Unit 1: Phrasal verbs

Unit 1 – Phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs present learners with a huge challenge as there are thousands of phrasal verbs, all
with different meanings.

They are so prevalent in everyday speaking and informal writing that learners must learn them and
learn how and when to use them; otherwise, they will have difficulty in communicating fully.

Phrasal verbs also present a challenge to teachers, who need to decide how best to present
these to the learners.

1. What are Phrasal Verbs?

Phrasal verbs are a construction which consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb, or both,
e.g.

Hopefully, they’ll put us up for the night.

I’ll pick up some coffee when I’m out.

If we all chip in, we’ll finish it soon.

These items exist in many languages in different shapes and forms although inexperienced
teachers of English often give learners the impression that they only exist in English. That’s just
wrong.

Many languages have composite verbs with similar constructions acting like phrasal verbs in
English.

English language phrasal verbs have increased significantly over the years. They continue to
increase.

So, why do people use them? There’s something about phrasal verbs that makes a speaker feel
happier with them as they are often less formal (but not always) and more colloquial than
previously established single words. Also, they often convey more emotion and promote images
more so than single words.

A definition of a phrasal verb would be something like this: a phrase that consists of a verb
with a preposition or adverb or both, the meaning of which is different from the meaning of its
separate parts, e.g. pick up, look at

Example – the verb to come

This is an everyday common verb that learners will learn pretty quickly. The main meaning they
will learn is something to do with moving forwards to something or moving to a particular place:

Come here.

She came to her house.

Now notice that if we add a selection of tiny words to this verb, the meaning we now have bears
no relation whatsoever to the meanings of come above.

 I’ve been looking for this for ages. I’ve just come across it. (found)
 My bag has comeapart. (broken up)
 I think she has come up with a good idea. (thought of)
 I hear you’ve been chosen. How did that come about? (transpire)
 I had no idea who he was. Then it came back to me. He was my first
boyfriend. (remembered)
 He doesn’t want to play soccer. I’ll talk to him. I’m sure he’ll come around. (change his
mind)
 What a reaction. He came down on us like a ton of bricks. (scold/punish verbally)
 I think she’s about to come down with something. (be ill)
 The police have reported that two witnesses have come forward. (contacted willingly)
 She comes from Edinburgh. (hails from)

There are even more variations.

Thus, the meaning of the phrasal verb come downcannot be construed from joining together the
meanings of its separate parts: come and down

Example 2

Let’s try another one – the verb look. This verb has several meanings; here are some of them:

To direct your eyes in order to see: Look! There’s grandpa.

To try to find something or someone: I looked everywhere but I couldn’t find her. Perhaps we’ll
meet again.

To seem: You look well. You look nice in that dress.

To show direction: The garden looks south.

To give a warning or strong reminder: Look where you’re going!

This is another example of the dilemma facing learners of English. They may come across the
verb look early in their learning, probably from their classroom studies: Look at Page 27. There’s
nothing particularly difficult with that. However, the more they explore the language, the more
they will come across these constructions:

 look after - meaning to take care of someone or something

 look ahead - meaning to think about and plan the future
 look at - meaning to read something quickly and not very thoroughly
 look at - meaning to investigate or think carefully about a problem or situation
 look back - meaning to think about something that happened in the past
 look down on - meaning to think something or someone is inferior
 look for - meaning to try to find something lost or that you need
 look forward to - meaning to feel excited and happy about something that is going to
happen
 look into - meaning to examine a problem or situation

There are even more than these.

2. The difficulty with phrasal verbs

The learner needs to get to grips with all these subtle meanings. One problem is that there are few,
if any, clues as to the meaning of each construction. Some will argue that there are but this can
confuse the learners further.

For example, let’s imagine that we tell learners that in gives a clue to the meaning of the phrasal
verb, an idea that you’re delving inside something or going inside somewhere, e.g. I had a
look in the book, I had a look in the shop.

However, look in is often used for dropping in to see someone, often unplanned, often for a short
time, to make sure the person is OK: I looked in on old Mrs Brown. This is a totally different
meaning, and proves the point that some clues may be more of a hindrance than a help.

Another problem is that some constructions can be the same but have different meanings:

I looked at your drawing. It seems fine to me.

Oil prices are rising swiftly again. We need to look at that.

Clearly these are different. The first gives the impression of a fairly quick look. The second gives
the impression of a longer enquiry/investigation into the effects.

Yet another issue is that learners of English soon find that although English has a wide and varied
vocabulary, some constructions just have to be learned:

The curtain went up. The show began!

Even where a curtain in a theatre is opened from the middle to the sides (as can happen in a
cinema or school production), we almost always say the curtain went up. A few people may
say the curtain was raised but most would say the curtain went up. We do use raise but this is
usually before the actual event:

It was time to raise the curtain. The curtain went up. The show began!

No wonder learners get confused!

We never think of phrasal verbs when we acquire our native language. But, for all L2 learners,
these present tough challenges. There are only a few concrete learning strategies you can use so
that they can learn these.

You need to explain these individually when they come up in the classroom and encourage them
to rote learn other examples as much as possible.

Phrasal verbs can be difficult to understand because they often have meanings that are idiomatic.
The meaning cannot be deduced from the elements added to the verb.

They can also be difficult to use because of variations in the placement of the particle. In phrasal
verbs the particle is the word tagged on to the verb to give the specific meaning of the phrasal verb
, e.g. on, back but it has little or no meaning in itself when it is tagged on. It has a grammatical
purpose but no meaning.

In some cases, the particle can be put in more than one position in the sentence; in other cases the
particle usually appears in only one position.
Example

Form 1: You can say: I put my coat on.

Form 2: You can also say: I put on my coat.

Form 1: You can say: Shegave it back.

Form 2: But you wouldn’t say:She gave back it. This is a non-standard construction. (The
fortunate thing is that the learner would likely communicate her meaning but when we focus on
form we would say this is an incorrect form.)

And very many phrasal verbs have three components. Such verbs are often particularly difficult to
understand because the learner hears a string of words, each of which she knows very well, but
which in combination do not make any sense. Here are some common 3 part phrasal verbs with
their meaning and an example:

get up to – What have you been getting up to since we last met? (doing)

go in for - I don’t really go in for cooking programmes on the TV. (like)

come out with – Juan’s always coming out with outrageous comments. (saying)

Phrasal verbs continued...

3. The characteristics of phrasal verbs

Here’s what you need to know:

1. A phrasal verb is a combination of words (a verb + a preposition or verb +adverb) that when
used together, typically take on a different meaning to that of the original verb.

2. They are a very important aspect of everyday English. There are thousands and thousands of
them.

3. Learners need to learn many of them if they wish to communicate successfully.

4. Phrasal verbs are idiomatic, meaning that the meaning of a phrasal verb cannot be determined
by combining the meanings of the verb and preposition but must be learned as a single lexical
item.

5. Learners need to think of each phrasal verb as a separate verb construction with a specific
meaning.

6. When we use phrasal verbs, we use them like normal verbs in a sentence, regardless of whether
it’s a regular or irregular verb. These are irregular verbs:

Lisa tore up the Valentine Day’s card and threw it in the bin.

The bus broke down.

Did you deal with the complaint?

7. Phrasal verbs are confusing. One main verb may have many combinations. Also, one phrasal
verb may have more than one meaning.

8. Phrasal verbs tend to be more informal and are used more often in spoken than written
English, although they’re used frequently in informal written communication like emails to
family or friends and on internet blogs. But note that some will still pop up in formal
communications.

9. Some phrasal verbs can be transitive, i.e. they can be followed by an object.

Examples

I made up an excuse.An excuse is the object.

I conjured up activities at the last moment.Activities is the object.

10. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive.An intransitive verb cannot be followed by an object.

Examples

Her ex-husband suddenly showed up. (show upcannot take an object)

The baby woke up early this morning. (woke up cannot take an object)

Note that intransitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. You cannot separate the verb and the particle.

Example

The baby woke up early today. (Correct)

The baby woke early up today. (Incorrect)

The baby woke early today up. (Incorrect)

11. Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between the verb and the
preposition.

Examples

I talked my brother into letting me use his season ticket.

Matteo looked the phone number up.

12. But some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the preposition.

Examples

The cyclist got on his bike.

Bill ran into an old colleague in the pub.

The police are looking into the theft.

A good dictionary will often tell you whether the words are separable or inseparable.

13. Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.

Examples

I looked the number up in the phone book. I looked up the number in the phone book.

They turned down my request. They turned my request down.

Cristina called off the blind date. Cristina called the blind date off.

14. Remember this: Although many transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places,
you must put the object between the verb and the preposition if the object is a pronoun. There’s
no choice.

Example 1

The object is a noun:

Carlos looked the number up in the phone book. (Correct)

Carlos looked up the number in the phone book. (Correct)

The object is a pronoun:

Madison looked it up in the phone book. (Correct)

But not:

Madison looked up it in the phone book. (Incorrect)

4. Teaching phrasal verbs

Getting students to come to terms with phrasal verbs is a constant challenge. The fact of the matter
is that phrasal verbs are just difficult to learn.

Inexperienced teachers fall into (a phrasal verb!) these typical traps when teaching phrasal verbs:

1. They randomly select a list of phrasal verbs and ask the students to learn these before the next
meeting.

2. They ask the students to select a number of phrasal verbs from the dictionary. The students have
to learn these before the next meeting and perhaps demonstrate their usage in speaking or writing.

3. After reading a random passage the students are asked to identify the phrasal verbs in the
passage and try to work out their meaning and explain them.

4. The teachers run brainstorming sessions where students are asked to create lists of phrasal verbs
to share with one another.

5. They run sessions focused on a particular verb and all the phrasal verb combinations that
emanate from the verb, e.g. the list of the verb come uses and meanings we explored above.
Let’s stop at that. There are other traps but these are the key ones. Let’s run through these:

1. We’ve said before and we say again that the learning of random items is not conducive to
learning. Learners need to use meaningful language in context to ensure that they can draw on the
specific meaning from their memory bank at a later time.

Again, we cannot just dismiss dictionary work out of hand. Learning phrasal verbs out of the
dictionary can help, but students really need to read and hear phrasal verbs in context for them to
be able to truly understand the correct usage of phrasal verbs.

2. Learners are unlikely to choose meaningful words on their own unless they are shown how
these are regularly used by native speakers in context.

3. A random passage will include phrasal verbs that the students may not use again, if ever, in
communicative contexts. We need to ensure that what they do learn can be used. Thus, passages
need to be selected carefully or written bespoke by you to ensure learning can take place in a
meaningful context.

4. Brainstorming is a useful tool in the classroom. However, proper brainstorming is an

uncontrolled event. The result may be a list of obscure or uncommon phrasal verbs which the
students cannot use on a day-to-day basis.

5. Running sessions focused on a particular verb and all the phrasal verb combinations that
emanate from the verb has inherent flaws. In addition to confusing the students with a host of
different meanings at the same time, again there will be phrasal verbs that they are unlikely to use
or may never use in everyday communicative English.

Of course, some of these approaches may have some merit if used wisely and in context.

So how do you teach phrasal verbs effectively?

Experience is a wonderful thing. To get it right first time, here is what you should do:

1. Start right from the beginning.

Teach plenty of phrasal verbs at elementary level, in the context of general vocabulary teaching.
Don’t suddenly try to start teaching hundreds of them all together at higher levels.

2. Don’t isolate phrasal verbs

Don’t isolate phrasal verbs from other types of vocabulary. Encourage learners to look for
differences of meaning in very small sets of vocabulary items like these for younger students:

 get up
 get ready
 get dressed

Or these, for more competent students:

 turn down: He turned down the light. He turned down the offer.
 turn up: He turned up the light. He turned up at the meeting.
 turn out: They turned out in big numbers. It turned out pretty well in the end.

3. Vary your approach

Cartoons, for example, are an excellent way to illustrate and reinforce phrasal verbs visually. For
example:

Come down with could be illustrated by the character being upright and active, compared to being
physically down and in bed with spots/a rash.

Come up with something could be illustrated by a group sitting and puzzling over some paper
drawings and then one of the characters jumps up, physically demonstrating he has found a
solution and has it in his hand.

4. Compare with their native language

If possible, use examples of similar verbs from the students' first languages to help clarify what a
phrasal verb is.

For example, other Germanic languages like German and Dutch have verbs similar to English
phrasal verbs in the form of separable prefix verbs.

Foster an awareness of any similarities between English and the learners’ L1.

5. Focus on everyday communicative language

Identifying phrasal verbs from a discussion about the moon may be interesting. However, focus on
an everyday context and the phrasal verbs arising in that context, so that the students are ready to
use them in their everyday communicative events – speaking or writing.

All of the above are very useful, but here is the key:

6. The key: Think of an everyday context and topic that applies to all of them.

Ask yourself: what do all of my students do to some degree?

Choose a relevant and meaningful topic to bring out a tranche of related phrasal verbs. For
example:

 All of your students need to eat, be it at home or in a café/restaurant. They may either buy
the food or make the food, or watch their parents or friends making food.
 All of your students are likely to use a phone, to different degrees.
 All of your students need to shop. It doesn’t matter what type of shop it is. Most of the
communicative functions are the same, e.g. Do you have ...?; I would like a thing that ...;
Can you show me a selection ...? All of these will include relevant and appropriate
phrasal verbs in common use.
 All of your students need to travel from school to home, be it on foot, by bus etc. Again,
all of these events will include relevant and appropriate phrasal verbs in common use.

Example 1

Let’s choose ‘Making a Sandwich’ as the topic. All students will have had some experience of
this, either making a sandwich themselves or watching their parents or siblings doing this in the
kitchen.

You could use your teacher table as the kitchen top and use plastic vegetables for your
demonstration.
Here are some of the phrasal verbs that you could plan to bring out:

 peel off (fruit or vegetable skin)

 fry up (breakfast or vegetables)
 slice off (meat from bone)
 cut up (into slices)
 cut off (fat)
 chop up (into small pieces or cubes)
 boil away (the water boiling in the pan for a set time)
 boil over (the water boiling over because there’s too much heat)

You would explain these, get them to repeat the sound, write what’s necessary on the board and
handle any queries. The students could role play a simple scenario of making a sandwich
explaining to each other what they are doing and who should do what next. You could also
reinforce these later by, say, a gap-fill exercise or a short written piece on ‘How to make the
Perfect Sandwich’.

Then, perhaps, you could bring in some dictionary work which would add to the phrasal verbs
which they can use in this context.

And you could encourage them to use these phrasal verbs at home; and you could ask their parents
or carers to encourage the students to do the activity whilst explaining to the parents or carers
what they are doing.

This is how to do it, focusing on meaningful language they can use frequently in familiar
everyday contexts.

Example 2

Or you may choose to focus on the topic: ‘Using a Phone’. Whilst working on phrasal verbs
associated with this topic, mix them in with other useful relevant vocabulary:

Phrasal verbs

 to ring somebody up
 to get through
 to hang on
 to hang up

Other useful phone vocabulary

 dialling tone
 hold the line
 hold the line
 wrong number
 Speaking!
 leave a message
 bad line

And, of course, bear in mind all the general recommendations for the teaching and learning of
grammar: the importance of practise, exposure, recycling, learning in context and so on.

Unit 2: Prepositions
 Unit 2: Prepositions

Learning phrasal verbs is the trickiest challenge for learners of English. Prepositions come a close
second. Many phrasal verbs are constructed with prepositions, so we can see that there is a link.

The thing about prepositions is that they have few specific characteristics that learners can hang
on to. It’s very difficult to make a solid list of guidelines showing common features of
prepositions.

Many prepositions are very small words but they are so important in a sentence. The problem is
they are used in so many different ways in so many different situations.

Prepositions are words which relate a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence: The book
is on the table. In this sentence on is a preposition.

Prepositions join parts of sentences. For example, two parts in this sentence are linked by the
preposition on: I found my book on the table and might not make full sense without it.
Prepositions act as a bridge between two parts of a sentence and provide readers with
information, such as location and time.

The preposition and the object of the preposition together with any modifiers of the object are
known as a prepositional phrase. So, on the table is a prepositional phrase.

Here is a list of common prepositions used on a day-to-day basis by native English speakers:

about above cross after

against along among around
as at before behind
below beneath beside between
but by despite during
except for from in
inside into like near
of off on over
past round since through
throughout till to towards
under underneath until up
upon with within without

1. Features of prepositions

There are just a few main features:

1. Prepositions usually come before a noun.

The noun does not necessarily come immediately after the preposition as there may be determiners
or adjectives in between the preposition and the noun.

Examples

 after the match

 on big ships
 under the old system
We can say that almost always the preposition comes before the noun.

There are exceptions, though, due to the way some sentences are constructed. In these, the
preposition comes after the noun. These are called stranded prepositions:

 This is what I was talking about.

 Where does haggis come from?
 It’s a problem I just have to live with.

2. All combinations of prepositions come before the noun

There are prepositions which contain more than one word, e.g. according to, on behalf of

No matter how many words make up the preposition, these prepositions also come before the
noun:

 according to the BBC

 on behalf of the company

These are called complex prepositions. One word prepositions are called simple prepositions.

3. Prepositions do not change their form

They do not take any inflections. An inflection is a change in the form of a word (usually the
ending) to express a grammatical function such as:

 happy changing to happierand happiestin the comparative and superlative forms

 verb ending of the verb like changing to likes in the third person singular: I like, you like,
she likes

The preposition in, for example, remains the same, no matter the gender, quantity etc. of the noun
following it:

 in the box
 in the boxes
 in her purse

2. Using and categorising prepositions

Prepositions are used in many different situations and for many different purposes. They are
difficult to categorise concisely and definitively.

For example, let’s take the preposition on. It seems fair to say that on is generally used to describe
somebody or something on top of a surface of some kind, e.g. on the first floor,on the table, on the
floor, on the wall, on her arm etc.

But look at these:

 We saw Taylor Swift on TV.

 I heard Brad Pitt on the radio.
 I saw David Beckham on the plane.

There’s no idea here about something or somebody on top of a surface.

This highlights the danger of categories. Sometimes there can be many exceptions that the
learner needs to get to grips with.

That being said, here is a brief list of common categories which teachers often build topics around,
when teaching prepositions:

1. Some prepositions show the position or location of something

Examples

 Her bag was under the chair.

 His flat was over the shop.
 The plate is on the table.
 Lisa is in the garden.
 The picture is on the wall.
 The disease had spread throughout the village.
 Dad always keeps his wallet in the drawer.
 The school is near the cinema.

2. Some indicate the time and date when something happens or will happen:

 Their parents arrived on Sunday.

 The course starts at 9 am.
 Shortly after their engagement, they broke up.
 I haven’t seen him since last week.
 He will continue working until the official retirement date.
 We usually get together on the first Friday of the month.
 My birthday is on 24th December.

3. Some explain the way some action is done

 We arrived by boat
 We came by train.
 They stared at each other without speaking.

4. Some describe direction

 He went to the match.

 She dived into the pool.
 She saw someone was coming towards her.
 He crawled through the tunnel.
 They walked up the hill.

5. Some link with adjectives

 Françoise is good at spelling.

 France is famous for wine.
 I’m concerned about the new proposals.
 Rosa is proud of her achievements.

3. Teaching prepositions
Our advice is to build prepositions into a topic you are covering, which will help to make the
learning of some prepositions less random.

In points 1-4 immediately above, there is something to build on. A topic will help students to
grasp the meaning. But the examples in point 5 will just have to be learned as they come up

Unit 3: Idioms
Idioms are a series of fixed lexical items (words and phrases) that have their own figurative
meaning different from their literal component elements.

Let’s just expand this a bit further in case the difference between literal and figurative language is
not so clear.

Literal language is when we say what we mean. There is no other meaning intended when you
say something like this: I’m leaving early tomorrow. I have lots to do. These words say it as it is.
If I were to report back your words to someone else it would be exactly the same message: She
says she’s leaving early tomorrow because she has lots to do. There’s no ambiguity, no hidden
meaning.

Figurative language is different. When we use figurative language, we say or write a group of
words that do not mean what we say: they imply something else.

Example

Grandmother: My granddaughter Valeria is the apple of my eye.

She is not saying here that her granddaughter is a piece of fruit in her eye. No, as native speakers
we know that this has an implied meaning: My granddaughter is wonderful. I love her more than
anything on this earth.

This is figurative language.

We learn this figurative use of language from an early age and it becomes a natural part of our
language that we draw on in specific circumstances, e.g. to emphasise something or make a
comment:

I hear he’s been invited to meet the Princess. He’s gone up in the world. (entered a ‘higher’ social
circle than before, in the eyes of the speaker)

Depending on the way this is said, there could be some degree of envy in the expression or some
implied meaning that he has left his old group of friends behind in favour of a fancier social circle.
It all depends how it is said.

So, idioms use figurative language and we use them to imply another meaning. The words used
together have a meaning that is different from the dictionary definitions of the individual words.

Many EFL students have huge difficulties with idioms. For example:

 I’m at a loose end.

 She’s at the end of her tether.
 He did a runner.
 I’m sure he’ll get a fair crack of the whip.
  You’re flogging a dead horse.

Remember this: Some inexperienced TEFL teachers seem to think that idioms are
something special to the English language. That’s just not true. All languages have their own
idioms.

Unfortunately, the form and structure and content words of the idioms in their native language will
bear little or no resemblance at all to idioms in English, even although there might be great
similarities in the end meaning intended.

Example

To make a mistake

English idiom: To put your foot in it

French idiom: Se mettre le doigt dans l'œil: To put your finger in your eye.

2. Teaching idioms

We are often asked for tips on how to teach idioms. Remembering that there are thousands of
idioms, and that you need to be selective, here’s what you need to do:

1. Ensure they know what idioms are

First and foremost, you need to ensure that they know what idioms are and how they are used.
They are mostly used in spoken language, in everyday informal conversation. and in novels where
conversation takes place. They are also used in popular journalism.

They are widely used on the internet, in blogs etc., with some used correctly and some that are just
pretty poor due to the writer’s lack of competence in English or real understanding of idioms.

Inexperienced teachers often say that idioms are not used in formal writing or formal speaking
events such as presentations and lectures. This just isn’t true. For example:

It’s hoped that our findings will open the door to further research in this area. (could be found in
an academic piece)

It’s hoped that our new investment account will open the door for us in the Far East. (could be
found in a business report or heard at a business presentation or lecture)

We noted above that all languages have idioms in all shapes and forms. Depending on the level
you are teaching, invite them to give examples from their own language.

At this first stage, you wouldn’t use the term ‘idiom’. Just ask them what they or others may say in
their language about a friend who just says the wrong thing at the wrong time. This may then lead
you to introducing the idiom in English:

She put her foot in it.

Don’t get hung-up about trying to explain the derivation of idioms:

He’s as daft as a brush.

We have used this one intentionally because there are several suggestions as to its derivation.
Even the Oxford English Dictionary which tries to find the original source of all words in English
is still seeking ‘real’ evidence of how, why, where and where this expression was used in the past.

2. Always introduce idioms in context.

Idioms must be introduced in context. It’s a waste of time to introduce an idiom in isolation
unless, of course, learners ask you to give them an example. A French native may ask you if there
is a similar expression in English for the French idiom about ‘putting your finger in your eye’.
Then you can introduce her and the class to:

She put her foot in it.

Apart from that, random introduction of idioms just won’t work. There’s no point in asking them
to go away and learn a list of 5 random idioms from a dictionary. That’s just silly and wholly
ineffective. But some teachers do this!

The learning of any random items of language is hardly conducive to learning. Learners need to
use meaningful language in context to ensure that they can draw on the specific meaning from
their memory bank at a later time – helped by the memory of the context it was used in at the time
of learning.

3. Some action-centred dictionary work may be useful

We’re not saying, of course, that dictionary work on idioms should be ruled out. But we need to
be more inventive than just asking them to look up an idiom in a dictionary.

For example, it would be much more beneficial if they are asked to come up with some
suggestions as to how an idiom may have come about, based on the words it contains. We used an
idiom above: He’s as daft as a brush. Why is it brush and not mop or a totally different word
like spider?

What are the definitions of the word brush? Is there a clue as to how one of the meanings is now
included in this idiom? This is much more action-centred and conducive to learning than just
searching like an automaton through a dictionary for a definition of an idiom.

4. Group everyday idioms related to the topic

When you’re about to cover a topic, e.g. time, animals, parts of the body, it should automatically
spring to mind that this may be an excellent opportunity to introduce everyday idioms, just one or
two at a time, that can be practised and used during the topic. In this way, the meaning and usage
will be better embedded in their memory banks.

A random passage will include idioms that the students may not use again, if ever, in
communicative contexts. We need to ensure that what they do learn can be used. Thus, texts need
to be selected carefully or written bespoke by you to ensure learning can take place in a
meaningful context.

For example, if part of the animals’ topic includes dogs, you could introduce an idiom such as:

My friend was as sick as a dog after eating cheese.

Or, if the main thrust of their learning at a particular time is fruit, there may be an opportunity,
depending on their level and age, to introduce the ‘apple of my eye’ idiom or one or two other
idioms centred on fruit:

I went bananas.

Don’t upset the apple cart.

He’s a bad apple.

She’s got a plum job

And so on.

By adding these in context, they will be better embedded in the students’ memory banks.

Ensure you identify and present everyday idioms in simple conversations and in texts.

5. The goal is to get them to use them

It’s all very well that students learn what an idiom means. That’s only part of the journey. The
other part is learning how to use it effectively. So, they need to practise usage. Get them working
in pairs, writing short conversations with the idiom(s) included. Then they can practise the
conversation in their pairs. If they are keen, get them to act this out in front of the class.

But they’ll need more than this. Language needs to be recycled (used again and again) for it to
be fully embedded. So, follow this up at later times through other activities, e.g. filling in blanks,
crosswords, conversational activities etc. which will further increase their use of the idioms they
have met previously.

6. Use authentic materials

Show them that idioms are used in everyday authentic materials, particularly materials they enjoy.
These could be sport or music magasines, videos, and songs in particular. This will emphasise that
these are current expressions in everyday use, used by real people.

Unit 4: Conditional forms

Unit 4: Conditional forms

Let’s first set out again a short definition for the word clause: A clause is a part of a sentence that
typically has its own subject and verb.

A definition of a conditional clause would be something like this: This is clause which describes
something that is possible or probable, depending on something else happening.

Such clauses usually begin with if or unless. In the classroom, we often call these if clauses. They
all focus on what may or may not happen and what might have happened but didn’t happen. They
express different degrees of reality.

There are set constructions for these, which learners need to grasp.
Examples

Note that we can put the if or unless clause before or behind the main clause.

If it snows, we won’t get the car out.

If we go now, we’ll arrive on time.

I’m not going shopping unless Jane comes too.

We’ll never succeed if we don’t study hard.

Note: If we put the condition before the main clause, we use a comma.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Conditions can be categorised as real and unreal

Real conditions

With real conditions, we do not know if the condition is, will be or was true. Here are some
examples:

If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay in.

If Lisa is coming to the party, you can tell her the news.

I’m sure she'll come if Carlos has remembered to tell her.

Note: We cannot use will for future time in a condition:

We say If it rains tomorrow Not If it will rain.

We say If she's coming Not If she will be coming.

We sometimes use unless at the beginning of a condition:

Unless it rains tomorrow, I'll go to the beach.

Unless she's in England, I'm sure she'll come.

Unreal conditions

With unreal conditions for present and future time the condition is not, or probably will not be,
true. We use a simple or continuous verb formation.

If Maria was coming, you could tell her the news. (But she isn't coming; you can't tell her.)

I would have more money if I didn't smoke. (But I do smoke; I have less money.)

I'd phone him if only I could find his number. (But I can't find it; I can't phone him.)
If I found a lot of money in the road, I'd give it to the police. (I don't expect to find any; I'm
imagining.)

Note this construction: Would you mind if I left early?

Would + mind + unreal condition is a polite way to ask for permission.

For past time (the condition was not true), we use a perfect verb formation in the condition:

If Maria had come, you could have told her the news. (But she didn't come; you couldn't tell her.)

I'd have phoned him if only I could have found his number. (But I couldn't find it; I didn't phone.)

If I had found that money, I would have given it to the police. (I didn't find it; I'm just imagining.)

I'm sure Maria would've come if John hadn't forgotten to tell her. (But John forgot; she didn't
come.)

2. There are different types of conditional constructions

There are four types:

 The Zero Conditional

 The First Conditional
 The Second Conditional
 The Third Conditional

1. The Zero Conditional (certainty)

Form

if + present simple tense (for the condition) and verb stem in the present simple tense in the main
clause (for the result).

Examples

If people don’t eat (condition), they get hungry (result).

If you heat ice (condition), it melts (result).

Babies cry (result), if they are hungry (condition).

Remember this: It doesn’t matter if the if clause is placed at the start of the sentence or in the
middle of the sentence.

Note that it’s possible to replace if with when in a zero conditional.

Use

We use this conditional form when the result is always true for this type of condition.

The result is certain. It’s a fact.

There is no thought given to the future or past.

2. First Conditional (real possibility)

Form

if + present simple (for the condition) and will + verb stem in the main clause (for the result)

Examples

If I see Valeria tomorrow, I'll tell her about the party.

If it rains, I won’t go shopping.

If I study hard, I’ll pass my exams.

I’ll walk to work if the bus is late.

Will you walk to work if the bus is late?

Will you go shopping if it rains?

Use

Here there is a good possibility that the condition will happen at a future time. I may not see
Valeria tomorrow but I might. There is a possibility that the condition will happen.

3. Second Conditional (unreal possibility)

Form

if + past simple (for the condition) and would + verb stem in the main clause (for the result)

If I married Taylor Swift, I’d be the happiest person on earth.

If I won the lottery, I would quit my job.

I would be happy if I married Camila.

Would Camila be happy if she married you?

Would you quit your job, if you won the El Gordo?

Use

Here we are talking about a particular condition in the future (although we use the past tense in the
condition) but there is not a real possibility that this condition will ever happen. It’s all a bit
of a dream, an unreal possibility that this condition will ever happen.

Note that we sometimes use the second conditional, with the same structure, to talk about certain
situations in the present.These are when the condition is pretty impossible and far from a true
situation and therefore the result won’t come to fruition.
Examples

If I knew where he was, I’d contact him. (but you have no idea where he is and so you cannot
contact him at all)

If I were you, I wouldn’t get involved. (but I’m not you and never will be)

4. Third Conditional (no possibility)

Form

if + past perfect (for the condition) and would + have + past participle in the main clause (for the
result)

Examples

If I had seen Alejandro, I would have asked him. (but I didn’t see him at all so I wasn’t able to talk
to him)

If he had not passed, he wouldn’t have gained entry into university. (but he did pass)

If we had grabbed a taxi, we wouldn’t have missed the train. (but we didn’t grab a taxi and
therefore we did miss the train)

If it had rained yesterday, I would have stayed at home. (but it didn’t rain yesterday and so I went
out)

Use

Here the focus is on the past. We talk about a condition in the past that didn’t happen. We use it to
describe a situation or event that didn’t happen and we imagine the result of the situation.

There is no possibility for this condition, and therefore no possibility of the result happening.
Not then and not now.

3. Teaching conditional forms

Conditional forms are tricky for learners. Usually, the key problem lies with an inexperienced
teacher who attempts to take the learners too far too quickly. Students’ ages and levels will be the
key factors in deciding whether they are ready for a particular conditional construction.

Then you can wait your time, see how well the learning is embedded in their memory banks and
then decide to try another type of construction.

Take it softly, softly.

Here’s what to do:

1. Awareness in context

When they are ready, start by raising their awareness of conditionals. Get them to notice the use of
conditionals in written pieces/activities you are using in class. Make up your own pieces
containing the odd conditional, for whichever conditional form you plan to teach.
Point attention to the construction and get them to have a go at the meaning. They can then try and
mirror the construction with other situations. Don't get too hung up about tenses at this time.

2. Start at the beginning

Some teachers start with the first conditional, leaving the zero conditional till last. We don’t know
why. We have always started with the zero conditional as it’s good fun getting them to think about
certainties in life: If you heat ice, it melts.

Once they’ve come up with lots of suggestions, including some you have written on the board, see
if they can work out the structure and tenses for a particular conditional structure. Then it’s time to
practise them.

3. Practice

There are lots of activities that can be used to embed the learning of conditionals. Here are some
of them:

 Matching exercises: matching the condition with the result, and matching the result with
the condition.
 Cloze activities: where they try to insert a selection of if clauses into a piece which has
six or seven blanks in it.
 Partnering activity: one student states the condition and the other has to complete it with
some sensible result. Then they reverse roles.
 Student surveys: Students can survey each other about what they will and would like to
do in the future, using the appropriate conditional forms.
 Wish lists: emphasising the unreal conditionals, students can interview each other and
make up wish lists for their partners.
 Advice columns: Students can write letters of advice to each other or famous figures,
such as the President or Prime Minister, using the conditional.
 Probability Discussions: Guessing the probability of certain events, using the conditional,
e.g. If Chelseaare on form, they’ll win the match.

Unit 5: Direct and reported/indirect

speech
Unit 5: Direct and reported/indirect speech

Direct Speech

The exact words that someone says are called direct speech. Quotation marks (also called inverted
commas) are used to highlight direct speech.

Dad said, “It’s time to go.”

“I want to be an astronaut,” Lucy said.

“Where are you going?”

Reported/Indirect Speech
Reported speech (also called indirect speech) is when you report what someone says or tells you
without using their exact words. We often want to tell someone what another person has said to
us. In most cases, we do not report the exact words that we hear. Instead, we often make some
changes so that it sounds more natural.

Examples

Direct Speech Reported Speech

John said “I’m ready.” John said (that) he was ready.
Dad said, “It’s dinner time.” Dad said (that) it was dinner time.
“I can’t find my keys,” said James. James said (that) he couldn’t find his keys.
“Bill is annoying me,” said Ben. Ben said (that) Bill was annoying him.
Lucy said, “I haven’t had time to do it.” Lucy said (that) she hadn’t had time to do it.
Fred said, ”I’ m going to tell you a secret.” Fred told me (that) he was going to tell me a secret

Note first that there are several differences between a sentence with direct speech and a sentence
with reported speech:

 We don’t use quotation marks in reported speech.

 We introduce what someone says/said by using a reporting verb, e.g. said or told
 We often change the tense of the verb in reported speech.
 We change the pronouns and determiners, e.g. me → her, this → that

Note that in indirect speech people often leave out the conjunction that.

1. Reporting verbs

The most common reporting verbs are say and tell.

Say

Say is never followed by an indirect object (e.g. her, us, them, my brother):

John said (that) he was ready. NOT: John said me (that) he was ready.

We follow say with a that clause (e.g. that he was ready) or a clause beginning with a question
word (e.g. Marie didn’t say who was there)

Tell

We must use an indirect object after tell:

John told me (that) he was ready.

The tell + indirect object structure is followed by a variety of clause types and with a noun phrase:

John told me that he was ready(that)

My friend told me a secret.(noun phrase)

My boss told me to stay. (infinitive)

The interviewer told me where to sit. (question word + infinitive)

Marie told me where she was going. (question word)

But we also use some other reporting verbs, depending on the context, function, attitude, opinion,
interpretation, and to avoid repetition in a longer piece of reported speech.

 He asked if he we had seen the accident.

 She added that it would be the most suitable course to take.
 She explained why the deduction had been made.
 He replied that it was not down to him.
 She mentioned that it could be a solution.
 He claimed that he had never been in Madrid.
 He alleged that it was his brother who had been there.
 The customer complained that the goods were faulty.
 Our lawyer warned us the contract might be invalid.

Again, the conjunction that can be omitted if the speaker/writer wishes to do so.

2. Reported speech with no change in verb tense

We said above that we often change the tense of the verb in reported speech. Sometimes we
don’t. Here are two important examples:

1. When we are using reported speech to report a statement that is still true:

John said, “My foot hurts.” → John said his foot hurts.

“I live in Miami,” Marie said. → Marie said she lives in Miami.

“Madrid is a wonderful place to visit,” he added. → He added that Madrid is a wonderful place
to visit.

2. When we wish to convey exactly what a person said, perhaps where the exact words are very
important (in a legal case) or for dramatic effect.

He said, “Watch your back.”

He told me, “Pull up your socks or you’ll be fired.”

Then she claimed, ”You have been cheating customers for years.”

3. Reported speech: questions

The verb ask is usually used to report questions.

Mike asked, “Where is my wallet?” → Mike asked where his wallet was.

Mum asked, “Have you finished your dinner?” → Mum asked if we had finished our dinner.

Note that once we report the question to someone else, it’s no longer a question, no longer in
question form. So we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence.
So, to report a question, put the subject before the verb or helping verb (we had finished).
Remember that the subject comes after the helping verb when you ask a question (Have
you finished?). Here are some examples.

Examples

“Where are they heading?” → I asked where they were heading.

“Can Lucy count to ten?” → I asked if Lucy could count to ten.

“Did your teacher give the drawing back?” → I asked if the teacher had given the drawings back.

“Has she gone to town?” → I asked if she had gone to town.

Note that when you are reporting on questions which would result in yes or no, we use if after the
reporting verb. Sometimes we randomly use whether:

I asked whether she had gone to town.

So, the reported question structure is much the same as the structure for reported statements. The
tense changes are the same, and we keep the question word.

Direct and reported/indirect speech

continued...
4. Reported speech: requests

When someone requests you to do something for them, often a polite request, we often use the
following form, even when the request is in question form:

Form

ask (me, her, Cristina, us) + to + infinitive

Often we don’t report every word when we tell someone else about it.

“Please help me with this”. → He asked me to help (him).

“Could you give me a hand?” → He asked me to help (him).

“Would you mind giving me a hand?” → He asked me to help (him).

“Could you pass the magazine, please?” → She asked me to pass the magazine.

“Please don’t shout.” → She asked me not to shout. (insert not in a negative request)

5. Reported speech: commands/orders

 When someone gives an order or a command in direct speech and instructs you very directly to do
something, we use verbs like tell, order, and warn to report these. The construction is similar to
reported requests: to + verbOR not to + verb.

The teacher shouted, “Be quiet!” → The teacher ordered us to be quiet.

“Go into your groups, children,” said Mr. Brown. → Mr. Brown told us to go into our groups.

Carlos told Alejandro, “Don’t be late ever again.” → Carlos warned Alejandro not to be late
again.

6. Reported speech - typical changes in tenses and common expressions

A few of these are not set in stone. Some tenses can depend on when we heard the direct speech
Tense Direct Speech Reported Speech
present simple “I adore Brad Pitt.” She said (that) she adored Brad Pitt. (past)
present continuous “I am living in Barcelona.” She said she was living in Barcelona. (past continuous)
He said he broke his computer. (past; no change)

past simple “I broke my computer.” OR

He said he had broken his computer. (past perfect)

past continuous “I was eating a burger.” He said he had been eating a burger. (past perfect continuous)
present perfect “I haven't seen the movie.” She said she hadn’t seen the movie. (past perfect)
past perfect “I had scored 200 goals by that time.” He said he had scored 200 goals by that time. (no change)
and when we report the speech. That said, here is a useful guide - it’s all pretty solid.

Tenses

Auxiliary verb changes:

1. Auxiliary verbs in the present change to the past.

“We’re busy and can’t come.” → She said they were busy and couldn’t come.

“I’m coming!” → He said he was coming.

2. Auxiliary verbs in the past change to the past perfect

“I was searching for Juan.” → He said he had been searching for Juan.

3. The auxiliary verbs in the future forms change from present to past.

“I’ll see you on Saturday.” → He said he would see me on Saturday.

“I’m going to win tomorrow.” → He said he was going to win the next day.

Modal verb changes

The following modal verbs often change: can, may, must

 “I can hear them.” → She said she could hear them.

“We may enter the competition.” → She said they might enter the competition.

“I must stop.” → She said she had to stop.

Some forms that don’t need to change

1. Verbs already in the past perfect

“I’d eaten earlier.” → He said he had eaten earlier.

2. The following modal forms: could, might, ought, should, would

“You could win the prize.” → She said I could win the prize.

“You might be successful.” → She said I might be successful.

“You ought to win.” → She said we ought to win.

“You should eat more.” → She said I should eat more.

“I would enjoy that.” → He said he would enjoy that.

Some common changes to pronouns and possessive adjectives

I → he or she

me → him or her

my → his or her

we → they

We also often use names instead of pronouns when we report – to ensure there’s no confusion as
to whom we are talking about:

“I can’t stand Rosa.” → She said that she couldn’t stand Rosa

Direct Speech Reported Speech

now then / at that time
today that day
yesterday the day before
last night the night before, Thursday night
last week the week before / the previous week
tomorrow the next day
this week that week
this month that month
here there
this that
these those
bring take
come go
Common expressions: common changes

Unit 6: Modal verbs

We have already mentioned a little bit about Modals.

Here’s everything you need to know:

Modals are complex and very challenging to present and they are complex and challenging for
students to learn, both conceptually and formally.

They are a set of auxiliary verbs and are often called modal auxiliary verbs.

Modal verbs are used in a variety of ways to enable the speaker to express feelings about, for
example, the probability of an event, or the ability of a person to carry out a certain action or the
level of an obligation – but seldom the actuality of it happening.

Other uses of modals are to express one’s attitude, politeness, or advice; modals are also used for
making requests or giving permission.

The verbs in this category, although there are some different views on this, are:

can could may might will

would must shall should ought to

Examples

 Can you speak French?

 He could speak it well if he studied more.
 MayI come in?
 It might rain tomorrow.
 He will speak German once he feels confident.

1. Key points

1. Modals do not change their form at any time. Must remains must however you use it. There is
no musted or musting. They have no infinitive or past or present participle. There is no
infinitive to can or to must. There are no participles such as canning, musting, canned or musted.

Just plain and simple must, can, should etc. at all times.

2. A modal verb is always the first word in the verb phrase. After a modal verb, we put the base
form of the verb (the verb stem – without to).

 It will be windy.
  You should look after your money.
 You could go on Saturday.

3. Like the other auxiliary verbs (be, have, and do), modal verbs are important in negatives,
questions, tags, and so on. A modal verb can have not after it and it comes before the subject in
questions.

 Positive: Your room should be tidier.

 Negative: Your room shouldn't be untidy.
 Question: How should I organise my room?
 Question tag: You should tidy it each Saturday, shouldn't you? I suppose I should.

We do not use do with a modal. NOT How do I should organise my work?

4. Modal verbs do not take -s in the third person.

Examples

 She should be here by now. (no –s)

 He must try again. (no –s)

5. Will and would have the written short forms 'll and 'd.

 I’ll call her now.

 I wouldn’t do that.

6. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Examples

 She musted travel there last year. (Incorrect)

 She will can travel with us. (Incorrect)

7. We can stress a modal if we want to put emphasis on its meaning.

 You really must be quiet. (Meaning: It is very necessary.)

8. A modal verb does not usually have a tense. It can refer to the present or the future.

 Present: We must act now. The instructions might be in my desk.

 Future: We must act soon. The instructions might arrive tomorrow.

For the past we use had to, was able to etc. or we use a modal verb + have.

 Past: We had to know then. The instructions might have arrived yesterday.

But in some contexts, could, would, should and might are past forms of can, will, shall and may.

 I can't remember the password. (present)

 I couldn't remember the password. (past)

9. A modal verb can go with the perfect, the continuous, or the passive.
  Perfect: I may have told you this before.
 Continuous: They may be waiting at the station.
 Passive: We may be shown the figures later.
 Perfect + continuous: You must have been sleeping.
 Perfect + passive: The castle must have been destroyed.

10. We cannot use two modals together. NOT You will must come soon.

2. Common uses

Below is a table showing the most useful modals and their most common uses.

This is not definitive as there are a few other constructions that some people deem to be modals.
Modal Example Typical Uses
I can speak four languages. Ability

They can work out their own travel plans. Ability / Possibility

Can You can make it if you try. Possibility

We can’t do that. Inability / Impossibility

Can I sit down? Asking for permission

Can you give me a hand, please? Request

We can try that when we arrive. Opportunity

Asking for permission.
Could I open the window a little bit?
Request
Could you repeat that?
Suggestion
We could try to repair it ourselves.
Future possibility
Could The bad winter could affect next spring’s crop.
Ability in the past
He had done it before so he could do it again.
Suggestion
We could get the bus or phone a taxi.

We could go if I didn’t have to attend that meeting.

Conditional
May I sit down? Asking for permission

You may play with the iPad once you’ve finished. Giving permission
May
The rain forests may soon disappear. Future possibility

She may be in Walmart or perhaps Dairy Queen. Present possibility

Your keys might be in your coat pocket. Present possibility

They might give us a lift. Future possibility

Might You might drop in in on Uncle Bill during your trip. Suggestion

Might I open the window? Request

If I had tried harder, I might have succeeded. Conditional

We must leave now. Necessity / Obligation

Lucy, you mustn’t touch that. Prohibition

Must
This must be Uncle Bill’s house! Certainty

You must do a bit more training before you compete. Recommendation

We ought to own up to that. Doing what’s right
Ought to
You ought to stop smoking. Recommendation
 Lisa ought to win. Deserving of it

The exchange rate ought to drop this quarter. Probability

You ought to try it. Giving advice for

You ought not try it. (notice that the to is omitted) Giving advice against
Shall I help you with that?
Offer
Shall we meet the same time next week?
Suggestion
Shall I do that or will you?
Shall Asking what to do
I shall never forget the first time we met.
Promise
We shall overcome.
Belief it will happen
With the economy in its present state, I'm afraid we shall lose our jobs.
Sense of inevitability
(Shall is much more common in British English than American English)
We should resolve this now. Doing what’s right

I think we should action this now. Recommending action

Profits should rise next quarter. Uncertain prediction

Should
You should strive for a better work/life balance. Advice

I really should be studying right now. Obligation

I think they should already be in the hotel. Expectation

I’ll phone her right now. Instant decisions

I'll do that for you if you like. Offer

Will I promise that I will phone as soon as I arrive. Promise

Profits will increase next year. Certain prediction

He thinks the office will be closed due to the snow. Less certain prediction
Would you mind if I brought my wife along? Asking for permission

Would you pass the milk, please? Request

Would 8pm in Billy’s Bar suit you? Making arrangements

Would
Would you like to join us? Invitation

Would you prefer red or white? Preferences

If he were more ambitious, he would be the CEO by now. Conditional

When he first got the car, he would wash it every Saturday. Repetition
We’ve stuck by what we think are the frequent and typical modals used on an everyday basis. The
tricky bit with modals is that there are nuances in meaning, so even one native user may choose a
different modal from another native speaker.

That said, the table below will serve you well.

Modal verbs continued...

3. Teaching modals

We’ve already said that this is very challenging. One of the best ways to teach modals is to use
visual representations of the modals, where it’s easier to show the degrees of probability,
prediction etc.

We have found this to be the best way to demonstrate modals and to keep the learners’ attention
when teaching this difficult topic.

Example

The following context shows the least probability:

Alejandro: Somebody is at the door.

Cristina: It could be Mum.

Now look at the range of probability expressed through the use of different modals:

Here are the past forms of these modals:

Here is another set of modals that express degrees of prediction:

Finally, here’s a visual representation of modals for giving advice; as you can see a general
suggestion escalates into urgency: