurement in the United States.

In the Imperial and US customary system, things are measured in feet, inches, miles, yard
etc (for length measurement), pounds, tons, ounce etc (for weight/mass), cup, gallon, pint etc
(for volume measurement). These units of measurement can be converted to its equivalent in
metric system. For instance:
− 1 mile equals 1.6 Kilometers
− 1 inch is about 25 millimeters or 2.54 centimeters
− A 3-foot measurement is almost exactly 1 meter
− 1 Kilogram is just over 2 pounds
− 1 pound is about 454 grams
The scope of this topic does not include detailed discussion on the imperial and US
customary system of measurement.
The metric system is an internationally adopted decimal system of measurement. It is in
widespread use, and has become the most common system of measurement in most countries.
It is now known as the International System of Units (SI). Since the 1960’s, the International
System of Units (SI) is the internationally recognized metric system of measurement. Metric
units of mass, length and electricity are widely used around the world for both everyday and
scientific purposes.

In its modern form, it consists of a set of electromechanical base units including metre for
length, kilogram for mass, second for time and ampere as an electrical unit and a few others,
which together with their derived units can measure any useful quantity or property of a
substance.
International System of Units (S. I. Units)
The International System of Units (abbreviated as S. I. Units from French- Système
International d'Unités) is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the world's most
widely used system of measurement both in everyday commerce and in science.

The SI unit was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system. During
its development, several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric
system was introduced.
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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

There are two types of SI units: namely base units and derived units. It comprises a coherent
system of units of measurement built on seven (7) base units namely second, metre,
kilogram, Ampere, Kelvin, candela and mole. The system also specifies names for
22 derived units, such as lumen and watt, for other common physical quantities. Table 1
shows the base units and the quantities they measure.

Table 1: Seven base units of the International System of Units

S/No Unit name Quantity measured Symbols Dimension symbol
1 Ampere Electric current A I
2 Kelvin Temperature K θ
3 Second Time s T
4 Metre Length m L
5 Kilogram Mass kg M
6 Candela Luminous intensity cd J
7 Mole Amount of substance mol N

Note that the symbols for are shown in small letters except where such unit is named after a
person. For instance, Ampere for measuring electric current is denoted by capital “A”
because it is named after Andre-Marie Ampere. Same goes for Kelvin unit of temperature
named after Lord Kelvin.

Figure 1 shows the dependence of the 7 base units on each other. The arrows point from units
to those that depend on them. For instance, a measure of the amount of substance (mole) in a
body depends on the mass of the body which is measured in kilogram (kg). Also for example,
to extract the definition of the metre from the speed of light, the definition of the second must
be known while the ampere and candela are both dependent on the definition of energy which
in turn is defined in terms of length, mass and time.

Fig. 1: The seven SI base units and the interdependency of their definitions

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

Six of these units (s, m, cd, mol, K and A) are derived without reference to a particular
physical object which serves as a standard (that is to say that they are artefact-free) meaning
that they were obtained from unchanging constants of nature, such as the speed of light and
the triple point of water, which can be observed and measured with great accuracy while the
kilogram (kg) is still embodied in an artefact which rests at the headquarters of
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres near Paris. The artefact (object)
is the international prototype kilogram, certified in 1889, and consisting of a cylinder
of platinum-iridium, which nominally has the same mass as one litre of water at the freezing
point.

Its stability or possibility of destruction or deterioration of such artefact (object) has been a
matter of significant concern. This has resulted in a proposed revision of the definition of the
base units entirely in terms of constants of nature, expected to be put into effect in May 2019.

Derived Units
There are currently 22 derived units of the S. I. System of units with special names in the
metric system, these are defined in terms of the base units or other named derived units. The
derived units in the SI are formed by powers, products or quotients of the base units and are
unlimited in number. Derived units are associated with derived quantities; for
example, velocity is a quantity that is derived from the base quantities of time and length, and
thus the SI derived unit is metre per second (symbol m/s). The dimensions of derived units
can be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the base units.

Combinations of base and derived units may be used to express other derived units. For
example, the SI unit of force is the Newton (N), the SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) —
and the Pascal can be defined as one Newton per square metre (N/m2).
Table 2: List of 22 derived S. I. units
S/N Name of unit Symbol Quantity In other In SI base
SI units units
1 Radian Rad angle (m⋅m−1)
2 Steradian Sr solid angle (m2⋅m−2)
3 Hertz Hz frequency s−1
4 Newton N force, weight kg⋅m⋅s−2
5 Pascal Pa pressure, stress N/m2 kg⋅m−1⋅s−2
6 N⋅m =
Joule J energy, work, heat kg⋅m2⋅s−2
Pa⋅m3
7 Watt W power, radiant flux J/s kg⋅m2⋅s−3
8 Coulomb C electric charge or quantity of electricity s⋅A
9 Volt V voltage (electrical potential), emf W/A kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−1
10 Farad F capacitance C/V kg−1⋅m−2⋅s4⋅A2
11 Ohm Ω resistance, impedance, reactance V/A kg⋅m2⋅s−3⋅A−2

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

12 Siemens S electrical conductance Ω−1 kg−1⋅m−2⋅s3⋅A2

13 Weber Wb magnetic flux V⋅s kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−1
14 Tesla T magnetic flux density Wb/m2 kg⋅s−2⋅A−1
15 Henry H inductance Wb/A kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅A−2
16 Degree Celsius °C temperature relative to 273.15 K K
17 Lumen Lm luminous flux cd⋅sr cd
18 Lux Lx illuminance lm/m2 m−2⋅cd
19 Becquerel Bq radioactivity (decays per unit time) s−1
20 Gray Gy absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) J/kg m2⋅s−2
21 Sievert Sv equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) J/kg m2⋅s−2
22 Katal Kat catalytic activity mol⋅s−1

Conversion of Units (Metric to Metric Conversions)

Conversion of units is the conversion between different units of measurement for the
same quantity, typically through multiplication or division conversion factors. Conversions
between units in the metric system are defined by their prefixes (for example, 1 kilogram =
1000 grams, 1 milligram = 0.001 grams).
The metric system of conversion is based on powers of ten, meaning 10, 100, 1000, 10000,
100000 and so on which are regarded as conversion factors (see table of metric conversion
factors).
The rules for conversions from one metric unit to another involves: (1) From larger to smaller
units: multiply and (2) From smaller to larger units divide. The only change is in the
conversion units; instead of being random, now they are all powers of ten.

Example 1: Convert 3 meters to centimeters.

First, think: which is larger, a meter or a centimeter? You would conclude that a meter is
larger than a centimeter. Therefore, we are going to multiply by the conversion factor. You
would look in the table above for the conversion factor from m to cm, and see that there are
100 cm in a m, so you’d be multiplying by 100.

So that 3 m x 100 cm = 300 cm

Example 2: convert 2000 grams into kilograms.

First, think: which is larger, a kilogram or a gram? You would conclude that a gram is
smaller than a kilogram. Therefore, we are going to divide by the conversion factor. You
would look in the table above for the conversion factor from g to kg, and see that there are
1000 g in a kg, so you would be dividing by 1000.

2000g / 1000g = 2 kg

Now convert 10,000 milliliters to liters.

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

Temperature Conversions
Converting from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, and vice versa, involves using very
specific equations.
(a) To convert from degrees F to degrees C: the relationship to be used is:
o
C = (deg F – 32) x 5/9
Example 1: convert 32oF to oC.
Solution: Substitute the given degree F into the equation above and compute accordingly
(32-32) x 5/9 = 0 x 5/9 = 0oC, so 32oF is equal to 0oC.
Example 2: convert 75 oF to degree C (round your answer to the nearest degree)
Solution: (75-32) x 5/9 = 43 x 5/9 = (43 x 5)/9 = 215/9 = 23.89 = 24oC (to the nearest degree)

(b) To convert from degrees C to degrees F: the relationship to be used is:

o
F = (oC x 9/5) + 32
Example: convert 200°C to °F
Solution: (200 x 9/5) + 32 = 360 + 32 = 392 oF

Therefore, our final answer is 392°F.

Now, here’s one for you to try, Convert 50°C into °F.

Significant Figures
Every measurement has some uncertainty except counting or defined quantities (which are
known as exact numbers). The extent of uncertainty usually depends on the device used and
the user’s ability/experience or expertise. All of the digits in a measurement, including the
uncertain last digit, are called significant figures or significant digits. Note that zero may be
a measured value; for example, if you stand on a scale that shows weight to the nearest pound
and it shows “120,” then the 1 (hundreds), 2 (tens) and 0 (ones) are all significant (measured)
values.

Whenever you make a measurement properly, all the digits in the result are significant. But
what if you were analyzing a reported value and trying to determine what is significant and
what is not? Well, for starters, all nonzero digits are significant, and it is only zeros that
require some thought. We will use the terms “leading,” “trailing,” and “captive” for the
zeros and will consider how to deal with them.

The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning which contributes to the
overall measurement outcome. Since all measurements are uncertain, we must only use those

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

numbers that are meaningful. For instance, a common ruler cannot measure something to be
22.4072643 cm long. Not all of the digits have meaning (significance) and, therefore, should
not be written down. In science, only the numbers that have significance (derived from
measurement) are written. Numbers are often rounded to avoid reporting insignificant
figures. Usually measured numbers can be rounded up to the nearest possible significant
figure just for simplicity rather than to indicate a given precision of measurement.

Starting with the first nonzero digit on the left, count this digit and all remaining digits to the
right. This is the number of significant figures in the measurement unless the last digit is a
trailing zero lying to the left of the decimal point.

Captive zeros result from measurement and are therefore always significant. Leading zeros,
however, are never significant—they merely tell us where the decimal point is located.

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

The leading zeros in this example are not significant. We could use exponential notation and
express the number as 8.32407 × 10−3; then the number 8.32407 contains all of the significant
figures, and 10−3 locates the decimal point.

The number of significant figures is uncertain in a number that ends with a zero to the left of
the decimal point location. The zeros in the measurement 1,300 grams could be significant or
they could simply indicate where the decimal point is located. The ambiguity can be resolved
with the use of exponential notation: 1.3 × 103 (two significant figures), 1.30 × 103 (three
significant figures, if the tens place was measured), or 1.300 × 103 (four significant figures, if
the ones place was also measured). In cases where only the decimal-formatted number is
available, it is prudent to assume that all trailing zeros are not significant.

Concise rules for identifying significant figures:

− All non-zero digits are significant: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
− Zeros between non-zero digits are significant: 102, 2005, 50009
− Leading zeros are never significant: 0.02, 001.887, 0.000515
− In a number with a decimal point, trailing zeros (those to the right of the last non-zero
digit) are significant: 2.02000, 5.400, 57.5400
− In a number without a decimal point, trailing zeros may or may not be significant.
However more information through additional graphical symbols or explicit
information on errors is needed to clarify the significance of trailing zeros.
Significant figures rules explained:
Specifically, the rules for identifying significant figures when writing or interpreting numbers
are as follows:
− All non-zero digits are considered significant. For example, 91 has two significant
figures (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
− Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits are significant. Example:
101.1203 has seven significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0 and 3.
− Leading zeros are not significant. For example, 0.00052 has two significant figures: 5
and 2.

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

− Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant. For example,
12.2300 has six significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0 and 0. The number 0.000122300 still
has only six significant figures (the zeros before the 1 are not significant). In addition,
120.00 has five significant figures since it has three trailing zeros. This convention
clarifies the precision of such numbers; for example, if a measurement precise to
four decimal places (0.0001) is given as 12.23 then it might be understood that
only two decimal places of precision are available. Stating the result as 12.2300
makes clear that it is precise to four decimal places (in this case, six significant
figures).
− The significance of trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point can be
ambiguous. For example, it may not always be clear if a number like 1300 is precise
to the nearest unit or if it is only shown to the nearest hundred due to rounding or
uncertainty.

Significant Figures in Scientific Notation:

For a number in scientific notation: N x 10x, (expressed in index form) all digits comprising

N are significant (usually called the mantissa or significand) representing the part of the

notation that contains the significant figures while "10" and "x" (i.e. the base exponent) are

NOT significant. For example, 5.02 x 104 has THREE significant figures: "5.02." "10 and "4"

are not significant.

So by this rule, we can manipulate and change the number of significant figures in a value.

For example, let's try writing 1100 with THREE significant figures. By rule 6, 1100 has

TWO significant figures (because there is no decimal point after the last trailing zero); so its

two trailing zeros are not significant. If we add a decimal to the end, we have 1100., with

FOUR significant figures (by rule 5.) But by writing it in scientific notation: 1.10 x 103, we

create a THREE-significant-figure value.

For example also, 0.00012 (two significant figures) becomes 1.2×10−4, and 0.00122300 (six
significant figures) becomes 1.22300×10−3. In particular, the potential ambiguity about the
significance of trailing zeros is eliminated. For example, 1300 to four significant figures is
written as 1.300×103, while 1300 to two significant figures is written as 1.3×103.

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

Data Analysis
a. Accuracy & Precision
Scientists typically make repeated measurements of a quantity to ensure the quality of their
findings and to know both the precision and the accuracy of their results. Traditionally, in
various technical fields, "accuracy" refers to the closeness of a given measurement to its true
value; while "precision" refers to the stability or reproducibility of that measurement when
repeated many times. The number of significant figures in a measurement roughly
corresponds to precision. Precise values agree with each other; accurate values agree with a
true value. The figure below illustrates accuracy and precision.

Accuracy is how close a measurement is to its desired or theoretical value. A measurement is

considered accurate if it yields a result that is very close to the true or accepted value. For
example, if we need to dispense 25.0 mL of dilute HCl, then dispensing 24.9 mL is more
accurate then dispensing 25.7 mL. Accuracy usually is reported as a percent error:

% error =

For the two values mentioned above, 25 mL is the expected value but actual values measured
were 24.9 and 25.7 respectively. Calculating their percentage errors will show which is more
precise than the other.
Case 1:
% error = x 100 = -0.4 % (small error percent; more accurate)

Case 2:
% error = x 100 = 2.8 % (higher error percent; less accurate)

Precision is the reproducibility of a set of measurements. Measurements are said to be

precise if they yield very similar results when repeated in the same manner. For example,
three identical pH values of 6.76, 6.73, and 6.78, are more precise than a duplicate set with
pH values of 6.76, 6.54, and 6.92. Precision usually is reported as a standard deviation. The
higher the deviation from the mean of the values the lesser the precision and vice versa.

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

(a) The dots are close to both the central position (inner circle and to one another, so
they are both accurate and precise.
(b) The dots are close to one another but not on target (outside the inner circle), so they
are precise but not accurate.
(c) The dots are neither on target nor close to one another, so they are neither accurate
nor precise.

b. Errors in Measurement
No measuring instrument is perfectly accurate or precise. Also, mistakes can happen while
taking measurements. This leads to errors in measurement. Generally errors are expressed as
levels of uncertainty in measurements. Measurement error (also known as observational
errors) is the difference between a measured quantity or value to its true value (actual) value.
Errors can be either positive or negative.
− Positive error (Example): Actual mass of a box is 5kg but, reported mass is 5.1 kg.
− Negative Error (Example): Length of a rod is 4 cm but, reported length in 3.8 cm.
Measurements are always characterized by uncertainty. Whether because of the possibility of
instrument drift, the need to interpolate visually an instrument scale, or the difficulty of
defining exactly what we wish to measure, we are never certain that the value of what we
have measured is the "true" value of what we intended to measure. Thus, we assume that all
measurements include the possibility of "errors", and a measurement is not completely
described without some indication of the nature of these errors (the uncertainty in the
measurement). Measurement errors are unavoidable, so "error" in this context does not mean
"mistake." We may have measured the true value, but we are never certain that we have done
so.
Errors include random (chance) – this is a naturally occurring error that is expected with any
experiment or measurement and systematic (caused by mis-calibrated instrument that affect
all measurements.

Systematic Errors: Systematic Errors tend to be only in one direction (either positive or
negative). Causes of this type of error are usually known and can be eliminated in future
measurements. Systematic errors are those differences between an observation and the true
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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

value that are consistent from one observation to the next. For example, suppose the scale
plate on a thermometer were shifted up or down. Then all of our observed temperatures
would be off by the amount of the shift. Such calibration errors are the most common type of
systematic error. Note that systematic errors, since they are consistent from one measurement
to another, are most closely associated with inaccuracy. Also note that systematic errors are
relatively easily managed, once they are detected. Detection, however, is nontrivial.
For Example:
− A speedometer always shows 10km/hour more speed than actual.
− A clock is always slow by 5 minutes behind the actual time.
Sources/types of systematic errors include:
Instrumental Errors − Arises because of imperfectly designed instruments. E.g. a meter
scale which is not calibrated properly.
Imperfect experimental technique − Arises because experimental techniques are not
properly followed.
Personal Errors − Arises because personal biases like taking improper readings from the
instrument.
Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques, choosing better
instruments and removing personal biases.
Random Errors
Random errors occur irregularly and can be both positive and negative. There can be known
or unknown sources for Random errors. Random errors are more difficult to characterize and
are usually more difficult to manage. By definition, they are unpredictable and change from
one observation to another. Common sources of random errors include:
• Different applications of the instrument and technique, for example, by different people
during visual interpolation of instrument scales;
• Inherent randomness in the instrumentation (usually electronic components);
• Uncontrolled and unobserved external influences on the measurement. As an example of the
latter, consider the effect of wind on a rain gage measurement. While wind essentially always
reduces the measured amount of rain, the magnitude of that reduction depends on wind speed,
direction, etc. These factors vary from event to event, day to day, leading to an unpredictable
and varying error in the measurement.
• Random differences in the quantity being measured, such as the differences between
individual paper clips when measuring the number of bends required to break a paper clip.
Random errors manifest themselves as an error distribution, which is often represented
graphically. Here is one example: Random errors cannot be minimized/controlled.

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

Sources of random errors can be −

− Unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage, mechanical vibrations, etc.
− Unbiased personal errors.
Systematic Vs Random Errors: Systematic errors occurs in the same direction consistently
e.g. if a scale of off by 2g extra, then every measurement with such scale will have additional
2.0 g from the actual weight. Random errors are errors that can occur in any direction. For
instance, fluctuation in temperature of a surrounding. They are hard to identify and thus
difficult to fix for future measurements

Error = Measured value – True (actual) value

Error Calculations:
Errors during measurements can be calculated either as relative error, absolute error,
percentage relative error or standard deviation of the mean values.
(i) Absolute error:
This is the difference between the measured value and the actual value of quantity being
measured.
Absolute error = VA – VE
Where VA = experimental or measured value while VE is the actual or true value. In another
form, for instance, if X is the actual value of a quantity and Xo is the measured value of the
quantity, the ∆X is the absolute error. In this case, absolute error can be expressed as:
Absolute error (∆X) = Xo – X
This is a measure of how far off a measurement is from its true value. If expressed as relative

error, then it can be expressed as =

This is the ratio between the absolute error and the actual value as shown;

Relative error =

In percentage, relative error (% Rel. Error) = x 100 %

(ii) Percent error (accuracy) =

= %

This indicates accuracy of a measurement

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

Example:
1. A student measures the radius of a circular sheet of paper and finds that it is 17 cm
long but the label on the package indicates that the radius is 15 cm. Calculate the
following: Absolute error, % error and relative error
Solution:
Absolute error = Measured value – actual value
= 17 – 15 = +2cm

% Error = x 100 = 0.12 x 100 % = 12 %

Relative error = =

Standard deviation (σ): this is the measure of dispersion of a set of numbers or data from its
mean. That is how much a figure in a set of numbers/data deviate does from its mean. Its also
known as volatility. The higher the standard deviation (SD) values from its mean, the higher
the error in the measurement and vice versa. Generally, SD can be expressed as:

SD (σ) = or

N = Size of the population (set of data), x = each value of the population, and µ = mean of the
population. The steps to calculating the standard deviation of a sat of data is outlined below:
- Work out the mean of the data (average of all the numbers)
- Then for each number, subtract the mean and square the result
- Then work out the mean of those squared differences
- Take the square root of that and you are done
Example:
There are 39 plants in the garden. A few plants were selected and their heights in cm were
recorded as follows: 51, 38, 79, 46, and 57. Calculate the standard deviation of their heights
Solution:
Population (N) = 5

Mean (x) = = 54.2

SD (σ) =

= = 15.5

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 EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI
Joint University Preliminary Examination Board (JUPEB) Programme
Lecture Note for CHM 001 (General Chemistry) (3 Units)

Exact Numbers (counting & defined quantities)

Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty, provided the number
of objects being counted does not change while the counting process is underway. The result
of such a counting measurement is an example of an exact number. If we count eggs in a
carton, we know exactly how many eggs the carton contains. The numbers of defined
quantities are also exact. By definition, 1 foot is exactly 12 inches, 1 inch is exactly 2.54
centimeters, and 1 gram is exactly 0.001 kilogram. Quantities derived from measurements
other than counting, however, are uncertain to varying extents due to practical limitations of
the measurement process used.

An "exact number" is a value that is known with complete certainty. They are either defined
numbers or the result of a count. Examples of exact numbers are counted numbers of objects
or certain unit conversions. For example, a dozen is defined as 12 objects, and a pound is
defined as 16 ounces. An exact number can only be expressed in one way and cannot be
simplified any further. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures, but they
often appear as integers. They are not measurement made with instrument. Therefore, if a
number is exact, it does not affect the accuracy of a calculation or the precision of the
expression

For example, there are exactly 3 feet in 1 yard. There are exactly 12 eggs in a dozen. A class
may contain exactly 25 students. Most exact numbers are integers, but it's possible for a value
to have a decimal point. An example number cannot be simplified or reduced.
Examples of Exact Numbers
For example, these are exact numbers:
Number ounces in a pound
Number of feet in a mile
Number of centimetres in a meter
Any counted number, such as the number of apples in a bag
Some more examples include:
− There are 100 years in a century
− There are 2 molecules of hydrogen 1 molecule of oxygen in water
− There are 500 sheets of paper in one ream
Interestingly, the speed of light is now a defined quantity. By definition, the value is
299,792,458 meters per second.

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